Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.

com

Chapter: 5 Normalization of Database Tables

In this chapter, you will learn

• What normalization is and what role it plays in the database design

process
• About the normal forms 1NF, 2NF, 3NF, BCNF,
and 4NF
• How normal forms can be transformed from lower normal forms to
higher normal forms
• That normalization and ER modeling are used concurrently to
produce a good database design
• That some situations require denormalization to generate
information efficiently

5.1 Database Tables and Normalization

• Normalization
– Process for evaluating and correcting table structures to
minimize data redundancies
• helps eliminate data anomalies
– Works through a series of stages called normal forms:
• Normal form (1NF)
• Second normal form (2NF)
• Third normal form (3NF)
– 2NF is better than 1NF; 3NF is better than 2NF
– For most business database design purposes, 3NF is highest
we need to go in the normalization process
– Highest level of normalization is not always most desirable

5.2 The Need for Normalization

• Example: company that manages building projects

– Charges its clients by billing hours spent on each contract
– Hourly billing rate is dependent on employee’s position
– Periodically, a report is generated that contains
information displayed in Table 5.1

• Structure of data set in Figure 5.1 does not handle data very well

• The table structure appears to work; report is generated with ease

• Unfortunately, the report may yield different results, depending on

what data anomaly has occurred

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 1 of 43

 Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com
5.3 The Normalization Process

5.3.1 Conversion to First Normal Form

• Repeating group
– Derives its name from the fact that a group of multiple
(related) entries can exist for any single key attribute
occurrence
• Relational table must not contain repeating groups
• Normalizing the table structure will reduce these data
redundancies
• Normalization is three-step procedure

Step 1: Eliminate the Repeating Groups

• Present data in a tabular format, where each cell has a single

value and there are no repeating groups
• Eliminate repeating groups by eliminating nulls, making sure
that each repeating group attribute contains an appropriate
data value

Step 2: Identify the Primary Key

• Primary key must uniquely identify attribute value

• New key must be composed

Step 3: Identify all Dependencies

• Dependencies can be depicted with the help of a diagram

• Dependency diagram:
– Depicts all dependencies found within a given table
structure
– Helpful in getting bird’s-eye view of all relationships
among a table’s attributes
– Use makes it much less likely that an important
dependency will be overlooked

A Dependency Diagram: First Normal Form (1NF)

First Normal Form

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 2 of 43

Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com

• Tabular format in which:

– All key attributes are defined
– There are no repeating groups in the table
– All attributes are dependent on primary key
• All relational tables satisfy 1NF requirements
• Some tables contain partial dependencies
– Dependencies based on only part of the primary key
– Sometimes used for performance reasons, but should be
used with caution
– Still subject to data redundancies

5.3.2 Conversion to Second Normal Form

• Relational database design can be improved by converting the

database into second normal form (2NF)
• Two steps

Step 1: Identify All Key Components

• Write each key component on separate line, and then write

the original (composite) key on the last line
• Each component will become the key in a new table

Step 2: Identify the Dependent Attributes

• Determine which attributes are dependent on which other

attributes
• At this point, most anomalies have been eliminated

Second Normal Form (2NF) Conversion Results

Second Normal Form

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 3 of 43

Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com
• Table is in second normal form (2NF) if:
– It is in 1NF and
– It includes no partial dependencies:
• No attribute is dependent on only a portion of the
primary key

5.3.3 Conversion to Third Normal Form

• Data anomalies created are easily eliminated by completing

three steps

Step 1: Identify Each New Determinant

• For every transitive dependency, write its determinant as a PK

for a new table
– Determinant
• Any attribute whose value determines other
values within a row

Step 2: Identify the Dependent Attributes

• Identify the attributes dependent on each determinant

identified in Step 1 and identify the dependency
• Name the table to reflect its contents and function

Step 3: Remove the Dependent Attributes from Transitive Dependencies

• Eliminate all dependent attributes in transitive relationship(s)

from each table that has such a transitive relationship
• Draw a new dependency diagram to show all tables defined in
Steps 1–3
• Check new tables and modified tables from Step 3 to make
sure that each has a determinant and does not contain
inappropriate dependencies

Third Normal Form (3NF) Conversion Results

Third Normal Form

• A table is in third normal form (3NF) if:

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 4 of 43

 Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com
– It is in 2NF and
– It contains no transitive dependencies

