What are advantages of DBMS over traditional file based systems?

Ans: Database management systems were developed to handle the following difficulties of typical
Fille-processing systems supported by conventional operating systems.
1. Data redundancy and inconsistency
2. Difficulty in accessing data
3. Data isolation – multiple files and formats
4. Integrity problems
5. Atomicity of updates
6. Concurrent access by multiple users
7. Security problems

What is database normalization?

Ans: It is a process of analyzing the given relation schemas based on their functional dependencies
and primary keys to achieve the following desirable properties:
1) Minimizing Redundancy
2) Minimizing the Insertion, Deletion, And Update Anomalies
Relation schemas that do not meet the properties are decomposed into smaller relation schemas that
could meet desirable properties.

What are the differences between DDL, DML and DCL in SQL?
Ans: Following are some details of three.
DDL stands for Data Definition Language. SQL queries like CREATE, ALTER, DROP and
RENAME come under this.
DML stands for Data Manipulation Language. SQL queries like SELECT, INSERT and UPDATE
come under this.
DCL stands for Data Control Language. SQL queries like GRANT and REVOKE come under this.

What is the difference between having and where clause?

Ans: HAVING is used to specify a condition for a group or an aggregate function used in select
statement. The WHERE clause selects before grouping. The HAVING clause selects rows after
grouping. Unlike HAVING clause, the WHERE clause cannot contain aggregate functions.
(See this for examples).

SELECT name, section FROM tbl

GROUP BY name, section
HAVING COUNT(*) > 1

How to print duplicate rows in a table?

What is a transaction? What are ACID properties?

Ans: A Database Transaction is a set of database operations that must be treated as whole, means
either all operations are executed or none of them.
An example can be bank transaction from one account to another account. Either both debit and credit
operations must be executed or none of them.
ACID (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability) is a set of properties that guarantee that
database transactions are processed reliably.
What is the 3-Tier architecture?
The 3-Tier architecture contains another layer between the client and server.
Introduction of 3-tier architecture is for the ease of the users as it provides the GUI,
which, make the system secure and much more accessible. In this architecture, the
application on the client-end interacts with an application on the server which further
communicates with the database system.

What is 2-Tier architecture?

The 2-Tier architecture is the same as basic client-server. In the two-tier architecture,
applications on the client end can directly communicate with the database at the server
side.
What is the difference between a DELETE command and
TRUNCATE command?
DELETE command: DELETE command is used to delete rows from a table based on the
condition that we provide in a WHERE clause.

o DELETE command delete only those rows which are specified with the WHERE
clause.
o DELETE command can be rolled back.
o DELETE command maintain a log, that's why it is slow.
o DELETE use row lock while performing DELETE function.

TRUNCATE command: TRUNCATE command is used to remove all rows (complete

data) from a table. It is similar to the DELETE command with no WHERE clause.

o The TRUNCATE command removes all the rows from the table.
o The TRUNCATE command cannot be rolled back.
o The TRUNCATE command doesn't maintain a log. That's why it is fast.
o TRUNCATE use table log while performing the TRUNCATE function.

What are the disadvantages of file processing systems?

o Inconsistent
o Not secure
o Data redundancy
o Difficult in accessing data
o Data isolation
o Data integrity
o Concurrent access is not possible
o Limited data sharing
o Atomicity problem

How many types of database languages are?

There are four types of database languages:

o Data Definition Language (DDL) e.g., CREATE, ALTER, DROP, TRUNCATE,

RENAME, etc. All these commands are used for updating the data that?s why they
are known as Data Definition Language.
o Data Manipulation Language (DML) e.g., SELECT, UPDATE, INSERT, DELETE,
etc. These commands are used for the manipulation of already updated data
that's why they are the part of Data Manipulation Language.
 o DATA Control Language (DCL) e.g., GRANT and REVOKE. These commands
are used for giving and removing the user access on the database. So, they are
the part of Data Control Language.
o Transaction Control Language (TCL) e.g., COMMIT, ROLLBACK, and
SAVEPOINT. These are the commands used for managing transactions in the
database. TCL is used for managing the changes made by DML.

o A Database is a shared collection of logically related data and description of these

data, designed to meet the information needs of an organization
o A Database Management System is a software system that enables users to
define, create, maintain, and control access to the database. Database Systems
typically have high cost and they require high end hardware configurations.
o An Application Program interacts with a database by issuing an appropriate
request (typically a SQL statement)

Write an SQL query to fetch the names of workers who earn the highest
salary.

