1

COb{TENTS

Chapter 1. First Law

Chapter 2. Ideal Gas

Chapter 3. Second Law

Chapter 4. State diagrams

Chapter 5. Combustion

Chapter 6. Boiler and steam generators

Chapter 7 . Steam power cycles

Chapter 8. Gas power cycles

Chapter 9. Internal combustion engines

Chapter 10. Reversed cycles

Chapter I 1. Cryogenic cycles

Chapter 12. Heat pumps

Chapter 13. Environmental impact of energry systems

Chapter 14. Heat transfer essentials

Chapter 15. Heat exchangers

Chapter 16. Advanced energy systems

Chapter 17 . Cogeneration
 2

CHAPTER 1

FIRST LAT\I
AIVD APPLICATIO]YS

i ..,
 CLASSIFICATION OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS
@

CONTROL VOLUME (C.V.) : is a portion of space delimited by a rcal or imaginary sr:rface

encompassing the system of interest, and makes it distinct from the local environment.

C.V.

I
I

External I Extemal
System
environment environment

OPEN SYSTEMS (Control volume systems) : They have Energy (8,L) and mass (m) interactions
with the local environment.

Examples of open systems:

m
Pumps
Compressors
Turbines
\--' Boilers
\ Heat exchangers
0 Combustion engines
Buildings
L
Towns

CLOSED SYSTEMS: They have Energy (Q,L) but no mass (z) interactions with the local
environment.

Examples of closed systems:

V.C.
Cylinder-piston system
(in the compression or expansion phase,
not in suction or discharge Phase)
The earlh
'O The planets

\-' L

ISOLATED SYSTEMS: They do not have interactions with the local environment, neither in terms
of energy nor in terms of mass

Examples of isolated systems

V.C.
il
I
The Universe
I
I
I
I
I
 6
(
I
SOME MORE EXAMPLES

Shell and tubes

f
Heat Exchangers
i

m2
I
According to the C.V. (dashed line), the

I physical system:

(-' \mt o Is an open system

ml
T

+
I
I
t

I
o Can be described by the function
I I
I
I I
u I
f (Q", t/t1, /fl2, X 1i, X y,, X 21,
X 2u ) = 0

I
u For an adiabatic heat exchanger
Q,:0
I
( Q,
m2

I m2

( I According to the C.V. (dashed line), the

physical system:

rnl
o Is an open system
t m1
<.- <- o Can be described by the function
I
u
f (Qrpm,X1i,Xs)=0

u For a heat exchanger obviously :

Qrz *0
m2

t-
 8

WORK FOR CLOSED SYSTEMS

(control mass process)

dx

To express the work transfer between a closed system and the local evironment, let us
consider the very simple case of the gas filling the gap between the cylinder and the piston.
The weight G of the piston is balanced by the pressure p exerted by the gas over the piston
ofsurface area A :
G=pA

If the piston moves downward by d* without friction or disspative effects, then a reversible
work is occurring such as:
dL : F dx = p A*y = p dV = pd(mv) = m p dv

Here m is the mass (constant during the process) andy is the gas volume per unit mass (also named
specific volume v =V I m lm' I k1l). The specific worl-isTilÈ:
dL
d(ror=-- Pdv
m
and in finite terms :

reversible work
l I pdv for closed systems
I

The figure below shows the process in the p-v diagram. The dashedarca is the elementary
work, and the whole area under the line 1-2 is the overall reversible work transfer.
dt
P

l
{ j pd,
p î I

dr

In real cases, the work done on or by the system is always accompanied by friction, turbulence and
other dissipative effects (V). These penalíze the reversible work, in the sense that in the compres-
sion the actual work is higher and in the expansion is lower than it would be in a reversible process.
In formula, for closed systems undergoing real work interaction:

(. ( _V

beingalwaysY>0.
 10

t WORK FOR OPEN SYSTEMS

(control volume Process)
t
2
I

t-
x2
r
I xl !,'

t"'
I

The flow tube is the most simple case of open systems (see Fig.) At the inlet and exit
i sections (1 and 2 respectiveiy) one can measure the pressure pt e p2 acting on the surface arcas
At
andAz.

I The overall work transfer over the system boundary is:

(,=!'+ln-1,=!,'+A,!.
t being :

t
l' : useful technical work : useful for technical purposes
-.(,, : admission work: work done on the system to let the flow enter the C.V.
* !, extraction work: work done by the system to let the flow leave the C.V.
":

The difference A,! = l, - I ,, can be calculated as follows:

I
L,L = Frx, - Lxr: A(rrr) = L(pAx) = L(pV) = L(pmv) = mL(pv)
t Since rn is constant within the sections 1 and 2,we can state :

t.
1

L( =&
m
= L(pv)

and finally:
I
Real work

f
!. = l'+ L(pv) for open systems
t_

It is to outlinethat this is the work transfer to the local environment in real cosditions, since any
dissipative'occuffenoe is'accounted for in either term of the right hand side of the equation.
 úi/v^/

12

REMARKS ON THE FIRST LAW EQUATION

The analytical forms of the first law for closed and open systems are similar, but with the
tollowing remarkable differences :
a. The internal energy AU appears in the equation of close*systems; whereas the enthalpy
AH onthat of oPen*systems'
b. Both equations are valid in general, i.e. for both ideal and real physical systems
e, speàific term accounts for the irreversibilities or dissipative effects (such as friction,
' Nohysteresis, thermal or molecular diffusion, etc.). Such occurrences are accounted for in
whatever term occurring in the equation (such as Q,T,p or others).

Z. Internal energy ('tfl and enthalpy (fI\iarc state functions; as such:

Ìar' Can be expressed as a function of any couple of thermodynamic variables,

for example: u: U(f,p) , U(p,v) , U(T,v) ; H:H(T,p) , H(p,v) , H(f ,v) '
b, For U and H, the additive property holds. So a system may be decomposed in two or
if
more subsystems (A and B for example), we have :

(JA+B: UA +UB; Ha+a: Ht +Ha i

,V./ Both U and d H arc defined with reference to an arbitrary constant (reference state)' In
particular the enthalpy (Ah:h-h") is given zero value (h":0) when the foilowing conditions
occur:

fGas: îot 7,,=0"C ,P,=l'013 bar

h,,
' =0 : ] Liquias in general: for To= OoC, Po = P*,(To)
I /ry\
fwut"t : foÍ Tn:0.01'C (triplepoint ) ; p,, = p,,,,(7,,):0'0061 bar

being p,ot(T) the pressure r.qQuired fgr t\e liquid, take,13t temp' T, to undergo u^lhu?t thutntgt'n
r' ''
o J;l ii i'' '''i'' rlr-" e\vhe \'r^ c0M [t'o Wi ^^ _

\,,,*"r,r. sl,r\,,f ' "it"^ tn

[0"
FIRST LAW EQUATIONS FOR OPEN SYSTEMS

For a system crossed by one mass flow rate th, the first law can be stated as follows:

O-p=ric(Lh+IAz-.+, (w)

being

a Thermal power slobally exchanged with the local environment

p = riz.( Any sort of power other than thermai (e.g. mechanical, electrical, .'.)
gtobatl:t exchanged with the local environment

For a system crossed by 1,2..,n mass fluid flows, which are kept distinct throughout the boundaries,
we can write the enel'gy equation in the following form:

En rgyss-us!e!-&L$ce dy
e-P=f *o(ah+g***y
e

state processes.
z
 T4

t ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES OF ENERGY BALANCE

r Electric lteater :
Q-P= f, *o(Lh+ r **{>r

w
k=l
O
I ùo =o YK

I Pa
tt------"
Q=
Pet

I Light bulb :
g-p=t *r(Lh+g**+)r
k=t

oo---->
t
I
I
I
I
ùr,=0 Yk
I I
I ,
Pet ,
a
Q= I'
Human body :

O- P =ik=t*o(Lh+ s ^r++)r
z

I
P=0
l I
Ì
I
ùt =o VK
Qz

Qr Q=Qr-Qz=o

a 0r

I
(- for
For the human body the intake of food represents the energy input (Qt). That accounts
2000+2500 kcal/day pro-p.rron (alimentary diet). Such a heat is the resutls of the
exothermic
oxidation of Carbon and Hydrogen molecules, which any sort of food is made of:
t

1
(
C+Or-+CO.+U !kgc
2Hr+O, +2H2O*A4 W
I
On the basis of the enetgy balance, the heat released by the human body Qe is as high
as Qt.
Therefore:
I
ò YL_2200(kcallday) =92tuo1 =100W
Y2=ò 24(h I day) h
I,

I
 t6

r THERMAL LOAD OF A ROOM

The thermal load (Qu"a) of a room is defined as the thermal eneîgy to

provide to (in winter
t
it given temperature'
ti're) ur to extrast fi'on the room (in sunrmcr timc) in order to keep at a
(
I Winter condition :

