IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 42, NO.

1, JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2006 155

Power Electronics and Future Marine

Electrical Systems
Terry Ericsen, Member, IEEE, Narain Hingorani, Life Fellow, IEEE, and Yuri Khersonsky, Senior Member, IEEE

Abstract—Tomorrow’s marine electrical systems will be pro- by electricity, most through power electronics conversion at or
foundly different from today’s systems. Power electronics is near the loads. Demand for electric power on ships continues
making major impacts on virtually every marine system in- to increase, reaching many tens of megawatts and even greater
cluding propulsion, power distribution, auxiliaries, sonar, and
radar. Newly emerging materials, components, and system con- than 100 MW. The fact is that the size of power electronics
cepts (such as wide band-gap materials, silicon-carbide-based and switchgear is a real handicap for serving this demand.
power semiconductor devices, power electronics building blocks In all applications, cost, weight, losses, and size, in varying
(PEBBs), and integrated power systems) are, and will continue, priority for different applications, stand in the way of acceptable
enabling future marine systems as different from today’s systems application of power electronics. For ship systems, the order
as steam ships were to sailing ships. However, these enabling tech-
nologies and concepts are not well known and have been difficult of priority would generally be size, losses, cost, and weight,
to understand. This paper will introduce these new concepts and although these aspects are interrelated.
technologies, identify potential impacts, and explore new design
methods to simplify marine electrical system development.
II. P OWER E LECTRONICS C ONVERTERS
Index Terms—Electric propulsion systems, integrated power
systems, marine electric power distribution, naval electric sys- A power electronic converter changes electric power in one
tems, power electronics building blocks, silicon-carbide power form to electric power in another form—ac to dc, ac to ac, dc to
devices. ac, and dc to dc. Converters can change the power generated by
a source to a common distribution voltage; and at the load, con-
I. I NTRODUCTION verters can change the distribution voltage to the type of power
the load needs. Sources can be set to their optimum operating
E LECTRICITY is an enabling form of energy, making
possible many technologies that would not be possible
otherwise, i.e., information systems, robotics, lasers, etc. Elec-
points. Distribution and load sharing among active sources are
optimized. Point-of-use conversion assures that loads get the
power they need. Today, almost every source and load needs
tricity also enables more efficient use of raw sources of energy
a converter. Ultimately, ships will be designed to meet the
such as oil. Variable speed drives, efficient lighting, higher
functional requirements of a mission with the minimum number
quality of power, and tapping of renewable energy are a few
of boxes using mass-produced programmable power electronics
examples. All these results come from the fact that electricity
building blocks (PEBBs) instead of a box for each mission
can be transported through wires and, most importantly, it
function, as is the case today [1].
can be converted to dc and different frequencies, pulses, and
In the past, control and power circuits were unique and
varieties of radiation. Thus, power electronics conversion is at
unchanging, hardwired. Today, with PEBB, hardware config-
the heart of numerous and increasing uses of electricity. This
urations can be varied during the design process to produce
applies to marine applications just as much, if not more so,
different products. Furthermore, with digital control, these
as any other area of application. Thus, advances in electrical
products can be programmed to perform a selected electrical
systems, in particular power electronics, are at the heart of
function. However, the final product is unique and as unchang-
future marine systems and ships. It is understood that most, if
ing as the hardwired converters of the past. Tomorrow, with
not all, ship power requirements including propulsion, lighting,
digital control networks, a given configuration of PEBBs could
communications, radar, cranes, pumps, etc., will be powered
have its control algorithms changed in the field to produce
many different system functions. The resultant topology and
Paper PID-05-23, presented at the 2004 IEEE Petroleum and Chemical
possible functions of a converter will be dependent on the
Industry Technical Conference, San Francisco, CA, September 13–16, and control implemented and the time-dependant system coupling.
approved for publication in the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY AP - Pulsewidth modulation (PWM) has been widely used for
PLICATIONS by the Petroleum and Chemical Industry Committee of the IEEE
Industry Applications Society. Manuscript submitted for review September 15,
small- to medium-size converters, and more recently up to
2004 and released for publication September 17, 2005. several hundred megavolt-ampere (MVA) applications. In a
T. Ericsen is with the Office of Naval Research, Arlington, VA 22217-5660 switch-mode power electronic converter, the switches are ON
USA (e-mail: [email protected]).
N. Hingorani was with the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), Palo or OFF. Within a switching cycle, the duration of the ON
Alto, CA 94304 USA. He is now at 26480 Weston Drive, Los Altos Hills, CA and OFF states is controlled to cause an average value volt-
94022 USA (e-mail: [email protected]). age or current to be created from an input signal. From this
Y. Khersonsky is at 24033 Via Madrid, Yorba Linda, CA 92886 USA (e-mail:
[email protected]). simple physical behavior, an array of switches, ON and OFF
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TIA.2005.861306 patterns, and algorithms are possible to create desired signals.