SELECT FIRST_NAME, SALARY from Worker WHERE SALARY=(SELECT

max(SALARY) from Worker);

1. Write an SQL query to fetch “FIRST_NAME” from Worker table using the
alias name as <WORKER_NAME>.

Ans.
The required query is:

Select FIRST_NAME AS WORKER_NAME from Worker;

Q-2. Write an SQL query to fetch “FIRST_NAME” from Worker table in

upper case.

Ans.
The required query is:

Select upper(FIRST_NAME) from Worker;

Q-3. Write an SQL query to fetch unique values of DEPARTMENT from

Worker table.

Ans.
The required query is:

Select distinct DEPARTMENT from Worker;

Q-4. Write an SQL query to print the first three characters of FIRST_NAME
from Worker table.

Ans.
The required query is:

Select substring(FIRST_NAME,1,3) from Worker;

Q-5. Write an SQL query to find the position of the alphabet (‘a’) in the first
name column ‘Amitabh’ from Worker table.

Ans.
The required query is:

Select INSTR(FIRST_NAME, BINARY'a') from Worker where

FIRST_NAME = 'Amitabh';

Notes.
 The INSTR method is in case-sensitive by default.
 Using Binary operator will make INSTR work as the case-sensitive function.

Q-6. Write an SQL query to print the FIRST_NAME from Worker table after
removing white spaces from the right side.

Ans.
The required query is:

Select RTRIM(FIRST_NAME) from Worker;

Q-7. Write an SQL query to print the DEPARTMENT from Worker table after
removing white spaces from the left side.

Ans.
The required query is:

Select LTRIM(DEPARTMENT) from Worker;

Q-8. Write an SQL query that fetches the unique values of DEPARTMENT
from Worker table and prints its length.

Ans.
The required query is:

Select distinct length(DEPARTMENT) from Worker;

Q-9. Write an SQL query to print the FIRST_NAME from Worker table after
replacing ‘a’ with ‘A’.

Ans.
The required query is:

Select REPLACE(FIRST_NAME,'a','A') from Worker;

Q-10. Write an SQL query to print the FIRST_NAME and LAST_NAME

from Worker table into a single column COMPLETE_NAME. A space
char should separate them.

Ans.
The required query is:

Select CONCAT(FIRST_NAME, ' ', LAST_NAME) AS 'COMPLETE_NAME'

from Worker;

Q-11. Write an SQL query to print all Worker details from the Worker table
order by FIRST_NAME Ascending.

Ans.
The required query is:

Select * from Worker order by FIRST_NAME asc;

Q-12. Write an SQL query to print all Worker details from the Worker table
order by FIRST_NAME Ascending and DEPARTMENT Descending.

Ans.
The required query is:

Select * from Worker order by FIRST_NAME asc,DEPARTMENT desc;

Q-13. Write an SQL query to print details for Workers with the first name as
“Vipul” and “Satish” from Worker table.

Ans.
The required query is:

Select * from Worker where FIRST_NAME in ('Vipul','Satish');

Q-14. Write an SQL query to print details of workers excluding first names,
“Vipul” and “Satish” from Worker table.

Ans.
The required query is:

Select * from Worker where FIRST_NAME not in

('Vipul','Satish');

Q-15. Write an SQL query to print details of Workers with DEPARTMENT

name as “Admin”.

Ans.
The required query is:

Select * from Worker where DEPARTMENT like 'Admin%';

Q-16. Write an SQL query to print details of the Workers whose

FIRST_NAME contains ‘a’.

Ans.
The required query is:
Select * from Worker where FIRST_NAME like '%a%';

Q-17. Write an SQL query to print details of the Workers whose

FIRST_NAME ends with ‘a’.

Ans.
The required query is:

Select * from Worker where FIRST_NAME like '%a';

Q-18. Write an SQL query to print details of the Workers whose

FIRST_NAME ends with ‘h’ and contains six alphabets.

Ans.
The required query is:

Select * from Worker where FIRST_NAME like '_____h';

Q-19. Write an SQL query to print details of the Workers whose SALARY
lies between 100000 and 500000.

Ans.
The required query is:

Select * from Worker where SALARY between 100000 and 500000;

Q-20. Write an SQL query to print details of the Workers who have joined in
Feb’2014.

