Quantitative Data

UNIT 2 QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION Collection Methods and

Devices
METHODS AND DEVICES

Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Qualitative Data - Meaning and Concept
2.3 Methods and Techniques of Qualitative Data Collection
2.4 Features of Qualitative and Quantitative Research
2.5 Let Us Sum Up
2.6 Keywords
2.7 References and Selected Readings
2.8 Check Your Progress – Possible Answers

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Data Collection is an important aspect of any type of research study. Data
collection techniques allow us to systematically collect information about the
subject of our study (people, objects, phenomena), and about the environment.
In the collection of data we have to be systematic. If data are collected haphazardly,
it will be difficult to answer our research questions in a conclusive way. Inaccurate
data collection can impact the results of a study and ultimately lead to invalid
results.
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• discuss the meaning and concept of qualitative data.
• describe the features of various methods and devices used for qualitative
data collection.
• state the uses and limitations of various qualitative data collection methods.

2.2 QUALITATIVE DATA - MEANING AND

CONCEPT
Qualitative research is grounded in the assumption that individuals construct
social reality in the form of meanings and interpretations, and that these
constructions tend to be transitory and situational. Qualitative research typically
involves qualitative data, i.e., data obtained through methods such as interviews,
on-site observations, and focus groups that is in narrative rather than numerical
form. Such data are analyzed by looking for themes and patterns. It involves
reading, re-reading, and exploring the data. How the data are gathered will greatly
affect the ease of analysis and utility of findings.
Qualitative data are descriptive in nature and can be statistically analyzed only
after processing and after having them classified into some appropriate categories.
Qualitative data can, however, facilitate in-depth analysis of a social situation.
There are certain situations where qualitative research alone can provide the
researcher with all insights needed to make decisions and take actions; while in
some other cases quantitative research might be needed as well. 23
Data Collection and Analysis
2.3 METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF
QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION
Qualitative methods are ways of collecting data which are concerned with
describing meaning, rather than with drawing statistical inferences. They provide
in-depth and rich descriptions. In this section, a detailed description and
comparison of the most commonly used qualitative methods employed in social
science research is given. These include observations, in-depth interviews, and
focus groups.

2.3.1 Observation Method

In our daily life we observe many things and events around us, but this sort of
observation is not scientific. Observational techniques are methods by which an
individual or individuals gather first hand data on programs, processes, or
behaviours being studied. They provide evaluators with an opportunity to collect
data on a wide range of behaviours, to capture a great variety of interactions, and
to openly explore the evaluation topic. By directly observing operations and
activities, the evaluator can develop a holistic perspective, i.e., an understanding
of the context within which the project operates. This may be especially important
where it is not the event that is of interest, but rather how that event may fit into,
or be impacted by, a sequence of events.

Scientific observation is a methodical way of recognizing and noting a fact or

occurrence, often involving some sort of measurement. Scientific observations
should be specific, and recorded immediately. Understanding the culture of the
people and the ability to interact with them are essential for good observation.
Researches may be based solely on observation, but in most cases observation
precedes other methods of data collection.

When to use observations: Observations can be useful during both the formative
and summative phases of evaluation. For example, during the formative phase,
observations can be useful in determining whether or not the project is being
delivered and operated as planned. In the hypothetical project, observations could
be used to describe the faculty development sessions, examining the extent to
which participants understand the concepts, ask the right questions, and are
engaged in appropriate interactions. Such formative observations could also
provide valuable insights into the teaching styles of the presenters and how they
are covering the material.
Advantages
i) Subjective bias may be eliminated, if observation is done accurately>
ii) Information relates to current state of affairs ; and it is
iii) Independent of respondents’ willingness or capability to respond.
Limitations
i) A time consuming and expensive method
ii) A limited amount of information may be available; and
iii) Extraneous factors may interfere with the task of observation.
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Types of observation: Qualitative Data Collection
Methods and Devices
Structured and unstructured observation: in case the observation is
characterized by a careful definition of the units to be observed, the manner of
recording the observed information, standardized conditions of observation, and
the selection of pertinent data of observation, then the observation is called as
structured observation. But, when the observation is conducted without these
features thought out in advance, the same is termed an unstructured observation.
Structured observation is considered appropriate in descriptive studies, whereas,
in an exploratory study, the observational procedure should be relatively
unstructured.