I
I
I
I
'-/- I
t
i
I
v Q,sol
QJoaa
I I Qnt
I

r' I -nI
77ly

I m I
I e
I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
1 t-
2 Qo

Q^^o + Q,* * Q*, - Q,, = rhr(h, - 4)

= Qy (ventilationheat transfer, positíve because h, > h")
thus:
I

Quoa = Q,, + Q, -(Quu+ Q*)

Summer condition:

f
t

Qtoaa
/ Qsot

t l------i
Qnt
I A
lTlv
m
I
,r
t e
I
I
I
I
t
I
I
tl
2 --'t- I

I Qt,

I'
L,
*Q^no + Qun * Q*t * Qu = tit, - h,)
.(h,
= -Q, (ventilation heat transfer , negative because h, > h,)
f thus
t.
Qr*a =Q,, +Q, *Qi**Q*t
I

i
t-
 18

THROTTLING PROCESS

Restriction Valve Porous plug

N a ffi
I In these cases:

t.
e-P=f no(Lh+sM*+)r
k=l

Q=0
P=0
n-I
then:

4-Ir't=o -> lk T\

Throttling is therefore an, isenthalpíc process'

just that the
This does not mean that throughout-the process enthalpy keeps constant, but
initial and final enthalpy values *. th. ru*e. On the other hand the process itself is highly
dissipative, therefore a-number of non-equilibrium states__may occur in between. To outline
this
instead of a continuous line
conópt, the line that connects the end states 1-2, is usually a dashed
f (see Figure).
'
\" for-an ideal gas, being enthalpy depending solely on temperature, the throttling process is
I

isothermal. For real- fluids, in ordinàry àpplications, it results in a temperature and

pressure
decrease.
I

t
(
p
1

t t

l. \r---_*_--f 2

I
(_.

t- l
:

I
 20
REVERSIBLE WORK FOR OPEN SYSTEMS

From the Bernoulli equation:

*Y
2

{+v+[ vdp + gM =o
I

I and under the following hypotheses:

I .negligible potential energy: gLz =A

r 2. negligible kinetic energy:

Lw2
2
-=0
o:0
3. reversible process:
f-
we can derive the expression for lhe reversible work for open systems:

t 2

t,'u, = -l ' dp
I

t
Which can be represented on thep,v diagram as in the figure below:
t

p d (, tzt)
I
f
2
t" (,'r, = -l ' dp
dp I

I
2

t
v
v

t
I
L-

1
l- -r

I
L
 r-
I

22

I SPECIFIC HEATS

I fr **nl* h; tc ,4hd À' m^'6''ro

Defìnitions'6uofi'tu *\' o'u\o* nnt(r*5ot'0"
l^
I
Constant Volume specific heat:
'r=#1,
i Constant Pressure specific heat:
'r=#1,
I Let us remind that a state function can be stated as a function of any two variables out of the three
thermodynamic variables i T, p, v.
It is convenient for us to express the internal rgyQ;us a function o$and v,:
"n
f-
q.,=l1,{Frv)
then:
^t
dul
au =@l ar + dv = cu ar *ff1,a, (1.s)
arl" -lovl,

Similarly, we can express enthalpy as a function of Z and p:

'- h(T;P)
then :

ahl ahl
dh ar*41 dn=C-dr+
' dD (1.6)
-I6rln opl, -lopl,. '
P

t The following special cases of eqs. (1.5) and (1.6) are relevant for us:

[, IDE.A.L GAS

I For ideal gas, the internal energy is a function ofjust the temperature'4 Thus a=a(?t). As a result
t

dn=c,ar*p(a,=c,dr
t . Pt,
And so forthe enthalpy: h=u* pv =u(T)+ RT =h(D. Thus :

I =cpdr. =codr
r{,*
L-
In conclusion, for the ideal gas :
1
l_,
du=C,dT
dh = CpdT
{--

\,
\- I

,J i
 24

I WORKED EXAMPLES

I 1. Thermal radiator

i Dala

Fluid: water
Cpu,:4.2 kJ/(kg"C)
I I
11 = 80oC

m
I
0 tz =70"C
v= lo-3 rn3 /kg
t m= 0.072k9/s
2
P2 -PI: -2kPa

f- l2 0,
I fhe first law equation, under the hypothesis P = gM = Lw2 = gives:

t Q=,h(4-k) L ks kw
= ritlc o7r- r,) + r(p, - pJ)
=
K.f\ = }(w
but q
I

c n"(tz- r, ) = 4.2(#)(70 -
s0)fc ) = - 42 (#) t

I v (pz - pr) =ro-. (#)eD$Pa) =-o'ooz tff>

t

I I

{ Because I Cp Lf I t>l v Apl, we can approximate Q as:

Q = rit(h, - l\) =
thC o,(tz-t) =-3kW
I

i tht {
t
. b u"
5""1.-
L R
ò
i
rr{ N
hy5'
T
k
).
I
t ffi {1
-d
tu? i

L I

J^c l
Ò
t
-€
J i

I
I
 26

3. Temperature increase of a fluid passins through a pr9peller

The first law equation, under the hypothesis q

* gM = Lí' l2 = 0, gives :

-(*I)= Lh )
!, : C
o(tz - tr) + v(p, - pt)
t
I
P')
t^-t.
' =l-v(P'-
'',. Cp
1

P
Mof^ .qr,òr(.

An hydraulic pump presents the following catalogue data (for water Cpv=4'2 kJ/(kg K) ) :

th=5.568 ; Lp=30mc.a.=300kPa ; P=3kW

s
then:

l r)=! _ 3'ry3(w) =540 L

th 5.56(ks I s) kg

vLp - \kg/---\.kg
to' 1(7zoo (kPa)= 3oo +
(,-vLp _ 540-300 oC
Lt= =0.05
co* 42oo

F.tll
A fan presents the following catalogue data (for ut Cpa:l kJ/(kg K) ) :

L
rh=l,.llV ; Lp =150 Pa ; P =0.2kW

then:
t
t=!-o'2'\a3-(w)
- =lso
th 1.11(Ègls)
4kg
_..3 f
I
vLp -'kg' (Pa) =r2o
=0.8(+)1so +
kg

t !, *vLo 180 -120 oc

Lt=
c- =-:0.06
pct
1000

I Conclusion: pumping of fluids (liquids o gas) implies a negligible temperature increase. Such
p.o."rrÀr can therefore be considered both adiabatic and isotherm.

ll-r
 28

What we have found so far in a thermai context, is equivalent to what we know

from
i- mechanics, when dealing with the equilibrium conditions for a lever. At the fulcrum (point 3 in the
the lever the following
figure) the equilibrium ls achieved when, between the forces and arms,

I
condition is holding:

t- Frlrr= Frl* -+ L tn
Fz F2 t,,
Ft
J

n In case of gravitational forces: F=mg, thus ì

2 ffitE tn ml tx
1 -) t,,
(2.3)
ffi28 1,13 m2
ln

b
Izs

This last equation conveys the message known as the lever rule, i.e. the fulcrum of
a lever

with the arms in equilibrium, divides the segment 1-2 in parts inversely proportional to
the applied
masses.
After the analogy between eq. (2,2) e (2.3), we can also conclude that, in the case of
the
adiabatic mixing, prouiú.d that the .nthulpy is represented by a segment I-2,the
final enthalpy state
length is inversely proportional to the
3 divides the segment I-2 in two smaller-segmènts whose
concurrent masses (or mass flow rates)'

PARTICULAR CASES

Let ho= 0, og. (2.1) canbe put in the form:

tu'(h - h,,)+ tur(\-h")

I 4-ho= ùr+rh,
t
in:
This equation, valid for ideal gas, incompressible fluids and isobaric processes' results

fiqCpr (t, - t ,)+ lrrzc r,2(t2 - t,,)

tr-to=
fi4Cpt
L
but, becaus I lto:0 when fo :OoC, then
i
t- ,, t, + th2C ,ztz
4ghrC ,, + rhrC nîlu
tixt C
't:-------1--7- with 1gC n,
fii, + rùt,
ffilL pt

I
Should the concurrent flows be the same in nature, = C pz = C
ns , thus
C :
n1

- ryry:b lJ
I

L
tl=
litr h+tix2 t2 6yt, +,*r lr-
-7
rh, + rh,
Z f\"tr ryN'
t q +t2
Finally, if the mass flow rates are equal (h, = rhr),then: t"
2
L
I

I
I
'l
'l
t

I
-l
t

I
I

.l

"J
I
I

-l
t
I

I
I
-l
t

I
I
-t
.t

.l

.t

_t
 2

OPERATIVE FORMS OF THE BOYLE EQUATION

T (,() Absolute Temperature

p (bar) Absolute Pressure
,mt
pl nr with v {
*or) Molar volume
T
R= 8314----: Universal constant of the ideal gas
kmole K