5.4 Improving the Design

• Table structures are cleaned up to eliminate the troublesome

initial partial and transitive dependencies
• Normalization cannot, by itself, be relied on to make good
designs
• It is valuable because its use helps eliminate data
redundancies
• The following changes were made:
• PK assignment
• Naming conventions
• Attribute atomicity
• Adding attributes
• Adding relationships
• Refining PKs
• Maintaining historical accuracy
• Using derived attributes

The Completed Database

5.5 Surrogate Key Considerations

Limitations on System-Assigned Keys

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 5 of 43
 Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com

• System-assigned primary key may not prevent confusing

entries
• Data entries in Table 5.2 are inappropriate because they
duplicate existing records
– Yet there has been no violation of either entity integrity
or referential integrity

Duplicate Entries in the JOB Table

5.6 Higher-Level Normal Forms

• In some databases, multiple multivalued attributes exist

5.6.1 The Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF)

• Every determinant in the table is a candidate key

– Has same characteristics as primary key, but for some reason,
not chosen to be primary key
• If a table contains only one candidate key, the 3NF and the BCNF
are equivalent
• BCNF can be violated only if the table contains more than one
candidate key
• Most designers consider the Boyce-Codd normal form (BCNF) as a
special case of 3NF
• A table is in 3NF if it is in 2NF and there are no transitive
dependencies
• A table can be in 3NF and not be in BCNF
– A transitive dependency exists when one nonprime attribute is
dependent on another nonprime attribute
– A nonkey attribute is the determinant of a key attribute

A Table That is in 3NF but not in BCNF

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 6 of 43

Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com

Decomposition to BCNF

Sample Data for a BCNF Conversion

Another BCNF Decomposition

5.6.2 Fourth Normal Form

• Table is in fourth normal form (4NF) if

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 7 of 43
 Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com
– It is in 3NF
– Has no multiple sets of multivalued dependencies
• 4NF is largely academic if tables conform to the following two rules:
– All attributes are dependent on primary key but independent
of each other
– No row contains two or more multivalued facts about an entity

A Set of Tables in 4NF

5.7 Normalization and Database Design

• Normalization should be part of design process

• Make sure that proposed entities meet required normal form before
table structures are created
• Many real-world databases have been improperly designed or
burdened with anomalies if improperly modified during course of
time
• You may be asked to redesign and modify existing databases
• ER diagram
• Provides the big picture, or macro view, of an organization’s
data requirements and operations
• Created through an iterative process
• Identifying relevant entities, their attributes and their
relationship
• Use results to identify additional entities and attributes
• Normalization procedures
• Focus on the characteristics of specific entities
• A micro view of the entities within the ER diagram

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 8 of 43

Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com
• Difficult to separate normalization process from ER modeling
process
• Two techniques should be used concurrently

The Initial ERD for a Contracting Company

The Modified ERD for a Contracting Company

The Incorrect Representation of a M: N Relationship

The Final (Implementable) ERD for a Contracting Company

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 9 of 43

 Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com

Tables with Multivalued Dependencies

5.8 Denormalization

• Creation of normalized relations is important database design goal

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 10 of 43
 Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com
• Processing requirements should also be a goal
• If tables decomposed to conform to normalization requirements
– Number of database tables expands
• Joining larger number of tables takes additional disk input/output
(I/O) operations and processing logic
– Reduces system speed
• Conflicts among design efficiency, information requirements, and
processing speed are often resolved through compromises that may
include denormalization
• Unnormalized tables in a production database tend to have these
defects:
– Data updates are less efficient because programs that read
and update tables must deal with larger tables
– Indexing is much more cumbersome
– Unnormalized tables yield no simple strategies for creating
virtual tables known as views
• Use denormalization cautiously
• Understand why—under some circumstances—unnormalized tables
are a better choice

Chapter: 7 Introductions to Structured Query Language

(SQL)

In this chapter, you will learn:

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 11 of 43

 Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com
• The basic commands and functions of SQL
• How to use SQL for data administration (to create tables, indexes,
and views)
• How to use SQL for data manipulation (to add, modify, delete, and
retrieve data)
• How to use SQL to query a database to extract useful information

7.1 Introduction to SQL

• SQL functions fit into two broad categories:

• Data definition language
– SQL includes commands to create
• Database objects such as tables, indexes, and views
• Commands to define access rights to those database
objects
• Data manipulation language
– Includes commands to insert, update, delete, and retrieve
data within the database tables
• SQL is relatively easy to learn
• Basic command set has a vocabulary of less than 100 words
• Nonprocedural language
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI) prescribes a standard
SQL
• Several SQL dialects exist