Participant and non-participant observation: this depends on the degree of

involvement of the researcher with the situation being observed. In participant
observation, the researcher who may be an outsider, while observing the group,
also plays the role of a group member. It is necessary to have the observation in
an unbiased way, without getting emotionally involved in the affairs of the group
or the community. The main advantage of participant observation is that, it helps
the observer to get an intimate knowledge of the group or the community being
observed, under natural condition. For example, if one wants to study the
fishermen community, reliable information may be obtained through the method
of participant observation. Participant observation, however, requires longer time,
greater resources, and there may be loss of objectivity, if not properly done. In
non-participant observation, the researcher observes the group or the community,
while maintaining physical and psychological isolation from them. This ensures
collection of information in an objective way.

Controlled and uncontrolled observation: when observation takes place

according to a definite pre-arranged plan involving experimental procedure, the
same is termed a controlled observation. The aim of a controlled observation is
to check any bias due to faulty perception, incomplete information and effect of
external stimuli on a specific situation. An uncontrolled observation on the other
hand, is one where the researcher observes the behaviour and activities of a
group under natural conditions (as they are) without any stimulation from the
outside. This method provides a wide range of information and helps in developing
an insight about the group or community. Care should, however, be taken against
subjective interpretation of observed phenomenon.

Recording Observational Data

Observations are carried out using a carefully developed set of steps and
instruments. The observer is more than just an onlooker, but, rather, comes to
the scene with a set of target concepts, definitions, and criteria for describing
events. While, in some studies, observers may simply record and describe, in the
majority of evaluations, their descriptions are, or eventually will be, judged against
a continuum of expectations.

Observations usually are guided by a structured protocol. The protocol can take
a variety of forms, ranging from the request for a narrative, describing events
seen to a checklist or a rating scale of specific behaviours/activities that address
the evaluation question of interest. The use of a protocol helps assure that all
observers are gathering the pertinent information and, with appropriate training,
applying the same criteria in the evaluation. For example, an observational
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Data Collection and Analysis approach is selected to gather data on the faculty training sessions, the instrument
developed would explicitly guide the observer to examine the kinds of activities
in which participants were interacting, the role(s) of the trainers and the
participants, the types of materials provided and used, the opportunity for hands-
on interaction, etc.

Field notes are frequently used to provide more in-depth background or to help
the observer remember salient events if some forms are not completed at the
time of observation. Field notes contain the description of what has been observed.
The descriptions must be factual, accurate, and thorough without being judgmental
and cluttered by trivia. The date and time of the observation should be recorded,
and everything that the observer believes to be worth noting should be included.
No information should be trusted to future recall.

Technological tools, such as a battery-operated tape recorder or a Dictaphone,

laptop computer, camera, and video camera, can make the collection of field
notes more efficient and the notes themselves more comprehensive. Informed
consent must be obtained from participants before any observational data are
gathered.

2.3.2 Interview/Questionnaire Method

In these methods, the data are collected by presenting stimuli to the respondents
in the form of questions for eliciting appropriate responses from them. The
questions may be presented to the respondents in a face-to-face situation as
oral-verbal stimuli, and the researcher or personnel trained for the purpose
(interviewers, enumerators) note down their oral-verbal responses. This method
is known as the interview method, and the set of questions is known as the
interview schedule. In another method, the questions are delivered (generally
mailed) to the respondents, who note down their responses on it and send it back
to the researcher. This method is known as the questionnaire method, and the set
of questions is known as a questionnaire.