Ans.
The required query is:

Select * from Worker where year(JOINING_DATE) = 2014 and

month(JOINING_DATE) = 2;
Q-21. Write an SQL query to fetch the count of employees working in the
department ‘Admin’.

Ans.
The required query is:

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM worker WHERE DEPARTMENT = 'Admin';

Q-22. Write an SQL query to fetch worker names with salaries >= 50000
and <= 100000.

Ans.
The required query is:

SELECT CONCAT(FIRST_NAME, ' ', LAST_NAME) As Worker_Name,

Salary

FROM worker

WHERE WORKER_ID IN

(SELECT WORKER_ID FROM worker

WHERE Salary BETWEEN 50000 AND 100000);

Q-23. Write an SQL query to fetch the no. of workers for each department in
the descending order.

Ans.
The required query is:

SELECT DEPARTMENT, count(WORKER_ID) No_Of_Workers

FROM worker

GROUP BY DEPARTMENT

ORDER BY No_Of_Workers DESC;

Q-24. Write an SQL query to print details of the Workers who are also
Managers.

Ans.
The required query is:

SELECT DISTINCT W.FIRST_NAME, T.WORKER_TITLE

FROM Worker W

INNER JOIN Title T

ON W.WORKER_ID = T.WORKER_REF_ID

AND T.WORKER_TITLE in ('Manager');

Q-25. Write an SQL query to fetch duplicate records having matching data
in some fields of a table.

Ans.
The required query is:

SELECT WORKER_TITLE, AFFECTED_FROM, COUNT(*)

FROM Title

GROUP BY WORKER_TITLE, AFFECTED_FROM

HAVING COUNT(*) > 1;

Q-26. Write an SQL query to show only odd rows from a table.

Ans.
The required query is:

SELECT * FROM Worker WHERE MOD (WORKER_ID, 2) <> 0;

Q-27. Write an SQL query to show only even rows from a table.

Ans.
The required query is:

SELECT * FROM Worker WHERE MOD (WORKER_ID, 2) = 0;

Q-28. Write an SQL query to clone a new table from another table.

Ans.
The general query to clone a table with data is:

SELECT * INTO WorkerClone FROM Worker;

The general way to clone a table without information is:

SELECT * INTO WorkerClone FROM Worker WHERE 1 = 0;

An alternate way to clone a table (for MySQL) without is:

CREATE TABLE WorkerClone LIKE Worker;

Q-29. Write an SQL query to fetch intersecting records of two tables.

Ans.
The required query is:

(SELECT * FROM Worker)

INTERSECT

(SELECT * FROM WorkerClone);

Q-30. Write an SQL query to show records from one table that another table
does not have.

Ans.
The required query is:

SELECT * FROM Worker

MINUS

SELECT * FROM Title;

Q-31. Write an SQL query to show the current date and time.

Ans.
Following MySQL query returns the current date:

SELECT CURDATE();

Following MySQL query returns the current date and time:

SELECT NOW();

Following SQL Server query returns the current date and time:
SELECT getdate();

Following Oracle query returns the current date and time:

SELECT SYSDATE FROM DUAL;

Q-32. Write an SQL query to show the top n (say 10) records of a table.

Ans.
Following MySQL query will return the top n records using the LIMIT method:

SELECT * FROM Worker ORDER BY Salary DESC LIMIT 10;

Following SQL Server query will return the top n records using the TOP command:

SELECT TOP 10 * FROM Worker ORDER BY Salary DESC;

Following Oracle query will return the top n records with the help of ROWNUM:

SELECT * FROM (SELECT * FROM Worker ORDER BY Salary DESC)

WHERE ROWNUM <= 10;

Q-33. Write an SQL query to determine the nth (say n=5) highest salary
from a table.

Ans.
The following MySQL query returns the nth highest salary:

SELECT Salary FROM Worker ORDER BY Salary DESC LIMIT n-1,1;

The following SQL Server query returns the nth highest salary:

SELECT TOP 1 Salary

FROM (

SELECT DISTINCT TOP n Salary

FROM Worker

ORDER BY Salary DESC

)
ORDER BY Salary ASC;

Q-34. Write an SQL query to determine the 5th highest salary without using
TOP or limit method.

Ans.
The following query is using the correlated subquery to return the 5th highest salary:

SELECT Salary

FROM Worker W1

WHERE 4 = (

SELECT COUNT( DISTINCT ( W2.Salary ) )

FROM Worker W2

WHERE W2.Salary >= W1.Salary

);

Use the following generic method to find nth highest salary without using TOP or limit.

