Experiment- 1

The induction motor is essentially a transformer with stator forming the primary and the rotor
forming the primary and the rotor forming the secondary as the transfer of energy from stator
to the rotor takes place entirely inductively with the help of flux mutually linking the two.
The magnitude of Er depends upon voltage transformation ratio k between stator and rotor
and also slip. I 0 is the no load primary current. It has two components,

(i) Working component I w, which supplies no load losses.

(ii) Magnetizing component I µ, which sets up flux in core and air gap.

Obviously, I 0 = √ I 2w + I 2μ and R0 = E1/ I w and X 0 = E1/ I µin parallel.

In the case of two winding transformer I 0 is quite small (about 1% of the full load current).
The reason is that the magnetic flux path lies almost completely in the steel core of low
reluctance, hence I m is small with the result that I 0 is small. But in an induction motor, the
presence of an air gap (of high reluctance) necessitates a large I m hence I 0 is very large (40 to
50% of the full load current). Equivalent circuit is required to be evaluated to find
performance of motor different load conditions.

Experiment- 5
The voltage regulation of an alternator is defined as the variation in terminal voltage from full
load to no-load when the full load is thrown off, with the field current and the speed of the
alternator kept unaltered. Usually the alternators are designed to maintain a constant terminal
voltage when delivering full-load at a specified power factor. For the same field excitation, if
terminal voltage changes from its no-load value E0 to V, for a load current I then, the
percentage regulation is given by,

% Regulation = ( E V−V )*100

0

For a lagging power factor load, E0 is always higher than V and for leading power factor load,
E0 may be less than V and consequently the percentage voltage regulation may be positive or
negative. In case of small machines regulation can be found by direct loading but in case of
large machine this becomes difficult and because of cost of dissipating the large output and
also providing the large input. Hence indirect methods of loading are adopted. Synchronous
impedance method is discussed below.

SYNCHRONOUS IMPEDANCE METHOD:

This methods though gives inconsistent results for voltage regulation, is quite useful because
it introduces the concept of synchronous reactance. This procedure can be applied to
cylindrical rotor synchronous machine because the resultant air-gap flux φr is not affected by
the angular position of the rotor. The iron part of the magnetic circuit is assumed to have
constant permeability, i.e. saturation is neglected. The drop in terminal voltage is due to i)
armature resistance drop IRa, ii) leakage reactance drop IXL and iii) armature reaction drop.
Drop in voltage due to armature reaction may be accounted for by assuming the presence of
fictitious reactance Xa in the armature winding. The leakage reactance XL and the armature
reactance Xa may be combined to give synchronous reactance XS. Hence, XS = Xa +
XL.Therefore the total voltage drop in alternator under load is given by IRa + jIXS = I(Ra +
jXS ) = IZS , where ZS is known as synchronous impedance of the alternator. Open circuit
characteristic (O.C.C) and short circuit characteristic (S.C.C) are required for the
determination of ZS (or XS) and hence regulation. The reading of open circuit line to line
terminal voltage V = E0 are taken for various values of field excitation current If. These data
are plotted as O.C.C. The short-circuit characteristic of the machine is obtained by means of
the short-circuit test conducted with switch S closed. While the rotor is running at
synchronous speed NS, the rotor field is kept unexcited to begin with. The field excitation is
the gradually increased. While the current in all the three ammeters should be identical,
practically a small unbalance will always be found on account of winding and field current
dis-symmetries which cannot be completely avoided in a machine. Therefore, ISC the short
circuit current per phase is taken as the average value of the three ammeter readings. In short
circuit test entire emf E0 is consumed in overcoming the short circuit current ISC, through the
synchronous impedance ZS. Therefore,

S.C.C is drawn and from that,

The dc resistance rdc of one phase is measured by volt-ammeter method as shown in Fig.3.
The ac armature resistance per phase Ra is then calculated from the relation