7.2 Data Definition Commands

• Examine the simple database model and the database tables that
will form the basis for the many SQL examples
• Understand the data environment

7.2.1 The Database Model

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 12 of 43

Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com

7.2.3 The Database Schema

• Authentication
– Process through which the DBMS verifies that only registered
users are able to access the database
– Log on to the RDBMS using a user ID and a password created
by the database administrator
• Schema
– Group of database objects—such as tables and indexes—that
are related to each other

7.2.4 Data Types

• Data type selection is usually dictated by the nature of the data and
by the intended use
• Pay close attention to the expected use of attributes for sorting and
data retrieval purposes

• Some Common SQL Data Types

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 13 of 43

Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com

7.2.5 Creating Table Structures

• Use one line per column (attribute) definition

• Use spaces to line up the attribute characteristics and constraints
• Table and attribute names are capitalized
• NOT NULL specification
• UNIQUE specification
• Primary key attributes contain both a NOT NULL and a UNIQUE
specification
• RDBMS will automatically enforce referential integrity for foreign
keys
• Command sequence ends with a semicolon

7.2.6 Other SQL Constraints

• NOT NULL constraint

– Ensures that a column does not accept nulls
• UNIQUE constraint
– Ensures that all values in a column are unique
• DEFAULT constraint
– Assigns a value to an attribute when a new row is added to a
table
• CHECK constraint
– Validates data when an attribute value is entered

7.2.7 SQL Indexes

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 14 of 43

 Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com
• When a primary key is declared, DBMS automatically creates a
unique index
• Often need additional indexes
• Using the CREATE INDEX command, SQL indexes can be created on
the basis of any selected attribute
• Composite index
– Index based on two or more attributes
– Often used to prevent data duplication

7.3 Data Manipulation Commands

• Adding table rows

• Saving table changes
• Listing table rows
• Updating table rows
• Restoring table contents
• Deleting table rows
• Inserting table rows with a select subquery
Common SQL Data Manipulation Commands

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 15 of 43

Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com

7.3.1 Adding a table Rows

7.3.2 Saving Table Changes

• Changes made to table contents are not physically saved on disk

until
– Database is closed
– Program is closed
– COMMIT command is used
• Syntax
– COMMIT [WORK]
• Will permanently save any changes made to any table in the
database
7.3.3 Listing Table Rows

• SELECT
– Used to list contents of table
Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 16 of 43
Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com
• Syntax
– SELECT column list
FROM table name
• Column list represents one or more attributes, separated by
commas
• Asterisk can be used as wildcard character to list all attributes

7.3.4 Updating Table Rows

• UPDATE
– Modify data in a table
• Syntax
– UPDATE table name
SET column name = expression [, column name =
expression]
[WHERE condition list];
• If more than one attribute is to be updated in the row, separate
corrections with commas

7.3.5 Restoring Table Contents

• ROLLBACK
– Used restore the database to its previous condition
– Only applicable if COMMIT command has not been used to
permanently store the changes in the database
• Syntax
– ROLLBACK;
• COMMIT and ROLLBACK only work with data manipulation
commands that are used to add, modify, or delete table rows

7.3.6 Deleting Table Rows

• DELETE
– Deletes a table row
• Syntax
– DELETE FROM table name
[WHERE condition list ];
• WHERE condition is optional
• If WHERE condition is not specified, all rows from the specified table
will be deleted

7.3.7 Inserting Table Rows with a Select Sub query

• INSERT
– Inserts multiple rows from another table (source)
– Uses SELECT sub query

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 17 of 43

 Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com
• Query that is embedded (or nested) inside another
query
• Executed first
• Syntax
– INSERT INTO table name SELECT column list FROM table
name

7.4 Select Queries

7.4.1 Selecting Rows with Conditional Restrictions

• Select partial table contents by placing restrictions on rows to be

included in output
– Add conditional restrictions to the SELECT statement, using
WHERE clause
• Syntax
– SELECT column list
FROM table list
[ WHERE condition list ] ;
Example: Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes for VENDOR Code
21344
Comparison Operators

Example:
 Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes for VENDOR Codes
Other than 21344
 Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes with a P_PRICE
Restriction
 Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes: The ASCII Code Effect
 Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes: Date Restriction
 SELECT Statement with a Computed Column
 SELECT Statement with a Computed Column and an Alias
7.4.2 Arithmetic Operators: The Rule of Precedence

• Perform operations within parentheses

• Perform power operations
• Perform multiplications and divisions
• Perform additions and subtractions