SELECT Salary

FROM Worker W1

WHERE n-1 = (

SELECT COUNT( DISTINCT ( W2.Salary ) )

FROM Worker W2

WHERE W2.Salary >= W1.Salary

);

Q-35. Write an SQL query to fetch the list of employees with the same
salary.

Ans.
The required query is:
Select distinct W.WORKER_ID, W.FIRST_NAME, W.Salary

from Worker W, Worker W1

where W.Salary = W1.Salary

and W.WORKER_ID != W1.WORKER_ID;

Q-36. Write an SQL query to show the second highest salary from a table.

Ans.
The required query is:

Select max(Salary) from Worker

where Salary not in (Select max(Salary) from Worker);

Q-37. Write an SQL query to show one row twice in results from a table.

Ans.
The required query is:

select FIRST_NAME, DEPARTMENT from worker W where

W.DEPARTMENT='HR'

union all

select FIRST_NAME, DEPARTMENT from Worker W1 where

W1.DEPARTMENT='HR';

Q-38. Write an SQL query to fetch intersecting records of two tables.

Ans.
The required query is:

(SELECT * FROM Worker)

INTERSECT

(SELECT * FROM WorkerClone);

Q-39. Write an SQL query to fetch the first 50% records from a table.

Ans.
The required query is:

SELECT *

FROM WORKER

WHERE WORKER_ID <= (SELECT count(WORKER_ID)/2 from Worker);

Q-40. Write an SQL query to fetch the departments that have less than five
people in it.

Ans.
The required query is:

SELECT DEPARTMENT, COUNT(WORKER_ID) as 'Number of Workers'

FROM Worker GROUP BY DEPARTMENT HAVING COUNT(WORKER_ID) < 5;

Q-41. Write an SQL query to show all departments along with the number of
people in there.

Ans.
The following query returns the expected result:

SELECT DEPARTMENT, COUNT(DEPARTMENT) as 'Number of Workers'

FROM Worker GROUP BY DEPARTMENT;

Q-42. Write an SQL query to show the last record from a table.

Ans.
The following query will return the last record from the Worker table:

Select * from Worker where WORKER_ID = (SELECT max(WORKER_ID)

from Worker);

Q-43. Write an SQL query to fetch the first row of a table.

Ans.
The required query is:

Select * from Worker where WORKER_ID = (SELECT min(WORKER_ID)

from Worker);

Q-44. Write an SQL query to fetch the last five records from a table.

Ans.
The required query is:

SELECT * FROM Worker WHERE WORKER_ID <=5

UNION

SELECT * FROM (SELECT * FROM Worker W order by W.WORKER_ID

DESC) AS W1 WHERE W1.WORKER_ID <=5;

Q-45. Write an SQL query to print the name of employees having the
highest salary in each department.

Ans.
The required query is:

SELECT t.DEPARTMENT,t.FIRST_NAME,t.Salary from(SELECT

max(Salary) as TotalSalary,DEPARTMENT from Worker group by
DEPARTMENT) as TempNew

Inner Join Worker t on TempNew.DEPARTMENT=t.DEPARTMENT

and TempNew.TotalSalary=t.Salary;

Q-46. Write an SQL query to fetch three max salaries from a table.

Ans.
The required query is:

SELECT distinct Salary from worker a WHERE 3 >= (SELECT

count(distinct Salary) from worker b WHERE a.Salary <=
b.Salary) order by a.Salary desc;
Q-47. Write an SQL query to fetch three min salaries from a table.

Ans.
The required query is:

SELECT distinct Salary from worker a WHERE 3 >= (SELECT

count(distinct Salary) from worker b WHERE a.Salary >=
b.Salary) order by a.Salary desc;

Q-48. Write an SQL query to fetch nth max salaries from a table.

Ans.
The required query is:

SELECT distinct Salary from worker a WHERE n >= (SELECT

count(distinct Salary) from worker b WHERE a.Salary <=
b.Salary) order by a.Salary desc;

Q-49. Write an SQL query to fetch departments along with the total salaries
paid for each of them.

Ans.
The required query is:

SELECT DEPARTMENT, sum(Salary) from worker group by

DEPARTMENT;

Q-50. Write an SQL query to fetch the names of workers who earn the
highest salary.

Ans.
The required query is:

SELECT FIRST_NAME, SALARY from Worker WHERE SALARY=(SELECT

max(SALARY) from Worker);