In both, answers to some systematically organised questions, relevant to the

objectives of the study are sought. The questions should be accurate and clearly
understood by the respondents, so that the responses are accurate. Both the
methods have some advantages and limitations. The success of the questionnaire
method depends more on the quality of the questionnaire itself, but in case of
interview method much depends upon the honesty and competency of the
enumerators.

Types of interview
Interviews may be of different types according to the needs of the situation.
Structured interview: For this purpose an interview schedule is used which is
well structured with specific questions to be asked. The questions are precisely
worded and systematically organised, and are prepared in advance after requisite
pre-testing. The interviewer is not expected to make any change while
interviewing the respondents. The data received are comparable and are more
amenable to statistical analyses. The structured interview is also known as
standardized, controlled or guided interview.
Unstructured interview: Here the interviewer proceeds with some well thought
26 out themes or guidelines to be inquired into, and brings out the required
information from the respondents through the process of conversation. The Qualitative Data Collection
Methods and Devices
situation is free and informal and no interview schedule is used. This provides
more flexibility and freedom, but at the same time demands deep knowledge
and greater skill on the part of the interviewer. The process may yield good
amount of information, but the data lack comparability and are less amenable to
statistical analysis. Unstructured interview is suitable for exploratory or
formulative research studies.

Focused interview: In focused interviews, some specific issue, occurrence,

experience, or event is taken into consideration instead of general aspects of a
situation. The interviewer has the freedom to decide the manner and sequence in
which the questions would be asked, and, has also the freedom to explore reasons
and motives. The main task of the interviewer, however, is to confine the
discussion to the specific issue under investigation. Such interviews are
convenient for development of hypotheses, action research etc. and constitute a
major type of unstructured interviews.

In-depth interview: An in-depth interview is a dialogue between a skilled

interviewer and an interviewee. Its goal is to elicit rich, detailed material that can
be used in analysis. These interviews are designed to discover motives and desires,
and, are often used in motivational research. Such interviews are held to explore
needs, desires, and feelings of respondents. Such interviews are best conducted
face to face, although in some situations telephone interviewing can be successful.

In-depth interviews are characterized by extensive probing and open-ended

questions. Typically, the researcher prepares an interview guide that includes a
list of questions or issues that are to be explored and suggested probes for
following up on key topics. The guide helps the interviewer pace the interview
and makes interviewing more systematic and comprehensive.
The dynamics of interviewing are similar to a guided conversation. The
interviewer becomes an attentive listener who shapes the process into a familiar
and comfortable form of social engagement - a conversation - and the quality of
the information obtained is largely dependent on the interviewer’s skills and
personality. In contrast to a good conversation, however, an in-depth interview
is not intended to be a two-way form of communication and sharing. The key to
being a good interviewer is being a good listener and questioner. Tempting as it
may be, it is not the role of the interviewer to put forth his or her opinions,
perceptions, or feelings. Interviewers should be trained individuals who are
sensitive, empathetic, and able to establish a non- threatening environment in
which participants feel comfortable. They should be selected during a process
that weighs personal characteristics that will make them acceptable to the
individuals being interviewed; clearly, age, sex, profession, race/ethnicity, and
appearance may be key characteristics. Thorough training, including
familiarization with the research problem and its goals, is important.
Specific circumstances in which in-depth interviews are particularly appropriate
include
• complex subject matter
• detailed information sought
• busy, high-status respondents
• highly sensitive subject matter. 27
Data Collection and Analysis 2.3.3 Case Study Method
The case study method is a very popular form of qualitative analysis and involves
a careful and complete observation of a social unit, be that unit a person, a family,
an institution, a cultural group, or, even the entire community. It is a method of
study in depth rather than breadth. The case study places more emphasis on the
full analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their interrelations.
The case study deals with the processes that take place and their interrelationship.
Thus, a case study is essentially an intensive investigation of the particular unit
under consideration. The object of the case study method is to locate the factors
that account for the behaviour patterns of the given unit as an integrated totality.