Ra = 1.2 rdc

After Ra is calculated, XS can be determined by relation

By knowing Ra and XS, we can draw vector diagram and from that we can calculate,

Experiment- 6
The voltage regulation of an alternator is defined as the variation in terminal voltage from full
load to no-load when the full load is thrown off, with the field current and the speed of the
alternator kept unaltered. Usually the alternators are designed to maintain a constant terminal
voltage when delivering full-load at a specified power factor. For the same field excitation, if
terminal voltage changes from its no-load value E0 to V, for a load current I then, the
percentage regulation is given by,
E0−V
% Regulation = ( V )*100
For a lagging power factor load, E0 is always higher than V and for leading power factor load,
E0 may be less than V and consequently the percentage voltage regulation may be positive or
negative. In case of small machines regulation can be found by direct loading but in case of
large machine this becomes difficult and because of cost of dissipating the large output and
also providing the large input. Hence indirect methods of loading are adopted. MMF method
is discussed below.

▪ MMF METHOD:
O.C.C and S.C.C are also used in mmf method and it is assumed that change in terminal
potential difference on load is due entirely to armature reaction (and due to the ohmic
resistance drop which in most cases is negligible). Field ampere turn required to produce a
voltage of V on full load is a vector sum of the following,
i. Field AT required to produce V (or if Ra is to be taken into account, then V + IRa cosφ
) on load. This can be found from O.C.C and is equal to OA in Fig. 5.
ii. Field AT required to overcome the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction on full
load. This value is found from S.C.C and is equal to OC on Fig. 5.
iii. Field AT, OA corresponding to V (or V + IRa cosφ ) is laid off horizontally. Then AB
= OC representing full load short circuit field A.T is drawn at an angle of (90+φ)° for
lagging power factor cosφ. Where φ is the angle by which current lags behind the
terminal voltage V. The total field AT is given by OB1 = OB, for which the
corresponding no-load terminal voltage E01 can be found using O.C.C as shown in
Fig. 5 and from that regulation can be determined. For a leading power factor, short
circuit AT = AB2 is drawn at an angle (90-φ)° as shown in Fig. 5 and total AT
required is OB3 and corresponding no-load terminal voltage is E02.

▪ ZERO POWER FACTOR METHOD:

This method is based on the separation of armature leakage reactance drop and armature
reaction effects. Hence it gives more accurate results. The experimental data required is

i ) no-load curve ( O.C.C )

ii ) full load zero power factor curve (also called wattless load characteristics ).

It is the curve terminal voltage against field excitation, when the armature is delivering a full
load current at zero power factor.

The alternator is connected to a load consisting of a purely inductive reactor, so that armature
current Ia lags behind the terminal voltage V. If now the external reactive load is varied, while
at the same time field excitation is so adjusted that current Ia remains constant at its rated
value, the graph relating the terminal voltage V and the field excitation will take the form as
shown in Fig. 1, which is called the zero power factor characteristic.

Fig. 1 shows that when the field excitation is equal to OF (to which there corresponds the
open circuit voltage FR), the net excitation (numerical difference between the mmf field and
armature) is OM and it is less than OF by armature mmf MF. The net excitation induces
voltage E = MN, from which the leakage reactance drop IXL = NQ must be deducted, leaving
as the terminal voltage V = MQ = FP and p is therefore a corresponding point on zero-power-
factor characteristic. It is easy to see that if current I is kept constant, other points on the Z. P.
F characteristic such as P’ and P’’ may be located by sliding triangle NQP, called the Potier
triangle parallel to itself so that point N remains on the open circuit characteristic.
Construction of Z.P.F characteristic shown in Fig.1 can be applied in the reverse manner for
experimental determination of regulation. From point B (Fig. 2) which was obtained when
power factor was zero, BH is drawn parallel to and equal to OA. From H, HD is drawn
parallel to initial straight part of no-load curve i.e parallel to OC which is tangential to no-
load curve. Hence we get point D on O.C.C which corresponds to point B on full load Z.P.F
curve with terminal voltage V. Draw DE perpendicular to BH. If we add vectorially the
voltage drop due to armature leakage reactance alone to terminal voltage V, then we get
voltage E = DF and field excitation corresponding to E is given by OF.