0093-9994/$20.00 © 2006 IEEE

156 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 42, NO. 1, JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2006

Fig. 1. Principal types of PWM VSCs.

Today’s PWM converters can be programmed to supply a range this paper to discuss various methods to meet the harmonic
of voltages, currents, frequencies, and power factors over a level requirements with small or no ac filters and reasonable
range of varying input waveforms. They are programmable switching losses, but these methods are available.
digital waveform generators. From this perspective, there is
little difference between motor controllers, power supplies, and III. P OWER S WITCHING D EVICES
active filters. Every digital PWM converter has a bandwidth
Apart from the cost of devices, the device ratings and
and a range of input and output circuit parameters that it can
characteristics, as well as their packaging in a PEBB, have
control. The bandwidth of a PWM converter is complex and
a very high impact on the cost, weight, and losses of power
dependant on factors such as power switch limitations, the type
electronics equipment. Their packaging into a PEBB reduces
of control algorithm, feedback or feed-forward, sensors, etc.
the cost of all that surrounds the devices including snubber
The PWM voltage-source converter (VSC) in Fig. 1 has
circuits, gate drives, on-board power supply for the gate drives,
distinctive advantages over other converter alternatives like the
magnetics, packaging, capacitors, filters, cooling equipment,
line commutated converter and the cycloconverter (used for
etc. Therefore, the design of high power electronics equipment
propulsion [2]). These include lower harmonics four-quadrant
would usually be based on devices with the best available
operation so that the power factor is managed as required, and
characteristics, even at higher prices. Given the high importance
converter reversibility. PWM is a powerful technology, but its
of coordination of the device and the gate driver design and
use is not without sacrifice; in terms of useable converter rating
packaging, the future trend is to purchase the device and the
and, most importantly, increased switching losses. In addition,
driver as a single package.
effective use of PWM is device limited. The problem is that
Power semiconductor devices consist of a variety of diodes,
given the state-of-the-art of devices, high switching frequency
transistors, and thyristors. The diodes are a family of two-layer
results in higher switching losses. Being repetitive, they repre-
devices, the transistors are a family of three-layer devices, and
sent a significant part of the losses. Continued improvement in
the thyristors are a family of four-layer devices.
devices is essential to reduce these losses.
Harmonic performance is an essential requirement. The
A. Power Diodes
choice is between: 1) large filters; 2) high phase order involv-
ing phase shift transformers and smaller filters; or 3) PWM A power diode simply conducts in one direction and blocks
operation with higher PWM frequency (yielding higher switch- in the other. A diode-based rectifier is commonly used for
ing losses) and very small tuned filters and dc capacitors. There ac/dc converters for feeding the propulsion inverter. In VSCs,
are many schemes of PWM control of a VSC. PWM switching diodes are needed for reverse conduction (Fig. 1). After forward
operation virtually eliminates the lower harmonics from both conduction, initial application of reverse voltage results in a
the ac and dc side, but in turn increases the harmonics corre- reverse surge current for a short duration. In VSCs, this reverse
sponding to the PWM frequency. Thus, ac filters are needed diode current is very important because of its very high impact
only for high harmonics and the required dc capacitor, and on the required turn ON current capability and losses of the
ac filters are greatly reduced in size. Among a wide variety main devices. Improvements in diode technology in terms of
of PWM methods, there are the so-called “Smart PWM” or reverse recovery current would have a significant impact on
“Optimum PWM.” In this method, with a reasonably low- the cost of converters. With further development in the future,
frequency PWM, such as X15 PWM, the switching angles are silicon-carbide diodes with negligible reverse-recovery current
derived from a predetermined look-up table, which results in are likely to be used, even at the significantly higher cost of
cancellation of low-order harmonics. It is beyond the scope of these diodes.
ERICSEN et al.: POWER ELECTRONICS AND FUTURE MARINE ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 157