Pauline V. Young describes case study as “a comprehensive study of a social unit

be that unit a person, a group, a social institution, a district or a community.”’ In
brief, we can say that the case study method is a form of qualitative analysis
where careful and complete observation of an individual, situation, or an
institution is done; efforts are made to study each and every aspect of the concerned
unit in minute detail, and then, from case data generalizations and inferences are
drawn.

Characteristics: the important characteristics of the case study method are listed
below.
i) In this method, the researcher can take a single social unit or more such
units for his study purpose.
ii) Here the selected unit is studied intensively, i.e., it is studied in minute
detail. Generally, the study extends over a long period of time to ascertain
the natural history of the unit so as to obtain enough information for drawing
correct inferences.
iii) In the context of this method we make a complete study of the social unit
covering all facets. Through this method we try to understand the complex
of factors that are operative within a social unit as an integrated totality.
iv) Using this method, the approach happens to be qualitative and not
quantitative. Mere quantitative information is not collected. Every possible
effort is made to collect information concerning all aspects of life. As such,
the case study method deepens our perception and gives us a clear insight
into life. For instance, in the case study method, we not only study how
many crimes a man has committed, but we peep into the factors that forced
him to commit crimes when we are making a case study of a man who is a
criminal. The objective of the study may be to suggest ways to reform the
criminal.
v) In respect of the case study method, an effort is made to know the mutual
inter-relationship I of causal factors.
vi) We study behaviour pattern of the concerned unit directly, and not by an
indirect and abstract approach.
vii) The case study method results in fruitful hypotheses, along with the data
which may be helpful in testing them, and, thus, this method enables
generalized knowledge to get richer and richer. In its absence, generalized
social science may get handicapped.
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Assumptions: the case study method is based on several assumptions. The Qualitative Data Collection
Methods and Devices
important assumptions may be listed as follows.
i) The assumption of uniformity in basic human nature, in spite of the fact that
human behaviour may vary according to situations.
ii) The assumption of studying the natural history of the unit concerned.
iii) The assumption of comprehensive study of the unit concerned.
Major phases involved
i) Recognition and determination of the status of the phenomenon to be
investigated or the unit of attention.
ii) Collection of data, examination, and history of the given phenomenon.
iii) Diagnosis and identification of causal factors as a basis for remedial
developmental treatment.
iv) Application of remedial measures, i.e., treatment and therapy (this phase is
often characterized as case work).
v) Follow-up programme to determine effectiveness of the treatment applied.

Check Your Progress 1

Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your answer with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
1) What is the difference between the interview method and the questionnaire
method?
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2) List out the important assumptions of the case study method.
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2.3.4 Focus Groups

Focus groups combine elements of both interviewing and participant observation.
The focus group session is an interview, not a discussion group, a problem solving
session, or a decision making group. At the same time, focus groups capitalize
on group dynamics. The hallmark of focus groups is the explicit use of group
interaction to generate data and insights that would be unlikely to emerge without
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Data Collection and Analysis the interaction found in a group. The technique inherently allows observation of
group dynamics, discussion, and firsthand insights into the respondents’
behaviours, attitudes, language, etc.

Focus groups are a gathering of 8 to 12 people who share some characteristics

relevant to the evaluation. Originally used as a market research tool to investigate
the appeal of various products, the focus group technique has been adopted by
other fields, such as education, as a tool for data gathering on a given topic.
Focus groups, conducted by experts, generally take place in a focus group facility
that includes recording apparatus (audio and/or visual) and an attached room
with a one-way mirror for observation. There is an official recorder who may or
may not be in the room. Participants are paid for attendance and provided with
refreshments. As the focus group technique has been adopted by fields outside
of marketing, some of these features, such as payment or refreshment, have been
eliminated.