If we add NA = EB vectorially to OF (as in Rothert’s MMF method ), we get excitation OG =

OJ, from which induced emf or no-load terminal voltage E0 can be obtained using O.C.C.
Percentage regulation can be found out using relation,

% Regulation = ( E V−V )*100

0

Expeeriment-8
NEED FOR PARALLEL OPERATION:
 i. In modern power systems alternators are operated in parallel to supply the total load.
The need for parallel operation arises due to the following reasons:
ii. The total load requirement cannot be met by a single alternator.
iii. Parallel operation increases the reliability of electric supply. An outage of one
alternator will not cause total power loss to the load
iv. If alternators are operating in parallel, one or more of them can be shut down for
preventive maintenance turn by turn.
v. Parallel operation of alternators lead to economy in operating costs. The less efficient
machines can be shut down when the load requirement is less.

CONDITIONS FOR PARALLEL OPERATION:

The basic requirements for parallel operation of all voltage sources are i) the load voltage
characteristics of the sources should be the same or nearly similar ii) the polarities of the
sources must be equal and opposite with respect to each other at all times. The basic
requirements expanded somewhat in order to apply to ac machines are as follows:

i. The effective ac values of voltages should be same.

ii. The voltage of all alternators connected in parallel must have the same waveform.
iii. The voltage must be exactly opposite in phase (with respect to two alternators or to a
given alternators.
iv. The frequencies of all the alternators to be paralleled must be the same i.e. the product
of their poles and speed must be the same.
v. The combined overall alternator voltage & prime mover speed characteristics should
be drooping with application of load.
vi. For polyphase machines only, the phase sequence of the polyphase voltages of the
incoming alternator must be the same as the bus.
Only two phase sequences are possible for a three phase alternator, for the simple reason that
there are only two possible direction of rotation in which the poles may sweep across the
armature winding. Figure-1 shows an alternator on the left about to be paralleled to an
alternator (or bus) on the right. The rotor of the left-hand alternator rotates counterclockwise,
while that on the right rotates clockwise. Yet the phase sequence for both machines is the
same (RYB-R’Y’B’) as indicated by the phase encountered by a unit north pole in rotating
about the armature and inducing voltage.
▪ DARK LAMP METHOD :
Synchronization may be accomplished by using lamp methods. Fig. 2 shows dark lamp
method. Even if the effective phase and line voltages are of the incoming and running
machines are identical and even if their frequencies are identical, there is a rare possibility of
connecting alternators in precise phase to phase opposition i.e. lamps in Fig. 2 may not be
dark. Thus if the lamps remain steadily at a particular brightness, it indicates that both the
machine have same frequency but a voltage difference is produced by either a fixed phase
displacement between the induced EMFs of the alternators or a difference in their effective
phase voltages.

After ruling out the second possibility by means of voltmeter it will be necessary either to
speed up or to slow down the incoming alternator slightly in order to find the precise moment
to close the synchronizing switch ( i.e when the lamps are dark ) as the lamp flicker in unison.
If the lamps do not flicker in unison, the phases are not properly connected to the switches, or
else the phase sequence is incorrect. Reversing any two leads will remedy the difficulty.

The disadvantage of using dark lamp method is, it is difficult to determine, even at a low rate
of flicker the middle of the dark period (when the alternators are exactly in synchronism and
the EMFs exactly 180° with respect to each other) because the lamps are much more sensitive
to changes in voltage at their maximum brightness than when they are dark. It means, there
could be an appreciable voltage difference to cause the lamps in series to glow. This
disadvantage can be easily overcome by the bright lamp method as shown in fig.-3, where the
lamps are connected in such a way, maximum brightness occurs when the voltage waveforms
are exactly equal and opposite and the lamps are dark when the resultant voltage is the
maximum.

▪ TWO BRIGHT AND ONE DARK LAMP METHOD (ROTATING LAMP

METHOD ):