By multiplying the previous eq' by the number of moles (n), one gets:

n No. of moles
pln=nRT -+ pV =nRT with
V = nv (m3) Volume

By dividing the first eq. by tÈe number of molar mass (M ), one obtains:

ks
M (
kmole
) Molar mass

r
D:=:'1'
À--
+ pv=RT with
v
(..mt ) -
Specific volume
'M M M kg

R=4 t J\ Gas constant

t 'kg
M K'

By multiplying the previous eq. by the mass (rn) of the gas, we have:

m (ke) Mass
p1)m=mRT -+ pV =mRT with
V =Ífiv (*') Volume

t
Molar mass of selected gases

t GAS M GAS M (kg/kmole)

Nz I4'2 28 SOz 32.1+16.2 64
2.1 ) CH+ 1 2 1 +4. 1 16
t Hz
32 Cr Hs 12.3+8.1 44
Oz 2.16
CO t2.t+I6.1 28 Ca Hro 12.4+10.1 58

L COz t2.l+16.2 44 Cs Hrz 12.5+12.1 72

t_

I
 4

IDEAL GAS FLOV/S

the following
For irJeal gas flows, starling from the definition of the specific volume (v)' we can state

relationships linking the mass flow rate (m ) tothe volumetric flow rute (r ):

i =-
dV dVldr
V=-=-=- V lw tsl
m dm dmldr ;, lkg r sl
or:

V=rnv

of a
In many cases it is necessary to state the volumetric flow rate at the outlet of a duct or at the end
pror.rq as a function of the inlet or initial conditions. Then, if the fnass flow rate is c-onserved:
_>
Vt V2
m=mt=m2 tn
-=-
vl v2

and therefore:

ùr=ùL ="Wl
,., RTr l pz _
r;. l, lt
yl Pz rt
Inmanycasesitisrequiredtodeterminethevo1umetricflowratein..@)asa
1ít 1,i.e. in given pressure and temperature conditions.
o.actual,, volumetric flow rate
function of the
t Then, from the previous equation we have:

r, 2=ù ?'?.'-t (uJ

-' L=ù
v't =ù {=zto ù *iy,)
v p, T 1.013 (ata) T f G)

Example No. 1

A volumetric flow rate V = 400mt I h of air (taken as ideal gas) enters a duct at prl}l8 mbar and
Z1:10.C and exits at pz:1010 mbar and Tz=IS)"C. Determine the diameters at the inlet and outlet
the duct. We have
under the hypothesis ihat the gas velocity is taken constant (w:3 m/s) throughout
immediately:

'' T, !t=+oots}+zit'ts lsls = 602.sr ry

'2=ù.!t
ù^
pz 10+273.15 1010 h

The cross sectional areas of the conduit at the inlet and outlet are ds follows:

úlh
400 602.51m2 I h
4-xoo stl, v" 3600 s lh
E =o.o37mz ù =0.A56m2
w 3(mls) w 3(m I s)
 6

, =, n L 0
(0t0 1 2 + I'0 1 3) 3-
Thus: = c, 27 0
#9
/(K) = 0.8 27 --
25 +273.15
0.7 42
7n3
V
Finally
c = c v =e.742 f4l to <T) = 2n 1

Example No.4
r In a lecture hall, where T=ZS'C andp=1018 mbar, the recorded concentration of COz is C=3000 mg
p., # of uit. Assess if the indoor conditions are within or beyond the legal threshold for COz:
t-
Fm: 1000 PPm in vol'

I (1 ppm in vol = 10-6 m3/m3 of air)

To solve the problem, let us state that the masji m of COz is as much in the normal as in the actual
t conditions:

ffi=ffi,

By rewriting the equality in terms of COz concentration p (10-6 kgcoz/m3u) and room volume %
(m3u), we have:

C Vo= C,,Vo,n

t
Thus:
Vo *o'o
C
-n =C
- -C
ffiorn,,
!":1,!-
=g RoTn
t Vo, I P,

-= g
1 r (x) (g) zs !?7-1'1s
" 270 p (ato)=3000 m3' +
270 1.018
=3254.2 #t-
Nffi3n,,io
L

Finally:
Nm3co,l lcrnole
lt = C,, v,=3254.2 #9rrir'
Nffi3
rc-'l9so'
'
Í/.\ECO,
,T, kgr,o,l lcrnole
L Nmt,
""' c0'
=1656 ll--e
N*to,,,
L
=1656 ppm
I
L-

Being p > ptrim the hall is not suitable from an indoor air quality point of view
L

t-
 I
t- OTHER RELEVANT FORMULAS
FOR ADIABATIC AND REVERSIBLE PROCESSES

l'"

The previously stated equation for adiabatic and reversible processes executed by an ideal gas

pvk =cost. AJ,nlnffi.- "f-f"* (r.2)

combined with the gas equation:

fi pv=RT
results in:

J pvk =(nfv-t)vo =cost.

finally:
t îvk*l = cost. (1.3)

t and therefore:
1*t
TpT = cost (1.4)

The relationships (1,2), (1.3), (1.4) will prove to be very useful in technical calculations

Further useful formulas are as follows:

k
ct, R c,=f1R
k-r

The polytrophic equation for an ideal gas is:

t" pV" = cost.

Depending on the n value, we can.find again the operative formulas for any process executed by an
L ideal gas:

n=l -) I = cost. (Isothermal)

t n=0 _>
P = cost. (Isobaric)

n=k -+ pvk =eost, (Adiabatic)

n=ú -+ v = co$t. (Isocore) (the process is indip. of v)
('
f

t_

i
I

L-

I
I
 ,.,4
. ,",') '-
10

ISOTI-IERMAL ANID ADIABATIC LINE.S ON THE (P,V) DIAGRAM

Since the gas law ispv: R7', anisothermal line (I:const) is represented as a rectangular (or
equilateral) hypeóola (pv=óonst) in a Qt,v) plane. So the isotherms lines a family of rectangular
hyperbolae displaced on the (p,v) plane, as shown in the figure below.

+
["r1,. pv.t"d'i {:*' p
co
.' ì -
V\\! L

)1,'.
(;,
''i ,
V

ry,i The gradient of an isothermal curve can be easily determined by taking the derivative
Thus:
of thepv:RT
I h.L;t
t

,l 0 al
= -Z
d(pv) =Q -) vdP + Pdv = -> dvv
i The gradient of an adiabatic curve can be determined in a similar way, starting from the pvk
: cost. :

-+
dp, tP
b d(pvk1 = g -) vo dp + kpvk-| dv = 0
dvv
Therefore an adiabatic curve has a gradient fr times higher than an isothermal (Fig. 1) . The
consequences of this fact are clearly evident when we deal with the problem of gas compression. Let
[r
i
I us remind that, when the compression is represented on a Qt,v) diagram, the work required to
illl ,
compress a gas, frompt to pz,is proportional to the area enclosed within the process line 1-2 and the
,

lli, I \
p u*ir (Fig.f. As a reiult, ìh" least work would pertain to an isothermal compression, but
unfbrtunaiely a real compression is adiabatic. How to approach the isothermal process with technical
means, will be dealt with in the subsequent section.

p
p
p2 isotherm
T p2
adiabatic adiabatic

P
C""X'
pt pt

Fig. 1

l= - JrùfFis2
t d *J,rt!;'' '';:' ) t $r: 7 )q.
\',
cor^r
fr"' vr.,' ' 'l
ì 4..-"
:;'ì ..
I
{r.r ra
à'tJ,.'g
 1,2

EXAMPLE

A volumetric flow rate V:150 m3 of air at TfZQoC, and pr:l00 kPa. is compressed by a reversible
compressor up top::3000 kPa. Determine the compression power for the following types of process:
l. Adiabatic compression (1 stage)
2. Intercooled compression (2 stages) with optimum intermediate pressure
3. Isothermal comPression
t-
Mathcad worksheet
r kJ := 103'J kPa:= 103.Pa
Definitions h ;= 3600s

Data :

KJ
Working fluid Air q 237.-J- k := 1.4 C^.- l,----
'= kg'K ' kg'K
3
m
Volumetric flow rate V:= 150-
h

lnlet temperature T1 := (20 + 273.1$.K

/
lnlet pressure p1 := 100kPa (1 bar)

Outlet pressure p2 := 3000kPa (30 bar)

Preliminary calculations:

I R'Tr ní
Specific volume at inlet conditions I v' := 0.841-
iPrkg
Vks
t Mass flow rate ma:=- =0.05i
v1 s

l. Adiabatic comlression (1 stage)