B. Transistor [Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)] have been commercially introduced recently and have a
good potential for propulsion drives and other large PWM
A transistor conducts in its forward direction with a gate sig-
converter applications. IGCT is an example of partial
nal and turns off when the gate signal is removed. A transistor
integration of a gate drive circuit with the device itself
has a controlled turn-on; when the signal is less than what is
and hence its superior performance compared to the GTO.
needed for full turn-on, it will conduct while still holding partial
With the advantage of lower ON-state losses and snubber-
anode to cathode voltage. This current-limiting feature is an
less converter application, the IGCT has become a worthy
important plus for transistors: it buys a few microseconds of
competitor to IGBT for applications of 10 MW and
time, enough for protection purposes.
above. However, the IGCT does have a high gate power
One type of transistor known as the IGBT has progressed
requirement and is only suitable for PWM frequencies of
to become a device of primary choice, replacing the gate-turn-
up to 2 kHz.
off thyristor (GTO), a thyristor device, in a wide range of low
3) MOS turn-off thyristor (MTO). The MTO uses transistors
and medium power applications going up to several megawatts
to bypass the gate–cathode to assist in turn OFF. Com-
and even competing up to a few hundred megawatts. IGBTs
pared to IGCT, it has a smaller gate drive and gate drive
are highly integrated devices with the MOS gate closely inte-
losses, and achieves faster turn-off with lower turn-off
grated with the cathode in a fine geometry of a few microns.
switching losses. However, the MTO has not yet been
This integration of the MOS gate results in a requirement for
commercially introduced.
a few volts of gate signal for turn-on and turn-off. Therefore,
4) Emitter turn-off thyristor (ETO). The ETO was developed
it has fast switching capability and controlled di/dt during
as another variation on the GTO and incorporates a very-
turn-on. These are a major advantage for small- to medium-size
low-voltage transistor (MOSFET) in series with a high-
converters and even high power converters.
voltage GTO along with another MOSFET to bypass
High voltage necessitates series connection of IGBTs, or
the gate–cathode. This device has an even faster turn-off
multilevel VSC topology, to achieve even a 5-kV dc converter
and lower turn OFF switching losses. This device is in
voltage rating. These complex topologies result in higher con-
research stage.
verter losses.
5) Super GTO (SGTO). The SGTO is another GTO device
that, like an IGBT, has a highly integrated gate–cathode
C. Thyristors structure. Also like IGBTs, they are made in small sizes
(1–2 cm2 ) on large wafers. For high power, several
With a turn ON gate pulse, the thyristor latches into full SGTOs are housed in a bonded silicon package. They
conduction with a low voltage drop in its forward direction have low forward conduction losses and fast switching
and will not turn off with removal of the gate pulse. Turn-off characteristics. These devices are being commercially
requires a negative gate pulse. Conventional thyristors, used introduced in low-voltage transfer switches and have a
in line commutated converters and cyclo-converters, are de- potential for high power ratings in the future.
signed without their own turn-off capability, in which case
the thyristor recovers from its latched conducting state to a
nonconducting state only when the current is brought to zero D. Silicon Carbide
by other means. This approach leads to a highly efficient In principle, silicon-carbide (SiC) chips can be used to make
and the highest rated device. However, these converters have any of those devices discussed above. SiC offers the advantages
lagging power factors and high harmonics and are not very of much lower switching losses, high voltage capability (20-kV
suitable for propulsion drive during low torque. There are rating per device), and high temperature capability [3]. How-
several versions of thyristors with turn OFF capability. Key ever, the material is expensive, a large number of small chips
among these and relevant to the high power converters are the have to be connected in parallel, and commercially available
following. devices have a rating of about 1200 V and a few hundred
1) GTO. The GTO turns off when a turn-off pulse is applied amperes. Even though SiC devices are expensive, they have
to the gate in reverse direction. The GTO has been a very high impact on converter size, losses, weight, cooling
widely used for many high power applications. However, requirements, and potential for high PWM frequencies. Of
because of its bulky gate drivers, required snubber, and particular importance is the use of SiC diodes in a PWM
high switching losses, it is costly. It has been used for VSC with silicon-based main devices. A much-reduced reverse
non-PWM converters, and even there it is being replaced recovery current can perhaps double the power density, allow
by IGBTs or by more advanced GTO-like devices. These operation up to may be 10 kHz, and eliminate the need for
advanced GTOs, which in turn are a part of the thyristor filters. Due to the high value of weight, losses, and size, use
family, have their own acronyms. of SiC devices in marine applications may seem inevitable. The
2) Integrated gate commutated thyristor (IGCT). The IGCT blocking voltages of switches anticipated for future U.S. Navy
is a GTO with hard turn OFF that is achieved by minimiz- shipboard systems are given in Table I [4].
ing the inductance between the gate and cathode, which In summary, several future advances in devices will signifi-
in combination with other advances in the packaging and cantly affect cost, size, weight, and losses of power electronics,
gate drive circuit achieves a fast turn OFF and lower turn and continue to serve the high power requirements of future
OFF switching losses compared to a GTO. These devices marine applications.
158 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 42, NO. 1, JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2006