In three phase alternators, it is necessary to synchronize one phase only, the other two phases
will be then synchronized automatically. However, first it is necessary that the incoming
alternator is correctly ‘phased out’ i.e. the phases are connected in the proper order of RYB
and not RBY.
The transposition of two lamps is shown in Fig. 4, suggested by Siemens and Halske helps to
indicate whether the incoming machine is running slow or fast compared to alternator
connected to bus bar. As shown in Fig. 4, lamp L 1 is connected between R & R’, L2 between
Y & B’ and L3 between B & Y’. Two sets of vectors rotate at unequal speed if the
frequencies of the two machines are different. If the incoming alternator is running faster,
then voltage vectors R’Y’B’ will appear to rotate in anti-clockwise with respect to the busbar
voltage vectors RIB at speed corresponding to the difference between their frequencies. With
reference to the Fig. 5, it is seen that voltage across L 1 is RR’ and is seen to be increasing
from zero, that across L2 is YB’ which is decreasing having just passed through its maximum,
that across L3 is BY’ which is increasing and approaching its maximum. Hence the lamps
will light up one after the other in the order 2,3,1 or 1,2,3. Now suppose that incoming
machine is slightly slower, then lamps will light up in the order 2,1,3. Usually three lamps are
mounted at the three corners of a triangle and the apparent direction of rotation of light
indicates whether the incoming alternator is running fast or slow. Synchronization is done at
the moment the uncrossed lamp L1 is in the middle of the dark period. It will be noted that
when the uncrossed lamp L1 is dark the other two crossed lamps L 2 and L3 are dimly but
equally bright. Hence this method is called ‘two lamps bright and one lamp dark’ method.

▪ SYNCHROSCOPE METHOD.

Under commercial operating conditions, it may be difficult at times, using the lamps to tell
whether the incoming alternator is slow or fast. In laboratory it is an easy matter to increase
the prime mover speed (usually a variable speed motor is used) and observe the flicker of
lamp. An instrument called Synchroscope has been devised, with a pointer (to indicate
whether the incoming machine is slow or fast) and a fixed index to show the precise instant
of synchronization when the paralleling switch should be closed. Synchroscopes are
manufactured in a variety of designs, namely, the polarized vane type, the moving iron type
and the crossed-coil type. The Synchroscope is designed for operation on single phase
circuits and therefore may be used to synchronize single phase as well as polyphase
machines. Because it is basically a single phase device, it cannot detect phase sequence, this
must be checked either by induction motor or a phase sequence indicator. Nor can it detect
voltage differences, must be done by the voltmeter.

The polarized vane type Synchroscope circuit and dial are shown in fig.-5. The vane or
pointer is polarized to the frequency of the running machine by means of a rotor coil. The
stator winding consists of two coils ( phase) distributed about the instrument’s circumference
in the same manner as a single phase split phase induction motor and is connected to the
incoming machine. The rotating field of the stator rotates at the frequency of incoming
machine, while the iron vane is polarized at the frequency of the bus or running machine. The
reaction between the stator field and rotor field will produce a torque on the rotor which is a
function of difference between the frequency of the isolated system and the frequency of the
main system. If the frequency of the incoming alternator is higher than that of the running
machine the pointer will rotate in fast direction as indicated on the dial of Synchroscope, if
the frequency of the incoming alternator is less than that of the running alternator the pointer
will rotate in slow direction. When the two frequencies are equal there is no torque on the
rotor and the position of rotor will depend on the difference of the phase angle of the two
system. In practice it is some times difficult to adjust the speed of the incoming machine
closely enough to stop the Synchroscope pointer in proper position. If this is the case, the
speed of the incoming machine should be adjusted as nearly as possible and the paralleling
switch may be closed just before the pointer reaches the vertical position when moving in fast
direction. This causes the incoming machine to take a small amount of load immediately after
closer of the switch and results in stable operation.

Experiment-3
This test is conducted for the determination of overall performance of the motor at different
loading i.e. efficiency, p.f., slip and the full load current. Here we are using motor generator
set for the testing purpose, i.e. generator can be driven as the load on the motor. As the
loading on generator increases it will obviously load the motor driving to it. The output of the
generator can be measured and by assuming suitable efficiency of generator, we can predict
the load on motor, hence the efficiency of the motor can be obtained.

Experiment- 2
The performance characteristics of an induction motor are derivable from a circular locus of
current circle diagram of an induction motor can be drawn by using the data obtained from (i)
No-load test (ii) Short circuit test (iii) Stator resistance test.