[,r*fl
k KJ
:= = -483.701-
Compression work:
L1
IJPrvl kg

P1 := L1.n6 = *23.955kW
Compression power

Cooling power Qt:=0

L-l
\
l

\
 .l

-l
I

I
I
I
I
I
f

.l

l
l
J

l
J

-t

J
I
I

I
î
I

I
I
I
I

.J

l
l

I
 2

t- CLAUSIUS EQUALITY
EntroPY

r It is known from fundamental Physics that the efficiency of a Carnot cycle is

'L=l-L
n^
r,

I For a thermal cycle as good as a Carnot cycle, its efficiency ry is equal to lic :

Tl :4c
t or:
FQ' =L-L
I ar,
The reader should bear in mind that, for a Carnot cycle, Qr and Qz are heat transferred in a
t reversible way between the device and its surroundings.
Moreover, because Qz is released by the cycle, in accordance with the sign convention, it is
f' negative. Therefore:
I
o" T2 Qt *Q, =g
1+ -+
a
1
T1 T, Tz

For a cycle which interactÉ with a number of thermal resewoirs, by exohanging reversibly lhe
h@aÉÉg#Q, ..,b0,'..Q* respectively attemperature Tt,Tz ...h...I,, (see figure), the
( previous ecluation
can be generalized as follows:

t2
tl
$ (Qu),,,
lk
=s It
Qz
Tr
k=l

And for countless infinitesimal cycles: Qt\

"'nr
dQ,u,
$ T 0 od, 0,\
I n-l l 1"

This relationship is referred to as the Clctusitts equality

(or the Clausius fi.rst theorem),

Due to a mathematical property, the integrand function is an exact differential; as such, it is

also a state function, whose name, after Clausius,is Entropy.
Then we have, by definition :
t

dQ,,,
I
t
d.S =
T

I
 4

INCREASE OF ENTROPY PzuNCIPLE

Consider a cycle process consisting of two processes: one reversible (1-2 in fig.) and
the other
(2-1) ineversible, being the points I and2,both of stable equilibrium:

2
ilTev.

rev

From the Clausius inequality, a necessary condition is:

dQ dQ*, ag
+J
$ #=[ T 2
T
Or
2
dQ dQ,",
I = S, _S,
f 1
T T
Then
2
dQ
s, -s,-l I
T
>0 (0.2)

For an adiabatic system and (a fortiori) for an isolated system, we have

s'>E
gives rise to an
Since the Universe is an isolated system, any process occurring in nature,
entropy increase, Hence lhe increase o.f enlropy principle'

Since in the Universe, al any time, a process is likely to occur, then the entropy of
the Universe
measure of the time (the time
increases with time. Therefore the entropy increase can be'used as a
arrow). The time elapses ineversibly as much as the natural phenomena'
higher to a lower
Any process brings the system from a given state of order to a degraded state of order, from a
degree of information (Boitzmann interpretation"of the entropy law), As an example,
before heat is transferred from region
A to region B, these two regions are reóognized as different òn the basis of their temperature' when brought to the thermal
equilibrium, the two r.egioís ur" no *orà distinguishable. so happens to two reservoirs, taken at different pressures aud
separated by a membrane.
are no more
When the membrane is removed and the equilibrium of pressure is attained, the reservoirs
distinguishable because their pressure equalizes'
When all the non-equilibrium siates that animate the life come to equilibrium, the
life on the universe will come to
and the death. "The thermal death will tneet the universe", says Kelvin
the end. The nature proceedi towards the disolder
after recognizing the message of the entropy law.
in contrast with the vision
The vísion of Keliin, Clausius und Bolt"run r of a life dominated by the entropy law, -is
of Darwin, who believes i1 a nature dominated by the evolution law. The dichotomy between the two was ovel'come by the
mode1n fúeory of clissipative strltchtres, formulaied by Y. Prigogine (Nobel prize fol Chemistry, 1966)'
 6

CALCULATION OF THE ENTROPY VARIATION (sz - sr)

2
dQruu

T
"-sr=J
1

Open systems Closed systems

fe, J1- ùt
.......h%=
fudh+dL,,"@ du+d!',u,=idùt.,Pd{

t. Ideal Gas : Ideal Gas:

dq,ou = dh -vdP = c,dr - vdP dQ,uu = du+ Pdv =cdT + Pdv

t"
2
2
C l) dT vdp C,dT + pdv
sz -Jt =J
Jz -st = I T
I
T I

=c -lnL-,R ln Pz lnL+Rlnfa
=C'TrYr
"7, Pr

Incompressible Fluids (v:const.): Incompressible Fluid$.(v=sonst.)

dQ,"u = dh-vdP =CdT +vdP-vdP =CdT dQ,n,: du+ pdv =CdT

2
CdT CdT
sz *st =I
Jz -st = f T
I
T 1

t
=ClnL = ClnL
r, r,

t
(

I
ll

I
L-

f
I

ii-'
,l

i-
ENTROPY ANALYSIS OF' IRREVERSIBILE PROCESSES
I
I-
HEAT TRANSFER ACROSS A WALL

r Tr Tz Tt Tz

I
a
I
I

Qt rn----i \\
i
I
t
Qz
a
I
I

Fig.1 Fis.2

p across the wall, due to a finite temperature difference AT in Fig' 1, to the aim of
The heat transfer
entropy analysis, .* be mofe conveniently represented as in Fig.2.

Let us observe that:

1. No mass flow occurs across the C.V' (dotted line) : fu =A

f 2. For the first law i Qr = Q, = A
t..
3. >
According to the direction of the heat flow Q,thete must be Tt Tz , ot LT
: f 1 -Tz>0

i As a result:
2 2
dQL
út(s, - sr) = I +6 -) Q=
J
T I
T
I

Lr
I o, e,1
=Q [r-rl =o
2
d^ =-LT-
ó =-l T r, r.,J " T,T,
lT,
I )

Since AI >0 and Tt and Tz arc Kelvin temperatures and therefore positive numbers, also o > 0, as
expected.

11
 ,"I
@ ll0
I
I

t---' I

r DIRECT CYCLES
m - L-<
t.l-*
tc
l. - nnct,
Ad L..tr-i4i0 t
t- \ _t!
Tt
d%
l- $ ,t=$ T
*o =o L.

I d0'
d=-óJTL =-l aQ"
rt
-+ QO
'-
-\
0t To* oTr\
Qt

To È Tr
-___-_--_> L

I aú
Qo
L = e, - e" =tQr'(I - *f- of" - Lc - oT" 3 L,
I 'hi' To

r ry =r -*= ... =, - rL -* = n,, *ff < n,

-L t'g _ i.ì -'

\
In an ideal cycle: o = 0 -+ L= Lc ; A =Qc 8,
g To
r,

A, rL a
REVERSED CYCLES

Tn

d& *o
$ ,r=$ T
=o
Qo

<_-
i o=-$ d8,
=_ I _Q" *) Q"
L
T rt To ftr"+or" Or
\ts"
t ù+rL lL''
L = Qo * Qr = ... = Aq -l) + oT, = L, + oTo )- L, à.-. l. Tt
t, p Q";Q'

{ Qr,= Qt
I
t L Q"-Qt -"'-To ,,oTo
rt At
I
t.
At
Inanidealcycle: o=0 -+ L=Lc ; s=>c 8,
r,
To
I

T
 12

l- ISOBARS AND ISOCORES ON THE (T,S) DIAGRAM

r From the energy equation for open systems:

dq = dh+dl,
Under the hypothesis of:

1. reversible processes:
dQr"u = dh+ d1,,,,
Tds = dh*vdp

r 2: and ideal gas, we have :

I a, =ff - r+ = c,+ - G, - q# = r,l+ - u -ir#1

By integration, we obtaini:
t-k
t' ,S-,îo = ,r^+(t)'
The gradient of isobaric lines on the (X,9 diagram, is given by:

drl =- T
-ldslo C r?
Repeating the same reasoning, under the same hypotheses as before, but starting
from the energy
equation for closed systems, yields:

S_J, =,"^t(f)"
hence
I
t
I
drl r
t_

dsl,- c,

Since Cp ) Cv, the isocores, when represented on the (f,,,g diagram, are $S*t than
i the
(or
isobars. For both the curve families the gradient increases with the temperature
entroPY).