TABLE I
PROPOSED TARGET BLOCKING VOLTAGES FOR
FUTURE SHIPBOARD APPLICATIONS

IV. P OWER E LECTRONIC B UILDING B LOCKS

The PEBB [5] is a broad concept that incorporates pro-
gressive integration of power devices, gate drives, and other
components into building blocks with defined functionality
and interfaces serving multiple applications resulting in re-
Fig. 2. PEBBs.
duced cost, losses, weight, size, and engineering effort for
the application and maintenance of power electronics systems.
connecting the blocks, and standardization in order to derive
Based on functional specifications of PEBBs that relate to the
the maximum benefits from the integration concepts.
performance requirements of intended applications, the PEBB
There are basic reasons to believe the cost of power
designer addresses the details of the device stresses, stray
electronics could be reduced significantly by the use of the
inductances and switching speed, losses, thermal management,
building block approach. This approach would result in a
protection, measurements of required variables, control inter-
substantial increase in the market for power electronics in
faces, and potential integration issues at all levels. The PEBB
industrial, utility, transportation, and other application areas.
is a generic strategic concept incorporating several technology
Power electronics is akin to microelectronics, part of silicon
aspects, which have been foreseen as key to major reduction in
science sand-based technology. Trends in microelectronics ap-
cost, losses, size, and weight of power electronics. These reduc-
plications, i.e., computers, servers, controls, etc., have resulted
tions are inter-related, with cost being the most important, while
in their assembly from functional building blocks with incred-
the others may lead to cost reduction up to an optimum point.
ible reductions in cost and increases in performance. While
PEBB is a top-down description of a power electronic
very small power electronics have followed these trends, power
system. Fig. 2 shows the PEBB representation. Every power
electronics for the applications mentioned above is undergoing
electronic block has input/output filters, power switching,
a revolution and is at the early stages of its growth. The key
control, and thermal management. These basic elements can be
technology aspects in the next generation of power electronics
used to describe all power electronic components independent
to provide economic and performance rich solutions are:
of their hierarchical order—motor controller, H-bridge, phase-
leg, switching device, or even a single switching cell among • standard PEBB designs to cover a wider market base;
the about two million that make a power semiconductor switch. • advanced devices;
The single switch cell has a power switch section, a gate or base • integrated packaging;
control, heat removal, and a capacitive/inductive/resistive in- • progressive integration from device level to PEBB level;
terconnection between its neighboring cells. Hence, a building • snubber-less design;
block process is fundamental to power electronic systems. • advanced converters that provide control of reactive power
Physics-based relationships are essential for the design and can act as active filters;
of PEBBs, unlike in signal electronics applications where a • minimum filter requirements;
functional definition may be sufficient. High energy levels in • standardized control and protection architecture;
power applications require that all the natural conservation • defined interfaces that allow “plug and play;”
laws (conservation of energy, voltage, current, torque, force, • advanced interactive simulation tools.
etc.) be obeyed. Adoption of building block(s) that can be Modular and hierarchical design principles are the corner-
used for multiple applications results in high volume pro- stones of the building block concept. The idea of open plug-
duction, reduced engineering effort, design testing, and onsite and-play architecture is to build power systems in much the
installation and maintenance work for specific customer same way as personal computers. It may be that in the end
applications. The value of integration can be enhanced with PEBBs would be plugged into power electronics systems and
standardization of interfaces of the building blocks and control/ operational settings would be made automatically. The sys-
protection requirements. Extent and methods of integration tem knows the PEBB capabilities, its manufacturer, and its
into a PEBB depends on the converter rating and the nature operational requirements. Each PEBB maintains its own safe
of the commercial market. Therefore, beyond the concept of operating limits.
physical building blocks, one must look at the other aspects The U.S. Office of Naval Research (ONR) has funded
of integration such as layout of building blocks, bus work several manufacturers to develop PEBBs for a broad range
ERICSEN et al.: POWER ELECTRONICS AND FUTURE MARINE ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 159