Experiment- 9
The variations of armature current with field current on constant power results into curves of
‘V’ shape. Although ‘V’ curves are obtained for both synchronous generator and motor
working, their importance is confined principally to motor and synchronous capacitors.
The constant loads with which ‘V’ curves are drawn may refer to constant electrical power
input or mechanical power output.

Let the input power of motor is VIcosφ because the losses are negligible compared to the
input. Hence the active component of stator current Icosφ remains constant as shown in the
phasor diagram of Fig. 1. This phasor diagram is referred to the vector equation

where, = Supply voltage

= Induced back emf

= Resultant emf

= Impedance of the machine

Fig. 1(a) shows the under excitation case where E1 established in stator is such that the
current drawn by stator is I1 and the I1 lags behind the voltage by an angle φ1 and Icosφ1 =
constant.

Fig. 1 (b) shows the case of normal excitation in which the induced emf increases which
establishes Er2 such that the stator current I2 which is in phase with supply voltage. Again
I2cosφ2 is equal to I1 cosφ1. Hence the power remains same. In the third case shown in Fig. 1
(c), the excitation is further increases which again increases the value of induced emf and Er3
is such that the current drawn by the stator is I3 , which is leading to the supply voltage V.

From above discussion and the result obtain in Fig.1 we can conclude that at constant power
output, if the excitation is increased, the line current decreases and at normal excitation the
line current is the minimum. Again if the excitation is increased further the line current starts
increasing and this change forms a ‘V’ curve. These ‘V’ curves are obtained at different load
conditions.
Experiment-4
Equivalent circuit of a single phase induction motor can be determined by the no load test and
blocked rotor test. With the motor stationary the equivalent circuit will be exactly similar to
that of the transformer. If the pulsating field is resolved in to two equal rotating fluxes
moving in the opposite directions, the effect of each will be represented by separate
impedance group. V f and V b will be equal at standstill. When the machine is running at slip S,
the forward slip is considered to be S, the resistive term becomes r 2 /2 s like the three phase
induction motor. The backward slip will be( 2−s ), so that the resistive term becomes
r 2 /2 ( 2−s ) .

Equivalent circuit of a single phase induction motor without core loss:

A single phase motor may be blocked upon as consisting of two motors having a common
stator winding but with their respective rotors revolving in opposite directions. The
equivalent circuit of such a motor based on double field revolving theory. Here, the single
phase motor has been imagined to be made up of (i) One stator winding and (ii) Two
imaginary rotors. The stator impedance is Z=R1 + j X 1. The impedance of each rotor is r 2 + j x 2
where r 2 and x 2 represent half the actual rotor value in stator terms i.e. x 2 stands for half the
standstill reactance of the rotor as referred to stator. Since iron loss can been neglected, the
exciting branch is shown consisting of exciting reactance only. Each rotor has been assigned
half the magnetizing reactance (i.e. X m represents half the actual reactance).

The impedance of ‘forward running’ rotor is,

Zf=
j Xm ( rs +J X )
2
2

r2
+ j ( X 2+ X m )
s

and it runs with a slip of s. The impedance of ‘backward running’ rotor is,

r2

Z b=
j Xm ( 2−s
+ j X2 )
r2
+ j ( X2+ Xm)
2−s

and it runs with a slip of( 2−s ). Under standstill conditions, V f =V b but under running
conditions, V f is almost 90 to 95% of the applied voltage. The forward torque in synchronous
watts isT f =I 23 r 2 /s . Similarly, backward torque is T b=I 25 r 2 / ( 2−s ) . The total torque is T =
T f −T b .

Equivalent circuit with core loss.

The core loss can be represented by an equivalent resistance, which may be connected either
in parallel or in series with the magnetizing reactance. Since under running conditions V f is
very high (and V b is correspondingly low) most of iron loss takes place in the ‘forward
motor’ consisting of the common stator and forward running rotor. Core loss current I w =
core loss /V f . Hence half value of core loss equivalent resistance is Rc = V f / I w.