When to use focus groups: When conducting evaluations, focus groups are
useful in answering the same type of questions as in-depth interviews. Specific
applications of the focus group method in evaluations include
• identifying and defining problems in project implementation
• identifying project strengths, weaknesses, and recommendations
• assisting with interpretation of quantitative findings
• obtaining perceptions of project outcomes and impacts
• generating new ideas.
Although focus groups and in-depth interviews share many characteristics, they
should not be used interchangeably.

Developing a Focus Group

An important aspect of conducting focus groups is the topic guide. The topic
guide, a list of topics or question areas, serves as a summary statement of the
issues and objectives to be covered by the focus group. The topic guide also serves
as a road map and as a memory aid for the focus group leader, called a moderator.
The topic guide also provides the initial outline for the report of findings.

Focus group participants are typically asked to reflect on the questions asked by
the moderator. Participants are permitted to hear each other’s responses and to
make additional comments beyond their own original responses as they hear
what other people have to say. It is not necessary for the group to reach any kind
of consensus, nor is it necessary for people to disagree. The moderator must
keep the discussion flowing and make sure that one or two persons do not
dominate the discussion. As a rule, the focus group session should not last longer
than 1 ½ hours to 2 hours. When very specific information is required, the session
may be as short as 40 minutes. The objective is to get high quality data in a social
context where people can consider their own views in the context of the views of
others, and, where new ideas and perspectives can be introduced.

2.3.5 Content Analysis

Content analysis consists of analyzing the contents of documents, such as books,
magazines, newspapers, and the contents of all other verbal materials, either
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spoken or printed. Content analysis prior to 1940’s was mostly quantitative Qualitative Data Collection
Methods and Devices
documentary materials concerning certain characteristics that can be identified
and counted. But since the 1950’s, content analysis is mostly qualitative analysis,
concerning the general importance of the existing documents.

The analysis of content is a central activity whenever one is concerned with the
nature of the verbal materials. A review of research in any area, for instance,
involves of the contents of research articles that have been published. The analysis
may be at a simple level, or, it may be a subtle one. It is at a simple level when we
pursue it on the basis of certain characteristics of the document, or, verbal materials
that can be identified and counted (such as on the basis of major scientific concepts
in a book). It is at a subtle level when researcher uncovers the attitude, say of the
press towards education by feature writers.

2.3.6 Other Qualitative Data Collection Methods

The last section outlines less common but, nonetheless, potentially useful
qualitative methods for project evaluation. These methods include document
studies, key informants and alternative (authentic) assessment.

i) Document studies: Existing records often provide insights into a setting

and/or group of people that cannot be observed or noted in another way.
This information can be found in document form. A document can be defined
as “any written or recorded material” not prepared for the purposes of the
evaluation, or, at the request of the inquirer. Documents can be divided into
two major categories: public records, and personal documents.

ii) Public records: are materials created and kept for the purpose of “attesting
to an event or providing an accounting”. Public records can be collected
from outside (external) or within (internal) the setting in which the evaluation
is taking place. Examples of external records are census and vital statistics
reports, county office records, newspaper archives, and local business records
that can assist an evaluator in gathering information about the larger
community and relevant trends. Such materials can be helpful in better
understanding the project participants and making comparisons between
groups/communities.

For the evaluation of educational innovations, internal records include

documents such as student transcripts and records, historical accounts,
institutional mission statements, annual reports, budgets, grade and
standardized test reports, minutes of meetings, internal memoranda, policy
manuals, institutional histories, college/university catalogues, faculty and
student handbooks, official correspondence, demographic material, mass
media reports and presentations, and descriptions of program development
and evaluation. They are particularly useful in describing institutional
characteristics, such as the backgrounds and academic performance of
students, and in identifying institutional strengths and weaknesses. They can
help the evaluator understand the institution’s resources, values, processes,
priorities, and concerns. Furthermore, they provide a record or history that
is not subject to recall bias.

iii) Personal documents: are first-person accounts of events and experiences.