T
i v:const T
v:const i
p:const
p:const
I
.I
T:const

S:const

,s s
i
:0'01oC and
I

t.-
r Here so is the eptropy reference value: for a gas,ra =A atpo=1.013 bar and To=\oC; for water,so =0 at I'o
Po = Psat(Io )=0'0061 bar'
)

I
 l4
1l' EXERCISE ON THE USE OF THE ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCY
oC and
The mass flow rate of air rh= 1 kg/s enters a turbine atl-1 =1200 ataandexpands P:30
ilrl down to pz= 2 ata. Calculate thJshaft power output and the irreversibility production in the
follor,ving cases: a$oÎ^"

1. Ideal expansion (isentroPic)

2. Real expansion with isentropic efficiency (?i')r = 0.80

I
pr
T
P
Tt
t pz

2
I 2i
2 (2i)

sr : ,s2i

yields:
Assuming that gravimetric and kinetic terms are negligible, the energy balance on the turbine

O-P=rh(hr-h)+...
Since the process is adiabatic (Q=0) and the gas is ideal, one has:

I P =titct,(ft-To*)
:

Case of ideal expandgn:

An ideal expansion is adiabatic and isentropic. Thus:

Tou, =Tz, I Jt = szr

r_k

Moreover, since the gas is ideal, it is also possible to use the relationship: TpT =cost. For the air
lFl. . Then:
1-k l-.1.4

r,,:r,(t)'
t.4
t 2?3.1s)[+)
= (12oo+ =679.55K=406.4C

t
Finally (with Cp =1.0 kJ(kg K)):

1 = th c, (rr * rr,) =t tfl r,o t#l <1 200 - 406'4)( c) = 7 93'6 kw

The entropy equation can be used to assess the entropy production. By taking into accountthat
dQz=0
and that ,s2i:^r1: we get:

o =tit (sr,
'i
-J,)- trTde, =o
I
i
I I SoQo\ nef t
^ 4, v
l- d'.tót'"
I

I
l
 T6

I
Altemative calculus

r Ideal expansion work:

k-1
f" k
L=
' k-l RT,
Pz

['t
I ,
Pt )"

I 1.4-l
1.4
) KI
=
ffi. 0.287 . (r2oo + 27 3.r s) 1
(*)
]=
797
kg

t'
Ideal expansion power

t Pi = tit l, =t.797.2= 797.2 kW

Real expansion power :

P, = 1 (n,,), =797.2'o'8 = 637 '7 kW

Power loss because of irreversibility:

M = Pi - Pr =797.2-637 '7 =159'5 kW

with good agreement with the previous outcomes

L
r-(.-LL-Ilf-'!- l-t ì ! I ' -ì
- - :J -_J _ I _ ì
 -t*-1r { *1"'l- L'
2

r DIAGRAM (I^9) and (F/,S) FOR WATER

I P -fJ
é{-
5,('';"'"''-
T A,*{' !> ho
I
;."J'"
",é
,a{

f
c
hd*'*
Critical isobar
i .rt
p:(oL', Superheated
vapof
I Humid fegion
Vapor
Subcooled

I liquid
u,', J p
Q,t,& region
r
ha"',.*
, c.È.
( vO
-n<-
oo\'r^'- q=
--.12t
\.-\ ? r@*
h ; CtCl
t*t (p)
a
, a Itt
ftt

Saturated
j.'-
r**"-t nc' t vapor

\b lL
fu*'l {
r 1"*ll'
?
Saturated
liquid
4ra,/d
So^f^ll *"
ll*\ a"r' \r. ^ rh t D.\l

800
I
K I l
I
700

I
I a ,rol*
ll -\ \^t' à'\
600

t n //ì ir^ )^.*'t')"

ú,
{. ^." \ íl
iì,i.i \ ''./\
\
,r00

t- î,, \. 1L* t: ..t tr^" I I

I
* h- & ,t,'tn I
400
I
L
\
r\ _\.
J00 \"
a"à I

200

100

l- 0 4 o I I

l_
 4

MOLLIER DIAGRAM FOR STEAM

,.1

!
- Jl
:'i, ,'
'
I
I
I

.{

h
p'>p
MOLLIER DIAGRAM Superheated
for steam vapor
C *P.rs"Àe^."
v
T'>T I
H \/ I ,,ri'-"i. (i
vapor I I._.s.''
Lltttt'
'*.

Sub-cooled
p ,T
liquid region I
Àli-I '..'!
\di-i^'^t'r
v)vt P,,' I
1

I.ri.!
ì;.J'i' ' íi:ri : !

\"

X,}X I -i
sc't-r-ar>
X PIU {rr-a:
i J- wt
t'nir"l-t"u '"" ! ':

ffii,*,
1
(
Saturated )* 5 ,tri.{ t
vapor
n .lt -
Saturated \sa-e." I ùtil'r^v-
liquid

!
Mollierdiagramisagraphicalrepresentationofthethermodynamicproper-
ànffst-Étèlof maleiials involving "Enthalpy" on one of the coordinates.
tie'ò
Mollier diagrams are named after Richard Mollier'
pi-
Richard Mollier (1863-1935) was a professor at Dresden University who
oneered the graphical display of the relationship of temperature' pressure,
enthalpy, enfropy and voiume of steam and moist air that has since aided
the teaching of thermodynamics to many generations of engineers' His en-
thalpy-entrópy diagram for steam was first published in 1904,
Mollier diagrams are routinely used in the design work associated with
power plarits (fossil or nuclear)/ compressors, steam turbines, refrigeration
systems, air conditioning equipment to visualize the working cycles of
thermodyna mic systems.
At the 1923 Thermodynamics Conference held in Los Angles, Professor Mol-
lier was bestowed with the great honor of naming all thermodynamic dia-
é.u*t having enthalpy as one of its coordinates as a "Mollier Diagram"'
 I

r
I LATENT HEAT AND STEAM QUALITY
q
l- LATENT HEAT : Heat to provide (or to extract) to completely vaporize (or condense) lkg_of liquid
I (""porl. ftr units are (kJ/kg). It is called latent (from latin "hiclden") because only a sort of "hidden
heat', could .uur. *ruporizaiion or condcngstion of the fluid mass, since no temperature variation
f
- occurs during such processes. What happens is just a phase change.
I

I h
p
p

With reference to the figure

t by side, the latent heat can be
T'

I
calculated as

,:l1g-ha
#49;cÀ
Y
Latent heat dePends on x
pressure; namely it decreases
with pressure.
A
I j-ntqr"t t r"rruorl' Calore latente : r = hs' hì,

\lT'*P' r'or .^,t.d"

I

t i,U Ttc l rlr,-

1l::^f:-)4.'.J" 1,^ i tur-Lt*^^*Î' Fp:*tnriÈ

trÈ

VAPOR QUALITY
t

In the two phase region, liquid and vapor phase coexist. So let mt be the tiquid mass.and mn the vapor
t
mass, then the total mass of the mixing is:

m=mv+Ínt
t 1il"r, "Lvre&^
Thevapor quality is defined as follows:: --wm
--
ffi' O-^
1i^5
A

Àtìll.Ìal
In A and B ( see Fig.) the vapor quality assumes the values : xA: 0 ; xe : 1.

"h* ;t
t" From the definition we havel
ffit=ffi(l-r) - Ìtì
ffiu=lflt \
L p and quality x can be stated as
The enthalpy of any Y state, owing to the two phase region, of pressure
follows
Y
t H =mnhu+muhu
= m(l-x)ho+mxhu
[-t j = ^n*n
J
= m{h,c+x(ltu -h)\
":tf &v\'f :
qa^toi " X
I
=m{he+x r\
I
Thus
a n=4-hn+xr
m

l_

À-
f--
I

4&{0,îdb".ao 8

I
Case 2: Real expansion

pt
h
1
Tr
p2

Let us assume: tr)

2
r'
I (T,,)r=î=ffi=o.r

t- Then for the enthalpy at the turbine outlet: 'q

h' = h - (ry)r(A - hr) =715 * 0'8 (7 15 -460)'kg

= 51| ry
The entropy and the vapor qualrty of point 2' canbe read as well from the Mollier
diagram at
the intersection of the isoenthalpicline h'z with the isobaric line pz;

sz'= !.72 kcal/(kg K) xz' : 0'83

And finally:

p = rit(k - k'?l kW
Irr,) = 204 = 854
s
? aQ' ry
o =rit(sz, -sr)- ,.
J -f =ù(s^,-s,)= 0.67
K
I

t This example shows clearly the usefulness of thermodynamic diagrams'

t-

L
 --s
., ''. 1,'.orlh-..' r .t: ,
l,tf .fJ :
:1..
,,,'
.a
t'"ù"t î
r-r,*.j,f,..
iil 4,.4
1l

nL,'i q'tw;i
v
t- '-..: \, i ! ''.Ì;rri
'&r-^i qr * r';Vt i . \
.
"l r i'"ir' -..9 tJ
s

,$úf fL€ t$tiJr'F ]f,t f"flr{li I l : r.,l{{:x t{l L'-(tr{.}l , ' .) *5ÚL',f'. *"r90ri 66'tL{
rlJ.I úil,}8'P {}i t t'F f "FIf'r l"l fi& I r'{tti'r !"r,Plll f $lrf tlll'{] 7.1-t7'x 8 ffi]lI lr!-L