VI. I NTEGRATED P OWER S YSTEMS

A. Commercial Systems
Integrated power systems (IPSs) provide shipboard power in
a utility fashion by distributing propulsion, auxiliary, sensor,
and hotel power from a common power source. Although the
vision of an IPS has not yet been fulfilled, marine systems
are becoming more integrated. For example, ACS6000 receives
power from the main generator at its input and supplies power
to propulsion at its output—integrating the rectifier, capacitor
bank, cooling, inverter, etc. The ACS6000 is modular and
programmable. Basic ACS6000 modules shown in Fig. 4 can
be configured into many different marine systems.
The ACS6000 based on the PEBB concept is a family of 3
Fig. 3. PEBB based on IGCT. The power stack shown is a dual-phase three-
level PEBB for 9-MVA applications. to 27 MVA systems. These systems can be rated for synchro-
nous and asynchronous motor applications. In Fig. 4, an exam-
of applications. Some of these designs are now commercially ple of a 5-MVA system is shown. A version of the PEBB stack
available, although they may not be called PEBB products. shown in Fig. 3 is used in the 9-MVA systems; 18- and 27-MVA
One of these 9-MVA designs of PEBB is shown in Fig. 3 [6]. systems are similar.
This 9 MVA standard PEBB design and a smaller size 1 to
5 MVA PEBB have been commercialized for transportation, B. U.S. Navy Systems
storage, marine, and renewable energy sources applications.
The maximum output power of the water-cooled Power Stack To succeed in the transition from mechanical to electrical
in a three-phase configuration is in the range of approximately propulsion in submarines and smaller combatants, the Navy
9 MVA at a system voltage of 3300 Vac. needs power electronics equipment that will not increase the
size of the ships and, furthermore, will enhance acoustic
stealth and reliability. This includes ability not only to pro-
V. D IGITAL C ONTROLS duce the highest quality power to the propulsion motors but
also to compensate for the imperfections of the mechani-
The overall control architecture must have the inherent capa-
cal components and their changes due to wear or combat
bility to support the integration of these PEBBs, regardless of
damages.
how they are configured together. When the control functions of
A high efficiency quiet electric drive concept combines step-
many different power electronic systems are evaluated, a signif-
mode switching (SMS) and PWM to provide the lowest torque
icant number of common functions are discovered, irrespective
pulsation and noise signature. Due to the ability of cancel-
of the target application. Using a concept of system layers, it is
ing multiple selected harmonics in operation, acoustic noise
possible to develop a hierarchical control architecture in terms
and vibration are reduced. This motor drive is considered a
of required response time for the PEBB-based systems.
“high efficiency quiet motor drive” because 80% of switching
For discussion, consider the division of the control architec-
losses are eliminated in the power semiconductors. The rectifier
ture into three layers (although in practical terms there may be
building blocks, operating as synchronous rectifiers, produce
more than three layers or levels) as follows.
lower voltage distortion by enabling more effective harmonic
• System level (response time 1 ms–10 s). The system filtering. The inverter topology can be used effectively with
application level determines the overall mission of the conventional or advanced-design synchronous, induction or
system. permanent magnet motors, and is scalable across a wide power
• Application level or function controller level (response and voltage range and number of motor phases. High electrical
time 100 µs–1 ms). The functional controller level is efficiency and input and output power quality during all oper-
responsible for and maintains functions like synchronous ational modes allow 15%–20% weight reduction of generators
timing (PLL), current and voltage filtering measurements and propulsion motors. The calculated full power efficiency is
and control, and duty cycle calculations. 94%. Using 10% power as the case for low power efficiency
• Hardware level or power electronics conversion level (in evaluation, the efficiency is 76.4%. High efficiency quiet elec-
microseconds, depending on PWM frequency). This level tric drive employs automatically reconfigurable power modules
is responsible for switching or modulation control, pulse for optimum operation and recovery from battle damages.
generation and gating, safe commutation (limits of di/dt, A key feature of the electric ship concept is that all generators
dv/dt, etc.), and primary protection. will be available for providing ship service, weapons systems,
Commercially available digital signal processors (DSPs) can or propulsion loads. The rectifiers for the motor drive inverters
be used at each layer and standard communication protocols for interface directly to the ship generation bus. It is important
information flow between the layers. The IEEE PES Task Force that the connected rectifiers limit harmonic distortion to the
is working on defining Control and Protection Architecture for bus regardless of which generators are online. Multiple sources
PEBB-based systems [7]. of drive power will be configured to meet the wide range of
160 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 42, NO. 1, JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2006