These “documents of life” include diaries, portfolios, photographs, artwork,
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Data Collection and Analysis schedules, scrapbooks, poetry, letters to the paper, etc. Personal documents
can help the evaluator understand how the participant sees the world and
what she or he wants to communicate to an audience. And, unlike other
sources of qualitative data, collecting data from documents is relatively
invisible to, and requires minimal cooperation from, persons within the setting
being studied.
The usefulness of existing sources varies depending on whether they are
accessible and accurate. In the hypothetical project, documents can provide
the evaluator with useful information about the culture of the institution and
participants involved in the project, which in turn can assist in the
development of evaluation questions. Information from documents also can
be used to generate interview questions or to identify events to be observed.
Furthermore, existing records can be useful for making comparisons (e.g.,
comparing project participants to project applicants, project proposal to
implementation records, or documentation of institutional policies and
program descriptions prior to, and, following the implementation of project
interventions and activities).
iv) Key informant: A key informant is a person (or, group of persons) who has
unique skills or professional background related to the issue/intervention
being evaluated, is knowledgeable about the project participants, or has access
to other information of interest to the evaluator. A key informant can also be
someone who has a way of communicating that represents, or, captures the
essence of what the participants say and do. Key informants can help the
evaluation team better understand the issue being evaluated, as well as the
project participants, their backgrounds, behaviours, and attitudes, and, any
language or ethnic considerations. They can offer expertise beyond the
evaluation team. They are also very useful for assisting with the evaluation
of curricula and other educational materials. Key informants can be surveyed
or interviewed individually or through focus groups.
In the hypothetical project, key informants (i.e., expert faculty on main
campus, deans, and department chairs) can assist with: (1) developing
evaluation questions, and; (2) answering formative and summative evaluation
questions.
v) Performance assessment: the performance assessment movement is
impacting education from pre-schools to professional schools. At the heart
of this upheaval is the belief that for all of their virtues - particularly efficiency
and economy - traditional objective, norm-referenced tests may fail to tell
us what we most want to know about student achievement. In addition, these
same tests exert a powerful and, in the eyes of many educators, detrimental
influence on curriculum and instruction. The search for alternatives to
traditional tests has generated a number of new approaches to assessment
under such names as alternative assessment, performance assessment, holistic
assessment, and authentic assessment. While each label suggests slightly
different emphases, they all imply a movement toward assessment that
supports exemplary teaching. Performance assessment appears to be the most
popular term because it emphasizes the development of assessment tools
that involve students in tasks that are worthwhile, significant, and meaningful.
Such tasks involve higher order thinking skills and the coordination of a
broad range of knowledge.
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Performance assessment may involve qualitative activities such as oral interviews, Qualitative Data Collection
Methods and Devices
group problem-solving tasks, portfolios, or personal documents/creations (poetry,
artwork, stories). The quality of this product is assessed (at least, before and
after training) in light of the goal of the professional development program. The
actual performance of students on the assessment measures provides additional
information on impact.

2.4 FEATURES OF QUALITATIVE AND

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
In unit 1, we discussed various aspects of quantitative data collection methods.
Let us now see the main differences between qualitative and quantitative methods.

Qualitative research Quantitative research

Mainly for exploratory purposes and Used to obtain descriptive data
to generate hypotheses
Usual purpose is to generate a range Usual purpose is to consolidate the data and
and variety of data obtain a clear picture of the situation
The methods of inquiry are informal All methods are , carefully planned tightly
and flexible controlled
The researcher usually starts with only The research is confined to a list of research
a broad indication of the information objectives which set out what information
objectives of the project, but with clear is required
understanding of the overall purpose
of the research
The researcher usually works from a The interviewer uses a questionnaire, which
list of the topics to be covered, but the must be followed exactly as instructed in
course of each ‘interview’ will be every interview
influenced by the respondent
Based on small numbers of Based on larger numbers of respondents;
respondents who take part individually data are collected from each person
or in small groups individually
It cannot be known how true the May be possible to estimate how reliable
findings are of the population from the findings are. It depends on which
which the respondents are drawn sampling method is used
Data collection is usually handled by Usually done by trained interviewers or
research professionals through self-completion questionnaires
A qualitative project cannot be Can usually be replicated, because every
repeated exactly, because every data interview in the project follows the same
collection event in a project is different procedure
The findings can rarely be expressed Findings are expressed in number and can
in statistical form be analysed using statistical techniques
Analysis and conclusion rely heavily Because statistical procedures are used the
on the researcher’s perceptions and analysis is less likely to be disputed
interpretation skills