6'l r)"1 s"t tt $"( 5fZ 7-"€)ÍÌ-l 0Ul{)f}{l'fl fl({:rfi"I fl'rJr)?'ì I {}0t
09f tfSt)"! str Ì i:FZ I
rtúf
ilql t'l !r's ,q8/t'f ú"t9!,i r'1t91 f'frrri 1'"I?rJ t $llll11il0'ir l{iì'L't {'lre.591

{if F. 5lEft"! tfls9'{ {[trtx. v"t'é51 f"flltl /'r!lct fiì#)l{l'{} it{i}"t t {}ilt}f I
l, í.íFF'l' U'$$$i x 5t.! t ,
t'f{l! I 1'f{($11,
r1? (
' €'FÈ'il |
TLtt'ú I FFI q"ft[]t'[ I}:YVFI 5t?L. ,
l a
,.llEf.,
#îq's *'LiLî. úiftil t,tfÈI. l:t *ft '
_{"s3lz. ti'ft'f I .)-t$[z ,, , L"'V.{t Í' ,66fllr0 il rlrlf
r]$$t'l g' IP$'t
{}úr vtxL'g lrùv l'f f.'qLlLt. fi"út{E I ! 9t!i: L'si[ r F$S!Ztt'tt
q;t{'l
$&'[
{ t'E-Lv.l t! l0ffl'{l !?'tli*'t rltiz
ftltl ét5tì's i fisrj &'(tLLc 1""_q{i r F"?fl$?.
ilLl S{}iú'.c; rptó'r. !.'&qLr r'581 ! t'ffil'i t)'xLl I ti$sÍil u Sztlt'l l3 i*9{ tltI
L X {ri}'9 l.i*lì'l -q"Vfrtl 11"Èf I tr rgú$t f?'l{ii t sil lP{l {,1 é_(i_t'1 f'ff9f.' t]92
{: ii}r,r ,fil,l{}Hl, .{'sliùl ,, :['$lt* t 5fl{y-l${):{ . "-$: {Z l rlgl
:{ tfri r ,ttrtt.t!&T, E'ii{]t. 'î'u!t)7. ,,F:fflll tf.ìtú5{r { r{}ZT i t)'Lftf
6:rfiHX 9l tlh6 sr'?1lE lfi'fl- 6*ilrl I ',8:L{1!,1.
*L'M$ r3'6rtí,'
r l$F{[:ll {r"! ú$u _e9lt'F* I
{}rl s$s{'1}
:

bf[?'i t'LtiLT. I iútl

tl t'1túsl 8f'sea $uF{.l["(] írt l'l l ÉlKrl $il
[i.r '{i *'tÈ5
t''{)L r{ltF'9 gtltt r ttr ihLZ ,{jrigs x"Fú$u $f''i)gtl t t $1,5 I',r ! ft02

ús{}$'t $f{r'l {':{HlI f f'L{11{ #"*Fl$I #tJ !;rJ'È, $tù;E t"0 t!i'l'i r'-rEr t
f 'rffilt
Rfi I
$Hl t*E'v í,(ttl'Z z"L.LLT, gfÌ'È{ir t"r,iEu -ili'tsl. ttf[sl'il vLTt'l
. ,gtI {'1 I:f&l
rtf*'i .,*,tr!)lE. :ll{}'slÀ L
'L)L
(}i'll tú ' {J$ftl-{}, , , .g

'tróttil; tlibú:\ .S: LELT. Lf'EJ.q

. i"LryIV. i;.,{}r'tls, rll0l'l fv:l;trf
g5'i f(t :&?ltlt:t , .,sffó[i'J sr'*rF
' rlst ,: ,:.1È{fi:l} Itfi'1, ú,'-efLl 'f l"Zf$ ,

, f$,91t
,

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25
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Pregstire Tenp- Specifig vúlÌllne Specific ilttetrial Specific Specific efltr'opy

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 Sl t6
EXERCISE
à
building'
A mass flow rate of 4000 kg/h of air is required for the winter heating of an industrial
can be condensed
To heat up the air 100 kg/h of water vapor is available at2 bar and x:0.8.
The steam
from its mantle is qF s r.w.
by mcans of a heat exchanger down to liquefaction, whereas the heat'iGs
air flow
By taking outdoor air at To =0oC e po:l .013 bar and under the hypothesis that the
crosses the heat exchanger and piping at constant pressure and velocity w:5 m/s, calculate the air tem-
perature delivered to the tooms, as well as the inlet and outlet diameters of the ducts.

I + Air

t"
Steam

The first law for the heat exchanger reads:

A\\ = cS AS
\S* .'&Jd

g- P =L tr(h^u-hu)o{... = ,h"(lr^u-h,,)u+rito(h"* -h,,)o (1.1)

k

f
I The kinetic and gravimetric terms are considered negligibie. The teryr Lis
the heat loss over the heat
t ;;l*";;;;ody,"then e - ea. : pi*ner, no work is observed over the c.v. (P:0) and the air can be
treated as an ideal gas, then:
*f ttk Aqr*
ù,(h0,,,-h,n)n + (1.2)
@-Ò7. ;,r
T,n)o

As a result :

t ìt,(h,o-h,,)"-Qo (1,3)
Too, =T,n +
mnCpo

From the steam tables we get :

ho,r, = hy(P=2bar) =251.42 kJ --v

L h,, = hou, + bar)=ho,,,+x(hr-hy)
=251 .42+0.8 (2608 .9 -251.42) =2137.4 kJ/kg
L And thus:

-h,,)'-Qn
Tout =Tin*
ftlr(ho,,

moCpa
d" Yl.^
I r Crar

_/r'1, kJ
loof ew.4-2sr.42) keh
-s kw36oo!
L =ÙoC + = 42.65 "C
kg KJ
4000 1
h kg oc
L

L
 t-
I

18

i-
MATHCAD WORKSHEET
Definitions kJ := t03J

Data for Steam (v) and air (a):

ke
Steam rnu := I 00-: x:= 0.8
hr
m
Air: rq := 4000
kg
T1:= 273.15K p1 := 1.0l3bar w:= 5'-
[-
I
hr
s

Other data:
r e6:= 5.kW R. :=
" 287'
J

kg'K
cpa:= ,
KJ

un*

Data from the steam tables

KJ
Saturated liquid: hf i= 251.42-
Kg

KJ
Saturated vapor: hn := 2608.9-
"Kg
KJ
Latent heat r := hs - hr = 2,357x 103
kg

Problem data:
Vapor enthalpy at outlet houl := h1

Vapor enthalpy at inlet hln := hs + r'x = 2'137x tO' Y

kg

Heat released bY the steam qu := mu'(h6 - hou) Qv = 52'388kw

t. Trialvalues T2 := 300I( Vr := l'-

m
o, ,= r.t e.s:= t'r* d2 := l'm
hr
m

Given

energy balance for the heat exchanger (HX)

Qu -Qo= rq'Cpu'(r2 -11)
t_ pr
O.= air densitY at the HX outlet
IL'Tz
-
ma
Y2
volumetric air flow rate at the HX oullet
Pz

t- Y2
outlet cross section of the air duct
A2
w
I
L- f4a. outlet diameter of the air duct
dr=
".Jlj n

t
I
I
I
1
I

I
I
:1

:ì

.l

J
'l
'--l

'l
I

I
I

'ì
I

I
I
1

:t

J
I

"J

_l
 2
PARTIAL PRESSURE,S AND DALTON LAW

If a number of n ideal gases are mixed together in a volume V, at pressurep and temperature I, (see
Fig.), on the basis of the gas law, we can write:
f-"
I
I
pV =(rh+nz+,*n)ET (1.1)

We can expressp as follows:

t-
t
I
It Er RT nr
P=flr V *nrT*'..n,7
r- (r.2)
I = Pt I Pzt ...Pn
t
_s
/-r
n

P*
k=r

So, the quantity:

nr (1.3)
P*=nt-n

is the pressure that would exist in the tank if the ft-th gas were the only one gas contained in the vol-
ume V. Such a pressure is referred to as partial pressure.
Eq. (1.2) is known as the Dalton Law which can be stated as follows: the pressure of an ideal gaseous
mixture is given by the sum of the partial pressure of all the constituents.

Again from eq. (1.1) we can also have:

y =U7nr+nr+...n,,)
p
RT
p In

k=l
nk

which combined with eq. (1.3) results in:

t nk
Pt= fltot p
[_
lh, llz .../In
By definition, the molar fraction is v
nk
I !t= fl,o,

t" Therefore, from the previous equations we geti

v,,
nk Pr
= >=-
fl,o, P

t,

,l
 4

r STANDARD AIR COMPOSITION

trr
For calculations related to combustion processes the standard air (i.e. atmospheric air in
t
i
a clear day at
given in the fol-
the sea level and in a clean environment) has the conventional chemical composition
t

f- lowing table:
I

I
by Volume by Mass
îI Oz 2t% 23%
I Nz 79% 77%
I
100 % r00 %
r- r"lrìt,
of Nz is 78%.The remaining
I

Such a composition ir indé.b simplified. In reality the volumetric fraction

i
t

lYo of gaseous substances consists of:

Ar 0.9% in Vol.