Fig. 4. ACS6000 modular drive platform, courtesy of ABB.

Fig. 5. Single-phase motor drive module (typical).

ship operating modes. Different sources and amounts of drive the generator harmonic load torque and corresponding acoustic
power are called for during anchor, cruise, on-station, and noise. Typically, rectifiers operate in PWM mode at all times,
battle conditions. The drive rectifier accepts power from various switching at a 10-kHz rate to supply regulated dc voltage, with
reconfigurable generators without the introduction of harmonic transparent power flow.
distortion, as is the case with existing high power rectifiers. A The motor drive interfaces to the ship propulsion generator
three-phase input transformer is used to supply the synchronous service through a synchronous rectifier and a phase shifting
rectifier. The transformer is designed so that the synchronous input transformer. The motor and control designs are based on
rectifier is supplied with identical ac voltages that are close the number of motor phases. The phase displacement between
coupled. The close coupling between the power feed to the bridges permits the lowest order harmonics in the output.
three-phase synchronous rectifiers results in the cancellation The drive circuit is transparent to power so that the propeller
of second harmonic currents. The design significantly reduces and motor can be used as a brake to slow the ship with the en-
the harmonic current back fed to the generator, which reduces ergy being returned to the three-phase ac ship’s power service
ERICSEN et al.: POWER ELECTRONICS AND FUTURE MARINE ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 161

Fig. 6. Construction of sinusoidal wave.

system. Since transformers are used to isolate the drive, the made to include this inductance between primary and secondary
ship service power can be at any voltage. The returned energy windings. Thus, separate components are not required, and
is returned to the ship service system or dissipated. There is this results in limiting the amount of PWM current that can
essentially no harmonic feedback to the power source because flow from the rectifier to the load. Three sections of cascade-
the rectifiers are of the synchronous type. This arrangement also connected inverter bridges for each phase are shown in Fig. 5.
limits modulation effects to a low value between the motor drive The motor drive synthesizes the output waveform through a
and the ship power system. combination of step-wave modulation and PWM (Fig. 6) [8].
The synchronous rectifier circuit could be similar to the Two sections operate in mutual offset quasi-step mode along
inverter circuit. The principal difference is that the phase angle with a PWM section to “fill in” the steps in the waveform
is set to cause power to flow to the load. To cause real power to build the perfect sinusoidal voltage. Two of the step wave
to flow to the rectifier, and thus to control the dc voltage of the generators have an amplitude ratio of two with a PWM hav-
three dc buses, the synchronous rectifier ac voltage is retarded ing an amplitude of one. This enables utilization of power
in phase with respect to the power source. To cause power to semiconductors to deliver an ultimate voltage output that is
return to the source, the ac voltage generated by the rectifier higher than the voltage rating of the devices used without
is caused to lead the ac voltage of the source. The phase subjecting the semiconductors to overvoltage stresses while not
angle changes are made to be in automatic response to load requiring dedicated balancing circuitry or a control to regulate
demands on the dc buses. A significant inductance in the line the voltages across series-connected devices.
is essential to provide proper function of the controls. Ideally, Ring bus transformers serve to force current sharing between
this will be of the order of 8–10%. The transformer design is parallel-connected semiconductors. Ring bus transformers
162 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 42, NO. 1, JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2006

Fig. 7. Advanced marine electrical power system.