Source: John Boyce, Marketing Research, MacGraw Hill, Australia Pvt Ltd, 2005.

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Data Collection and Analysis Check Your Progress2
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your answer with possible answers given at the end of the unit
1) What do you mean by focus group?
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2.5 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we discussed the meaning and concept of qualitative data collection
and found that the selection of appropriate method for data collection and research
design depends on nature, scope and objective of enquiry. Each method of data
collection, however, does not suit all categories of research design. The selection
and preparation of tools for collecting data depends upon the types of data to be
collected.

The researcher must decide in advance of collection and analysis of data as to

which design would prove to be more appropriate for his research project. He/
she must give due weight to various points, such as the type of universe and its
nature, the objective of the study, the resource list or the sampling frame, the
desired standard of accuracy, and the like, when taking a decision in respect of
the design for the research project.

Qualitative data are descriptive in nature and can be statistically analyzed only
after processing, and, after having them classified into some appropriate
categories. Qualitative data can facilitate in-depth analysis of a social situation.

2.6 KEYWORDS
Key Informant : A key informant is a person (or group of persons)
who has unique skills or professional background
related to the issue/intervention being evaluated, is
knowledgeable about the project participants, or has
access to other information of interest to the
evaluator.

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Content analysis : Content analysis consists of analyzing the contents Qualitative Data Collection
Methods and Devices
of document, such as books, magazines, newspapers
and the contents of all other verbal materials v either
spoken or printed.

Sociometry : Sociometry is a technique for describing the social

relationships among individuals in a group.

Case study : The case study method is a very popular form of

qualitative analysis and involves a careful and
complete observation of a social unit, be that unit a
person, a family, an institution, a cultural group, or
even the entire community. It is a method of study
in depth rather than breadth.

Pre-testing : Pre-testing means testing the interview schedule/

questionnaire in advance to find out whether it is
capable of eliciting appropriate responses from
respondents.

2.7 REFERENCES AND SELECTED READINGS

Festinger L.and Katn D. 1953. Research Methods in Behavioural Sciences. Holt,
Rinehart and Winston Inc., New York.

Goode W.J.and Hatt P.K. 1981. Methods in Social Research. McGraw- Hill Book
Company, Singapore.

Kothari C.R. 1996. Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. Wishwa

prakashan, New Delhi.

Mulay Sumati and Sabarathanam V.E. 1980. Research Methods in Extension

Education. Manasayan, New Delhi.

Young P.V. 1996. Scientific Social Surveys and Research. Prentice –Hall of India
Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

2.8 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS – POSSIBLE

ANSWERS
Check Your Progress 1
1) What is the difference between the interview method and the questionnaire
method?
In the interview method, the questions are presented to the respondents in a
face-to-face situation as oral-verbal stimuli, and the researcher, or personnel
trained for the purpose (interviewers, enumerators) note down oral-verbal
responses. In the questionnaire method, the questions are delivered (generally
mailed) to the respondents, who note down their responses on it and send
them back to the researcher.

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Data Collection and Analysis 2) List the important assumptions of the case study method.
i) The assumption of uniformity in basic human nature, in spite of the fact
that human behaviour may vary according to situations.
ii) The assumption of studying the natural history of the unit concerned.
iii) The assumption of comprehensive study of the unit concerned.
Check Your Progress 2
1) Focus group combine elements of both interviewing and participant
observation capitalizing on group dynamics.

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