COz 0.035 % in Vol.

Ne, Kr, NO, Xe, He, CH+ 0.065% in Vol'

However such rare gases are accounted as Nz because in stoichiometric combustion reactions
they behave like nitrogen, i.e. they do not undergo oxidization.

STANDARD AIR DATA

t
Molar mass:
kg
M"=Z Mr,lt =29
lcrnole
k

t Gas constant:

P = À -8314 =287
J
t.
'-a M" 29 kg K

I Density
t_
Mo. kg.
n=- -'-' Nm3
=r.zg
L
'" 22.4

i
I
I
ll
L/

I
 6
r I
I
EXAMPLES OF C}IEMICAL REACTION BALANCE

r
I
I

PROPANE CrUr+îO, -+ trro,*ía,o

t
To assess the number of moles denoted by " ? ", let us write :

(
I
I
aCrHr+bOt -+ c COr+d HrO

i the following condi-

{ By applying the mass conservation principle to the mass of each atomic species,
tions must hold:
r'
I 3a=c _> c =3a
Carbon:
Hydrogen : 8a =2d + d=4a
Oxygen: 2b=2c+d -) b=c+d l2=3a+4a12=5a

By assumin g a:I, the other coefficients will be : b=5 ; c:3 ; d=4' Therefore:

CrHr+SO, -> 3 COz+4HrO

In case of combustion with air :

csTs+5(or+3,761rr) -+ 3 COz+4H2O+5'3'76N2
['

t tnc4Hn i',1o, -*' bco, |à u,o

t BUTANE

I
In this case :
[:
Carbon: 4a=c -+ c=4a
t" Hydrogen 10a =2d -+ d=5a
Oxygen: 2b=2c+d -+ b=c * d I 2 -- 4o + 5a I 2 =13 aI2
I
i Let a:1, we have:
2C4Hn+13O, -+ I CO2+1'0HrO
L
In case of combustion with air

t Nr) _> 8 CO2+70HrO+13'3.76N2

2C4Hrc +13(O, +3.76

t.

t,
I
i

\ir
\r
 r' AIR TO FUEL RATIO
ffi
{

on a mass basis
r-
When dealing with combustion processes, special mention deserves the Air tq Fryl ratio-(A/F)
i
ì
(a) refers to the air,
in stoichiometric conditions. As to the nomenclature, since now on the subscript
ratio in stoichiometric conditions
tUito ti"fuel and (s) to stoichiometric conditions. So the air to fuel
on mass b-asis is defrned as:
ds =ffio,
! mh
ì

t
Hence:

l- ! ffio, ffio, kg"

i a =*o, =*o, =4.3
.î
mb ffio, mb mb kgn

I EXAMPLES

1) +
I CH, 2CH.+3O, 2CO2+2HrOl

ffio,
=r4.7 ( g-\
d, = 4'3 = 4.33'32
thus
ffiro,
"" 2.t4 lks,,, )

2) CH.+2O, -+ COr+2HrO

thus d, = 4'3
ffio,
:4.32'32 =17.2 ( kg"
:
ffi"oo 1.16 t kgrrn

3) GPL : 7\Veq Hr+30oACuHto

f PROPANE BUTANE

Combustion reactions for each constituent :

L
CrHr+5Or.*) 3COr+4HzO

(-
f 2C4Hn+13O, -> SCO,+IO HrO
hence
l7loz mo,
as 4.3 x1ooÀ+ "x3oo/o
t_ ffic.r* fficrr*

\
(
I s.zz xo.7o
r3.?? xo.3o
*2(r2'4+ro) = 15.6
kgn
= 4.3
I
It1tz.:+s1 kgor,.

{
I
U r CH2 is a simplified formula for oil and any derived fuel (gasoline, cherosene, crude oil,
jet fueL etc.), considered fhat all
these fuels preient a carbon/hydrogen atomic weight ratio approximately equal2,
f
i-,
 t-
I

10

I
i

AIR TO FUEL RATIO

f- on a volumetric basis

i
basis:
i The air to fuel ratio on a volumetric basis is defined in a way similar to that on a mass

f
ygn=4.76no, ( tt*)
(o*\, *yu=v^
Ì
N

I
vb vo, vb nb I.M;
['
{

t,
1) Hri Hr+lor+ HrO ( a*), = u 6!9r- = 4.7 6+ = 2.38 (#,)
I
ng, .N*1^
t 2) CHn: CHo+ZOr-+COr+2HrO (orr),=4.76 flcrn- 4.7621 =9,52 Nmlcpr

t
flo,
3) CO: CO+|O.è CO, (onn), = 4.76
frco
=4.76+=2.3t(#,)
I

f
t_
4) crH,: c-u,+(x.I)or-+ x co,*ln,o
Nwl
**L4 Nmlr,a,,

t,
5) SYNGAS madeofspeciesofknownvolumetricrate; lco i !n,; lc,a, ) &

t"
(orr) r =Z (orr),.n yo - 4.76 yo, =
k
ft(
.l N*t,
= 2 ss *, *) + e .52 y n
+ +.t e(x *
I) r, o, - 4.7 6 v o,
N*î,
F;,n "o
I
I
(.

I
I
(

(
I
t

I
t-

I
I
 I2

HEATING VALUE OF FUELS

'f.(i".,.!+4::
Is the heat cietvéred by the combustion of a unit mass of fuel. It is measured in MJ/kg.
In princÌple, it is obtained by cooling the reaction products (fumes) down to ym3jeml"igghtos{jq"
reactants before combustion (conventionally the ambient temperature at 25"C). What is lhfvèStéd
ts
the so called Higher Heating Value (HHV), here symbolized with H". By subtracting to I/s the latent
heat of water vapor, one obiains the Lower Heating Value (LHV), henceforth denoted here with
the
symbol fÍ. Therefore:
H,=H,+rm

being r the latent heat of water assessed at the partial pressure of the water vapor in the flue gas;
isthe total content of
vr HzO in Lrrv reaction
LLL the products, per unit fuel mass' Obviouslyt nziHzu includes
dlu ^
*1". llwllL trlv rvevurvr
^
both the water rising from the oxidation of hydrogen and that, if any, contained in the fuel itself
(mo,o)u. In formula:
t (m"o)u
=m"'o
ffi*'^o
'mb
--\
For liquid and solid fuels, the discrepancy between Hoand fl, is in general lower tha(,|Oolo,/un-
less for CHa CtHr , CaHro ... because of the relatively high hydrogen content'
The heating value of fuels can be determined by either direct measut'ement in experimental ap-
paratuses such as ihe bomb calorimeter, or by the theoretical methods taught in Chemical Thermody'
namics.
In the following example, instead, a more typical engineering approach will be used,; that will
help clarify the exact meaning of the LHV and HHV.
Now, let us consider the following table.

Fuel Ht ds H,l a,
(MJlkgr) (kg./kgu) (MJ/keu )
Hydrogen t20 34,2 3.5
Cherosene 43,5 14.6 3.0
Gasoline 46 14.8 3.0
Carbon coke 30 10.1 3,0
Crude Oil 42 14.5 2,9
Diesel oil 46 t4.3 2.9
Methane 50 t7.2 2.9
Propane 46.3 15.5 2.9
Wood 13 4.6 2.8

As one can see, for most fuels the Hi l0", ratio is almost constant:

!!, =3MJ =3ooo kI-

d,. kg. kg,

Many other useful datafor the most used fuels are reported in the Tables at the end of this Chapter
 I 1A

triv n1g36-h{62g
,f' therefore
rnb
-= ng.g&"l*{gg4

r I
r't d$' i fit ltrr,
Dry'fi"lnres te fuel tatio: -:l!f '{ry - E---:É {t+l**r}-2-x.a
-:=-
ltlb lltb "r'} ùrb ulb

f-
\

calculation of the latent heat and saturation ternp. at the water vaPpr partial pressurs

l'ì
;
F6 = latun

nrfro s
s"ls = :- ÍHlú"Po = l'926x lS"Pa F.,,
: 0.19!'bar
vtrao:= Pr"
nH2;;#,iNz
i-
Frnm the steam tahles :