Experiment- 7
In cylindrical rotor machines, the reluctance of magnetic path is the same in all directions, so
that the field mmf and armature mmf can be combined directly. However in a salient pole
machine, the reluctance of magnetic circuit along the polar (or direct) axis is much less than
the reluctance along the inter-polar (or quadrature) axis. The analysis of salient pole machine
was proposed by Andre Blondel and is known as “Two reaction theory”. Since the reluctance
is high in the inter-polar region, the space fundamental armature reaction flux, when the
armature reaction is in quadrature with the field pole is less than the space fundamental
armature reaction flux, which would be created by the same armature current, if the armature
flux wave were directly opposite to the field poles. As per the two reaction theory, the stator
mmf is composed of two components, one parallel to the polar axis and other perpendicular
to the polar axis. Each of these component mmfs produces a magnetic field. Because of lower
reactance in the polar axis, more flux is produced per ampere-turn along the direct axis than
along the quadrature axis. Each component of stator magnetic field produces a voltage of
armature reaction.

Fig. 1 shows the phasor diagram in which, φ is the field flux and is along the d-axis. The field
flux produces the excitation emf E lagging φ by 90°. A current I create an armature mmf Fa,
which can be decomposed into two components, viz. Fad (which is along d-axis) and Faq
(which is along q-axis). These two component mmf produce fluxes φad and φaq. Because of
higher reluctance in q-axis, the ratio φaq / Faq is lower than ratio φad / Fad. As a result of this
the resultant flux φar is not in phase with armature mmf Fa but is lagging behind Fa. In
cylindrical rotor machine, the flux φar would be in phase with Fa. The flux φad is opposing the
field flux φ in this case because the power factor is lagging. For a leading power factor φad
would be in the same direction as field flux φ. The q-axis flux φaq is cross magnetizing flux.
Since the armature mmf Fa is proportional to armature current I, decomposing this mmf into
direct and quadrature components in effect means the decomposition of armature current into
direct axis component Id and quadrature axis component Iq. The component fluxes φad and φaq
rotates at synchronous speed and induce armature reaction emfs in each phase of stator
winding. These emfs are Ed and Eq, respectively. The total voltage E' in each phase of stator
winding is then,

Where E is the emf due to field flux φ , Ed is the emf due to direct axis component of
armature reaction and Eq is the emf due to quadrature axis component of armature reaction.
As in case of cylindrical rotor machine, the armature reaction emf can be considered as
voltage drop across a fictitious reactance so that Ed and Eq can be written as,

Therefore the stator voltage drop E’ is,

In addition to above, voltage drops take place in armature resistance Ra and leakage
reactance Xl, so that the terminal voltage V is,

Above two equations can now be combined. Since the leakage reactance is independent of
rotor position, the voltage drop jIXl can be decomposed into jIdXl and jIqXl to give the final
voltage equation of a salient pole machine i.e.,

where, d-axis synchronous reactance =

q-axis synchronous reactance =

MEASUREMENT OF Xd AND Xq (SLIP TEST):

From slip test values of Xd and Xq can be determined. The synchronous machine can be driven
by a separate prime-mover (preferably a dc motor) at a speed slightly different from
synchronous speed. The field winding is left open and positive sequence balanced voltages of
reduced magnitude (around 25% of rated value) and of rated frequency is impressed across
the armature terminals. Under these conditions the relative velocity between the field poles
and the rotating armature mmf wave is equal to the difference between synchronous speed
and rotor speed (NS - N) i.e. slip speed. A small ac voltage across the open field winding
indicates that field poles and rotating mmf wave, are revolving in the same direction- and this
is what is required in slip test. If the field poles revolve in a direction opposite the rotating
mmf wave, negative sequence reactance would be measured.

At one instant, when the peak of armature mmf wave is in line with field pole or direct axis,
the reluctance offered by small air gap is the minimum. At this instant the impressed terminal
voltage per phase divided by the corresponding armature current per phase gives d-axis
synchronous reactance Xd.