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 18 of 43

 Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com
• Example:
Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes: The Logical OR
Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes: The Logical AND
Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes: The Logical AND
and OR

7.4.4 Special Operators

• BETWEEN
– Used to check whether attribute value is within a range
• IS NULL
– Used to check whether attribute value is null
• LIKE
– Used to check whether attribute value matches a given string
pattern
• IN
– Used to check whether attribute value matches any value
within a value list
• EXISTS
– Used to check if a sub query returns any rows

7.5 Advanced Data Definition Commands

• All changes in the table structure are made by using the ALTER
command
– Followed by a keyword that produces specific change
– Three options are available
• ADD
• MODIFY
• DROP

7.5.1 Changing a Column’s Data Type

• ALTER can be used to change data type

• Some RDBMS (such as Oracle) do not permit changes to data types
unless the column to be changed is empty

7.5.2 Changing a Column’s Data Characteristics

• Use ALTER to change data characteristics

• If the column to be changed already contains data, changes in the
column’s characteristics are permitted if those changes do not alter
the data type

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 19 of 43

 Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com
7.5.3 Adding or Dropping a Column

• Use ALTER to add a column

– Do not include the NOT NULL clause for new column
• Use ALTER to drop a column
– Some RDBMS impose restrictions on the deletion of an
attribute
• Example:
The Effect of Data Entry into the New P_SALECODE
Column
Update of the P_SALECODE Column in Multiple Data
Rows
The Effect of Multiple Data Updates in the PRODUCT
Table (MS Access)

7.5.6 Copying Parts of Tables

• SQL permits copying contents of selected table columns so that the

data need not be reentered manually into newly created table(s)
• First create the PART table structure
• Next add rows to new PART table using PRODUCT table rows
• Example:
PART Attributes Copied from the PRODUCT Table

7.6 Advanced Select Queries

• SQL provides useful functions

– Count
– Find minimum and maximum values
– Calculate averages
• SQL allows the user to limit queries to only those entries having no
duplicates or entries whose duplicates may be grouped

• Example:
1) Selected PRODUCT Table Attributes: Ordered by
(Ascending) P_PRICE
2) Partial Listing of EMPLOYEE Table Contents
Telephone List Query Results
3) A Query Based on Multiple Restrictions
4) A Listing of Distinct (Different) V_CODE Values in the
PRODUCT Table

7.6.3 Some Basic SQL Aggregate Functions

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 20 of 43

Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com

1) COUNT Function Output Examples

2) MAX and MIN Function Output Examples

3) The Total Value of All Items in the PRODUCT Table

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 21 of 43

Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com

4) AVG Function Output Examples

5) GROUP BY Clause Output Examples

6) Incorrect and Correct Use of the GROUP BY Clause

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 22 of 43

 Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com

7) An Application of the HAVING Clause

7.7 Virtual Tables: Creating a View

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 23 of 43

 Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com
• View is a virtual table based on a SELECT query
– Can contain columns, computed columns, aliases, and
aggregate functions from one or more tables
• Base tables are tables on which the view is based
• Create a view by using the CREATE VIEW command

Creating a Virtual Table with the CREATE VIEW Command

7.8 Joining Database Tables

• Ability to combine (join) tables on common attributes is most

important distinction between a relational database and other
databases
• Join is performed when data are retrieved from more than one table
at a time
• Join is generally composed of an equality comparison between the
foreign key and the primary key of related tables

Chapter: 8 Advanced SQL

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 24 of 43

 Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com
In this chapter, you will learn

• About the relational set operators UNION, UNION ALL, INTERSECT,

and MINUS
• How to use the advanced SQL JOIN operator syntax
• About the different types of subqueries and correlated queries
• How to use SQL functions to manipulate dates, strings, and other
data
• How to create and use updatable views
• How to create and use triggers and stored procedures
• How to create embedded SQL

8.1 Relational Set Operators

. UNION
. UNIONALL
. INTERSECT
. MINUS
. Syntax Alternatives

8.2 SQL Join Expression Styles

8.3 Subqueries and Correlated Queries

. SELECT Subquery Examples

. WHERE Sub query

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 25 of 43

Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com
. IN Sub query
. HAVING Sub query
. Multirow Sub query Operator
. FROM Sub query
. Inline Sub query
. Correlated Sub query
. EXISTS Correlated Sub query

8.4 SQL Functions

. 8.4.1 Date And Time Functions

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 26 of 43

Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com

. 8.4.2 Numeric Functions

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 27 of 43

Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com
. 8.4.3 String Functions