perform the same function as interphase transformers. In- and rational design process using modeling and simulation. The
terphase transformers apply only to a system with an even model becomes the specification. Paper documents cannot ad-
number of parallel semiconductors. Ring bus transformers can dress the complexity of the next generation of power electronic
be applied to any number of semiconductor stages. Ring bus systems.
transformers are designed with a gap in the magnetic path so Furthermore, two types of models are envisioned: require-
that a difference in the instant of turn ON and turn OFF of ment models and product models. Requirement models can be
parallel IGBTs causes reactance to be present in the circuit, behavioral, empirical, and relational. Product models must be
sufficient to induce current sharing. physics based to include the nature of the constituent materials
Since step wave generators are operated at relatively low and the methods of manufacture. Physics-based models enable
frequency, any high-voltage semiconductor device is readily one to predict the physics of failure, quantify risk as a function
available for such duty. For the two quasi-square inverters, high of known and unknown physics, and quantify cost as a func-
power rating GTO switches can be used. These two inverters tion of materials and manufacturing. All told, this new design
can be designed to share a higher percentage of load power process is referred to as physics-based design.
(than the PWM inverter) by applying a higher dc voltage A key part of physics-based design is validation and incre-
to the inverter input. The target ac voltage waveform from mental prototyping. Today’s power electronic systems require
each single-phase motor can be generated to match the back a completed and commissioned system to validate the design.
electromotive force (EMF) of the motor, thereby increasing the New power electronic concepts such as PEBBs enable design-
torque and operational stability. Because of low switching fre- ers to avoid recommissioning elements that have been proven
quency in the two quasi-square-wave inverters, total switching in previous designs. A new design of power electronics that
loss is much lower than in the conventional PWM switching uses the same PEBB elements as a previous design needs only
unit, the heat dissipation requirement is much less, and PWM to validate the new application stresses and design elements.
disturbance (harmonics) is reduced in the ac output. A physics-based design process can provide confidence levels
and quantified risk to any degree of certainty. However, there
is still a great cost to build and test the new elements and to
VII. P HYSICS -B ASED D ESIGN characterize the system under new application stresses. If most
Today, modeling and simulation are mostly used as analysis of the elements in a system are new, as in a new class of electric
tools. However, systems with many power electronic compo- ship, the cost of validation can be enormous.
nents are emerging—driven by the need for power quality, Real-time simulation is fundamentally capable of running
availability, security, and efficiency (Fig. 7). The complexity with real hardware as hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) simulation.
of these systems exceeds the capability of today’s rule-based High-speed real-time (HSRT) simulation enables parts of a
design methods. Tomorrow’s systems will require a relational converter (switches, phase-legs, and bridges) to be run with
ERICSEN et al.: POWER ELECTRONICS AND FUTURE MARINE ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 163