After one quarter slip cycle, the peak armature mmf wave acts on the inter-polar or q-axis of
the magnetic circuit and the reluctance offered by long air-gap is the maximum. At this
instant the ratio of armature current per phase gives q-axis synchronous reactance Xq.
Oscillogram of armature current, terminal voltage and emf induced in the open circuited field
winding are shown in Fig. 2. When the armature mmf wave is along the direct axis, the
armature flux passing through open field winding is the maximum but its rate of change of
flux linkage is zero. The d-axis can, therefore be located on the oscillogram when open
circuited field voltage is zero. Similarly, q-axis can be identified with the voltage maximum
in the field. Waveforms of voltage across the field and armature current reveal that peak
value of armature current varies cyclically at twice the slip frequency. Because of cyclic
current variations and consequent voltage drop in the impedance of the supply line and three
phase variac, the voltage at machine terminals also varies cyclically and has a minimum
value at maximum current and maximum value at minimum current as shown in Fig. 2. Thus
ammeter and voltmeter pointers swing and it will be observed that swing of ammeter pointer
is wide whereas the voltmeter has small swing compared to that of ammeter. Maximum and
minimum readings of both ammeter and voltmeter are recorded in order to determine Xd and
Xq. The machine reactances can be found as,

Experiment- 10.a
A repulsion motor is a type of electric motor for using on alternating current (AC). It was
formerly used as a traction motor for electric trains (e.g. SR Class CP and SR Class
SL electric multiple units) but has been superseded by other types of motors. Repulsion
motors are classified under single phase motors. In repulsion motors the stator windings are
connected directly to the AC power supply and the rotor is connected to a commutator
and brush assembly, similar to that of a direct current (DC) motor.

The motor has a stator and a rotor but there is no electrical connection between the two and
the rotor current is generated by induction. The rotor winding is connected to
a commutator which is in contact with a pair of short-circuited brushes which can be moved
to change their angular position relative to an imaginary line drawn through the axis of the
stator. The motor can be started, stopped and reversed, and the speed can be varied, simply by
changing the angular position of the brushes.

Stop positions
Brush axis parallel to field:
If the brush axis is along the direction of the magnetic field, the armature behaves like an
electromagnet and a N-pole is formed directly below the N-pole of the stator and a S-pole is
formed directly above the S-pole of the stator. The net torque in this condition is zero. Both
the N-poles repel each other and both the S-poles repel each other. The two repulsion forces
are in direct opposition to each other and hence no torque will be developed. This is very fast
process in this repulsion motor.
Brush axis at right angles to field:
If the brushes are shifted through 90 degrees, so that the magnetic axis is perpendicular to the
brush axis, the coils undergoing short circuit change. Apart from the coils undergoing short
circuit, the voltage induced in the other coils between the brush terminals is neutralized and
the net voltage is zero. Since there is no induced emf, there is no current in the circuit and the
net torque developed is, again, zero.

Run Positions:
If the brush axis is displaced at an angle to the magnetic axis, a net voltage is induced at the
brush terminals which will produce current in the armature. The current in the armature
circuit will produce its own magnetic field, with North and South poles, but in this condition,
the North Pole is not directly under the North pole of the magnetic axis and the South Pole is
not directly above the South Pole of the magnetic axis. The poles of the armature are slightly
displaced from those of the stator. In this condition, the N-pole of the stator field will repel
the N-pole of the rotor field and the S-pole of stator field will repel the S-pole of the rotor
field, so the rotor starts rotating.
Direction of rotation:
The direction of rotation is determined by the position of the brushes with respect to the
magnetic field of the stator. If the brushes are shifted clockwise from the main magnetic axis,
the motor will rotate in a clockwise direction. If the brushes are shifted counter-clockwise
from the main magnetic axis, the motor will rotate in a counter-clockwise direction.

Torque and speed control:

The starting torque of a repulsion motor is determined by the angle of brush shift from the
main magnetic axis. The maximum torque is obtained from a brush shift of 45 degrees. Brush
shift can also be used to control the speed of a repulsion motor.

Repulsion motors are based on the principle of repulsion between two magnetic fields.
Consider a 2-pole salient pole motor with a vertical magnetic axis. The armature is connected
to a commutator and brushes. The brushes are short circuited using a low-resistance jumper.
When alternating current is supplied to the field (stator) winding, it induces an electromotive
force (emf) in the armature. The direction of alternating current is such that it creates a north
pole at the top and a south pole at the bottom. The direction of induced emf is given
by Lenz's law, according to which the direction of induced emf opposes the cause producing
it. The induced emf induces current in the armature conductors and the direction of the
induced current depends on the position of the brushes.