. 8.4.4 Conversion Functions

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 28 of 43

Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com

Chapter: 10 Transaction Mgmt & Concurrency Control

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 29 of 43

 Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com

In this chapter, you will learn

• What a database transaction is and what its properties are

• How database transactions are managed
• What concurrency control is and what role it plays in maintaining
the database’s integrity
• What locking methods are and how they work
• How database recovery management is used to maintain database
integrity

10.1 What is a Transaction?

• Any action that reads from and/or writes to a database may consist
of
– Simple SELECT statement to generate a list of table contents
– A series of related UPDATE statements to change the values
of attributes in various tables
– A series of INSERT statements to add rows to one or more
tables
– A combination of SELECT, UPDATE, and INSERT statements.
• A logical unit of work that must be either entirely completed or
aborted
• Successful transaction changes the database from one consistent
state to another
– One in which all data integrity constraints are satisfied
• Most real-world database transactions are formed by two or more
database requests
– The equivalent of a single SQL statement in an application
program or transaction

10.1.1 Evaluating Transaction Results

• Not all transactions update the database

• SQL code represents a transaction because database was accessed
• Improper or incomplete transactions can have a devastating effect
on database integrity
– Some DBMSs provide means by which user can define
enforceable constraints based on business rules
– Other integrity rules are enforced automatically by the DBMS
when table structures are properly defined, thereby letting the
DBMS validate some transactions

10.1.2 Transaction Properties

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 30 of 43

 Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com

• Atomicity
– Requires that all operations (SQL requests) of a transaction be
completed
• Durability
– Indicates permanence of database’s consistent state
• Serializability
– Ensures that the concurrent execution of several transactions
yields consistent results
• Isolation
– Data used during execution of a transaction cannot be used
by second transaction until first one is completed

10.1.3 Transaction Management With SQL

• ANSI has defined standards that govern SQL database transactions

• Transaction support is provided by two SQL statements: COMMIT
and ROLLBACK
• ANSI standards require that, when a transaction sequence is
initiated by a user or an application program,
- it must continue through all succeeding SQL statements
until one of four events occurs

10.1.4 The Transaction Log

• Stores
– A record for the beginning of transaction
– For each transaction component (SQL statement)
• Type of operation being performed (update, delete, insert)
• Names of objects affected by the transaction (the name of
the table)
• “Before” and “after” values for updated fields
• Pointers to previous and next transaction log entries for the
same transaction
– The ending (COMMIT) of the transaction

10.2 Concurrency Control

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 31 of 43
Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com

– Important  simultaneous execution of transactions over a

shared database can create several data integrity and
consistency problems
• lost updates

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
• uncommitted data

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
• inconsistent retrievals

• The Scheduler

• Special DBMS program: establishes order of operations

within which concurrent transactions are executed
Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 32 of 43
 Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com
• Interleaves the execution of database operations to ensure
serializability and isolation of transactions
• Bases its actions on concurrency control algorithms
• Ensures computer’s central processing unit (CPU) is used
efficiently
• Facilitates data isolation to ensure that two transactions do
not update the same data element at the same time

10.3 Concurrency Control with Locking Methods

• Lock
– Guarantees exclusive use of a data item to a current
transaction
– Required to prevent another transaction from reading
inconsistent data
• Lock manager
– Responsible for assigning and policing the locks used by the
transactions

10.3.1 Lock Granularity

• Indicates the level of lock use

• Locking can take place at the following levels:
– Database
– Table
– Page
– Row
– Field (attribute)
• Database-level lock
– Entire database is locked
• Table-level lock
– Entire table is locked
• Page-level lock
– Entire diskpage is locked
• Row-level lock
– Allows concurrent transactions to access different rows of the
same table, even if the rows are located on the same page
• Field-level lock
– Allows concurrent transactions to access the same row, as
long as they require the use of different fields (attributes)
within that row

• A Database-Level Locking Sequence

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 33 of 43

Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com

• An Example of a Table-Level Lock

• An Example of a Page-Level Lock

• Example of Row-Level Lock

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 34 of 43

Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com

F
f
g
h

10.3.2 Lock Types

• Binary lock
– Has only two states: locked (1) or unlocked (0)
• Exclusive lock
– Access is specifically reserved for the transaction that locked
the object
– Must be used when the potential for conflict exists
• Shared lock
– Concurrent transactions are granted Read access on the basis
of a common lock