the rest of the converter. Therefore, the whole converter does [7] T. Ericsen, “Power electronic building blocks—A systematic approach to
not need to be built to validate the design—only the elements power electronics,” in Proc. IEEE Power Engineering Society Summer
Meeting, Seattle, WA, 2000, vol. 2, pp. 1216–1218.
that are new. In the same way, new converters could be simu- [8] Y. Khersonsky and R. H. Lee, “Step switched PWM sine generator,”
lated with an entire system emulated in an HSRT simulation. U.S. Patent 6 556 461 B1, Apr. 29, 2003.
A process of incremental prototyping can be developed that
proceeds by calculating a minimum significant HIL experiment
for a given design problem. Based on the results obtained, a
new HIL experiment would be configured for the next minimum
significant hardware validation. The process continues until an
Terry Ericsen (M’94) received the B.S. degree in
acceptable level of confidence is obtained from the incremental electrical engineering from the George Washington
prototyping steps performed. In the case of completely new sys- University, Washington, DC, in 1973.
tems, these steps can be used to build one-of-a-kind prototypes From 1970 to present, he has been with the U.S.
Navy in several engineering research positions—
that can be validated based on physics in a process where the from Cooperative Engineering Student to Program
building steps are quantified and confidence is established prior Officer. He was a Principle Investigator on several
to each prototyping step. research projects to develop advanced power de-
vices, circuits, equipment, and systems, and the
Project Manager on ONR’s Power Electronic Build-
ing Block program. He is currently a Program Officer
VIII. C ONCLUSION for Electrical Science and Technology at the Office of Naval Research, Arling-
ton, VA, and the Leader of the Advanced Electrical Power Systems Thrust. He
Large and small ships will benefit greatly from continued has authored numerous papers.
improvements in devices and controls in the power electronics
field. Space and weight are always at a premium onboard a ship.
Current developments will result in devices that significantly
reduce the cost, size, weight, and losses of power electronics.
However, new complexities will be introduced that negate old
design and specification methods. Physics-based design models Narain Hingorani (SM’68–F’75–LF’00) received
the B.Sc. degree in electrical engineering from
will be developed, and the model will become the specifi- Baroda University, India, and the M.Sc., Ph.D., and
cation. New designs will be validated incrementally, starting Doctor of Science degrees from the University of
with known good system models and incrementally adding Manchester Institute of Science and Technology,
Manchester, U.K., in 1957 and 1960, respectively.
hardware-in-the-loop testing. Developmental efforts must focus Prior to joining the Electric Power Research In-
on advanced devices, integrated packaging, standardization, stitute (EPRI), he spent six years at the Bonneville
and advanced interactive models. Power Administration. He is currently a Consultant,
formerly serving as the Vice President of Electrical
Systems, at EPRI. He is credited with originating the
concepts of flexible ac transmission system (FACTS) and custom power. He
ACKNOWLEDGMENT has authored over 150 papers and articles on HVDC and ac transmission, and
coauthored two books, on HVDC power transmission (1960) and on flexible ac
The authors would like to acknowledge the contribution of power transmission (1999).
J. Piff, Anteon Corporation, and Dr. A. Tucker, a consultant Dr. Hingorani received the IEEE Power Engineering Society Uno Lamm
Award, in 1985 and the IEEE Lamme Gold Medal, in 1995. In 1988, he was
to Anteon Corporation, for their efforts in editing and advising elected to the National Academy of Engineering of the USA.
the overall technical content of this paper. Additionally, several
industrial companies have listened to ONR define the PEBB
concept, accepted its feasibility, designed and manufactured
product employing the concept, and are selling devices and
systems that are reducing cost, weight, size, and losses of power
electronics equipment. Yuri Khersonsky (M’76–SM’83) received the M.S.
degree and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineer-
ing from Odessa Polytechnic University, Odessa,
Ukraine, in 1961 and 1973, respectively.
R EFERENCES He is currently a Consultant in power electronics
[1] T. Ericsen and A. Tucker, “Power electronics building blocks and potential and formerly serving as Vice President of Tech-
power modulator application,” in Proc. 23rd Int. Power Modulator Symp., nology at Power Paragon Inc. and L-3 Communi-
Rancho Mirage, CA, Jun. 1998, pp. 12–15. cations/SPD Technologies. He has over 40 years
[2] M. Lehti, P. Hyvarinen, and T. Tissari, “The new generation of propulsion experience in research, development, and application
drive systems,” in Proc. IMarEST Conf., AES 2003, Edinburgh, U.K., of power conversion equipment including solid-state
Feb. 13–14, 2003. power converters and circuit breakers for the U.S.
[3] G. J. Campisi, “The status and future of silicon carbide,” in Proc. IEEE/PES Navy, PWM dc, and ac drives for machine tools, and the first in the industry
Transmission and Distribution Conf. and Exposition, Atlanta, GA, vector-controlled ac brushless servo drive. He holds five patents and has
Oct. 28–Nov. 2, 2001, vol. 2, pp. 1194–1198. published more than 40 technical papers and two books. His current interests
[4] T. Ericsen, “Future navy application of wide bandgap power semiconductor are high-power electronics systems for military and commercial applications,
devices,” Proc. IEEE, vol. 90, no. 6, pp. 1077–1082, Jun. 2002. distributed generation interfaces, and the all electric warship.
[5] Panel Session on “Power electronics building block concepts,” presented Dr. Khersonsky is a Life Member of the Naval League and Surface Navy
at the IEEE Power Engineering Society (PES) General Meeting, Toronto, Association, and a member of the American Society of Naval Engineers, the
ON, Canada, Jul. 2003. Institute of Marine Engineers, and the Naval Submarine League. He is active
[6] “Power Electronics Building Block (PEBB) Concepts,” IEEE Pub. in the Industrial Power Converter, Industrial Drives, and Marine Committees
04TP170 prepared by the Task Force 2 of the working Group i8, 2004. of the IEEE Industry Applications Society.