10.3.3 Two-Phase Locking to Ensure Serializability

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 35 of 43

Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com
• Defines how transactions acquire and relinquish locks
• Guarantees serializability, but it does not prevent deadlocks
– Growing phase, in which a transaction acquires all the
required locks without unlocking any data
– Shrinking phase, in which a transaction releases all locks and
cannot obtain any new lock
• Governed by the following rules:
– Two transactions cannot have conflicting locks
– No unlock operation can precede a lock operation in the same
transaction
– No data are affected until all locks are obtained—that is, until
the transaction is in its locked point

10.3.4 Deadlocks

• Condition that occurs when two transactions wait for each other to
unlock data
• Possible only if one of the transactions wants to obtain an exclusive
lock on a data item
– No deadlock condition can exist among shared locks
• Control through
– Prevention
– Detection
– Avoidance

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 36 of 43

 Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com

10.4 Concurrency Control with Time Stamping Methods

• Assigns a global unique time stamp to each transaction

• Produces an explicit order in which transactions are submitted to
the DBMS
• Uniqueness
– Ensures that no equal time stamp values can exist
• Monotonicity
– Ensures that time stamp values always increase

10.4.1 Wait/Die and Wound/Wait Schemes

• Wait/die
– Older transaction waits and the younger is rolled back and
rescheduled
• Wound/wait
– Older transaction rolls back the younger transaction and
reschedules it

10.5 Concurrency Control with Optimistic Methods

• Optimistic approach

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 37 of 43

 Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com
– Based on the assumption that the majority of database
operations do not conflict
– Does not require locking or time stamping techniques
– Transaction is executed without restrictions until it is
committed
– Phases are read, validation, and write

10.6 Database Recovery Management

• Database recovery
– Restores database from a given state, usually inconsistent, to
a previously consistent state
– Based on the atomic transaction property
• All portions of the transaction must be treated as a
single logical unit of work, in which all operations must
be applied and completed to produce a consistent
database
– If transaction operation cannot be completed, transaction
must be aborted, and any changes to the database must be
rolled back (undone)

10.6.1 Transaction Recovery

• Makes use of deferred-write and write-through

• Deferred write
– Transaction operations do not immediately update the
physical database
– Only the transaction log is updated
– Database is physically updated only after the transaction
reaches its commit point using the transaction log information
• Write-through
– Database is immediately updated by transaction operations
during the transaction’s execution, even before the
transaction reaches its commit point

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 38 of 43

Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 39 of 43

 Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com
Chapter: 12 Distributed Database Management Systems

In this chapter, you will learn

• What a distributed database management system (DDBMS) is and

what its components are
• How database implementation is affected by different levels of data
and process distribution
• How transactions are managed in a distributed database
environment
• How database design is affected by the distributed database
environment

12.1 The Evolution of Distributed Database Management Systems

• Distributed database management system (DDBMS)

– Governs storage and processing of logically related data over
interconnected computer systems in which both data and
processing functions are distributed among several sites
• Centralized database required that corporate data be stored in a
single central site
• Dynamic business environment and centralized database’s
shortcomings spawned a demand for applications based on data
access from different sources at multiple locations
•

12.2 DDBMS Advantages and Disadvantages

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 40 of 43
 Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com

Advantages

• Data are located near “greatest demand” site

• Faster data access
• Faster data processing
• Growth facilitation
• Improved communications
• Reduced operating costs
• User-friendly interface
• Less danger of a single-point failure
• Processor independence

Disadvantages

• Complexity of management and control

• Security
• Lack of standards
• Increased storage requirements
• Greater difficulty in managing the data environment
• Increased training cost

12.3 Distributed Processing and Distributed Database

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 41 of 43

 Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com
12.4 Characteristics of Distributed Management Systems

• Application interface
• Validation
• Transformation
• Query optimization
• Mapping
• I/O interface
• Formatting
• Security
• Backup and recovery
• DB administration
• Concurrency control
• Transaction management
• Must perform all the functions of a centralized DBMS
• Must handle all necessary functions imposed by the distribution of
data and processing
• Must perform these additional functions transparently to the end
user

12.4 DDBMS Components

• Mustinclude (at least) the following components:

– Computer workstations
– Network hardware and software
– Communications media
– Transaction processor (or, application processor, or
transaction manager)
• Software component found in each computer that
requests data
– Data processor or data manager

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 42 of 43

Mithil 9510374124 http://tybca.110mb.com
• Software component residing on each computer that
stores and retrieves data located at the site
• May be a centralized DBMS

Created By: Mithil Makwana (TYBCA) Page 43 of 43