I TsaÈF{i9+?75.15}'K
Saturation {dew point} temperature at pu

I
(
at r = 23S0--
hJ
Latent heat ofwaier Pu
kg

Ll{V and l-{l'lV for Methang

f r.;=fir+h"rxri-:-a:],fe-r-snvirs-so]*2.?5"[cp-v'{rr-rr#+c,r-uv'{r*t-îo}]=is'l3e'H
't'
(
I
Hu :: 4 + 2.25'r = 5-5.469. *t.tJ
f: kg
t- l',\
thÀ!
\^bl
I
% cúntilbutiún of the dry fumes [r * r.*J - z.x].co_r_ar, {rr - rJ = 74.ys
to the HHV t:Ì

{-r
i 'os

% contribution ofthe water uaPor *

ta the HHV
:.1.5.[np , ir, * ?u# * cp_r'-{Tr.ut ro} * r] = l&"Ya
i trg
S

I
l.!5'r
t" % contribution ofthe latent heat af
EìT
= 9.ó-u/È
watef r,'apor tu the HHV É
-

t"

l
ti-

I
t:
 t6
HEATING VALIIE OF A FUEL OF KNOWN COMPOSITION BY VOLUME
(SYNGAS)

If a gaseous fuel (syngas) is uale of a 1d,2,,..n species of other fuel gases, each one having thc
lar$action yt,andmolar mass rk, as well as the heating values, by mass and volume:

MJ MJ
(H,)t, and (H *,)o _.---;-
kg Nm' Ys

Ju"" J
we can calculate the LHV and HHV of the fuel gas mixture, as follows: ---1
lt't '

Lower Heatinq Value

(t-l ut\
(H,*)u =l {H,*)u lo
\w*')
k^
MJ
(H,)t =Zuo{H,)0.*o=1 (H,)o'#h kg

Higher Heating Value

(H,), = (H,)o ++ -ry=(H,)t *1 nw;= (H,)u *1 (mr^o)o

rk-------
3
xk (#)
I
.rrff) (ut\
(H"*), = pu} xk
Ir r vx{ lN*')
[,ar-
t
-K
;i'H5
Here the syngas density pr is given by pu =\ lo Po with = Mu 122.4 (kg I N*t), while the
I klr-
Pr,

(ry4ù''
,"r^ should be obtained from the combustion reaction of the syngas ft-th component.
mk

CLASSV/ORK

I
Calculate the heating values of a GPL having the following analysis by volume:
I
L 650/o CtHt + 35oA C+Hro

I given the lower heating values:

t-
(H,)r,ro, = 46,35 (MJ tkg)
I (MJ tkg)
t (H,)rno,o = 45.12

l._

I
 I
l8
n OUTFLOW CROSS SECTION
I
I
for Methane and LPG
I
f S

; a
I
t

["
l

r *
Let a gaseous fuel of volumetric lower heating value lú (kJA{m3) be travelling along a duct of cross
I section area,S with velocity w. Atthe outlet, it is able to produce by combustion a thermal powet Q,
given by:

I Q=V H,* =wS Hi*

To provide the same e,withtwo different fuels travelling with same velocily w, we must state the fol'
lowing condition:
i. Q = w St(HÍ), = w Sz(H,*)z

f^ If the two fuels are, for example, CH+ and LPG, then:
("

Scro (H,*)oo,
=
t Srno (H,*)"on

Should the LPG have the following composition on a volume basis:

t
GPL : 70o/o Propane + 30 % Butane
f'
and with the following data:
{,
(H,*)cr,45
l ##
(H,*)r,o, =90.84
# (11,*).0r," =fi5.4#
we obtain:

L (H,*) oo, =l 0 H,*) * = a.7 . ga.84

#+ 0.3' 1 rs.4
# = 99.11
#
In conclusion:
l_
tu -(H,*),.ro-
So",Hi *)",
(
99.11
=-ÈJ
35

That means that, when shifting from LPG to Methane, to guarantee the same heating power Qby the
boiler or kitchen burners, it is necessary to adopt nozzles having cross section area 3 times larger.

I
I
'l*! -, : e.,, ,3
L; 9c p.

f'

/
 20

l''
í'. Testing of an industrial Boiler
I by a Mathcad worksheet
Ì

f-
t
During the test of a gas fired (methane) industrial boiler, the following data are recorded:

Air : Volumetric flow rute Va=435 m3/h ; Temp. at the burner inlet To:SoC; pressule p n:1025 mbat
t"
Fuel : Volumetric flow rate Vo:40 m3/h ; Temp, at the bumer inlet To=SoC ; pressure p o:1025 mbar
r F unres : Outlet temperatur e : T7: 1 80"C ; specific hear. Cp7l .3 kJ/(kg K)
Outdoor air : Temperature : To:5"C
I

Assuming a heat loss through the boiler mantel as high as 3o/a of the combustion heat, calculate:

t
1. The boiler thermal power (in kW)
2. The air to fuel ratio in the actual conditions
3. The excess air index l'.
I
Definitions: 10 "bar
tì Data
MJ := 106'J

m
3
kJ := 103.J

m
J
kmol:= 103.mol

MJ
mbar :=

v" := 435'- V6 := 40'- Hi := SO.- p := l025mbat

nr hr l(g
t Tu := To Ti := To
To := (5 + 273.15'l( T6 := To

I- C-r
PL:=
KJ
1.3'- tu ;= l$f'-
J
Tg := (180 + 273.lr'K
ke'K " kg'K

I Calculations

p._ kg
Air density at working conditions YA' Pa = l'284
I &.ru

ks
Molecular weight of CH4 M6:= I 6.-
I kmol

8314 ,J
kmol,K J
[, Gas constant for CH4 &:= trg.625-
M6 kg'K

t ks
Pb=o 709 '
p
Density of CH4 at working conditions Pb ;.=
Ro'Tu J
m
I
{,
kg
Air mass flow rate ma := Va'Pa nh = 0'155
s
l-
mu = 7'8& 10*
:kg
Fuel mass flow rate m6 := V6'Pg
f'
t-
kg
I Fumes mass flow rate tlì6 l= tlla * 1116 mr = 0.163
s
l

l
 r I

VENTILATION APERTURES
#
I

t-
I

{'
j
!

(-
I
I
s
a
t\ ryc
vo
I

I
To allow the combustion air en(er the room hosting the boiler, it is necessary to make an opening of
suitable size (ventilation aperture) on some extemal wall of the room itself.
t To determine the size of the ventilation aperture we can proceed as follows.
If g GW) is the heating power of the boiler and r7c its efficiency, tbe fuel consumption is:
I ,t.= Q
" H,Tc
a-gut fi :^r^"11
kt
The volumetric flow rate of combustion air is:
I
'av-=ùo -'
W,Y,=J*
pn p,\(;
'' po"--' io, tixu=L
o pn J
to,'H,Tc
I
But the continuity equation reads:
S Elvett" ^^* $' t'
t Vo =W

By combining the previous equations we obtain:

tl
s1
a H,
L PnQc:w
-as

With the following typical values:

t
î. = 1. I (for liquids and gas); w :0 .5 (mis); p o=l .29 (kgÀ{m3 ); r7c:0,9; H; /u,:3 000 kJ/kg
I

{_
we get:
1'1 4 :6" t*t
- v'r v kw
--6'104
,S
L T =
a 1i9 .0.9 .oJ .3ooo kw

I which is the value to adopt to dimension the ventilation aperture, as prescribed by the italian technical
t
Norms.

'\
)
 24
EXERCISE No. 1

Determine the volumetric flow rate of flue gases from a fuel oil combustion:
rì I

Combustion reaction with air

-^*-*-{
îJ 5
CHt +- ).(Or+3.76Nr) *> CO, + HrO +- Q,-t)o, +-2 ).3.76 N,
2 2

+-J u"-l).32 +-) )".3.7 6. 28 = 14 + 1' 205.92

i

coilt
I
btrsliotl
n,M,=l 44 + 1.18
2 2
ptoducls

I
I a
3
=l+l +-2 (À.-t) +-) ), '3 .7 6 = 0.5 + )"7 .14
J
n,o,

I
Finally, on the basis of eq. @):

n, t* n..=22.4 (0.5+l*lo'
=rr.o
mb ^o, Iot 14+ 1205.92
17.14\
I
I
cohtbuslion
n,M,
I producls

For a stoichiometric combustion (A=I) of the CHz (4,

: 14.7)' we get:

f
(
;
Ll
mul^=,
=t2.2
Nm
kg
E

f F r

{ Whereas for combustion with excess air, the volumetric fumes to fuel ratio, as a function of 1", is
shown in the following plot:
{

i
Flués gas volume to fu€l ratlo for CH2

I
(

'uri
/\Ì J
E
cj:1('.)
f z
l

'.0/t
I
I
,.
t.2 1.4 t.6 1.8
 26

FLUE GAS CALCULATIONS

r by a Mathcad worksheet
Definition of functíons Mgg2:= 44 Mg2:=32 Mg29:= 18

(IX
Fumes(x,y,î.) := x.Mgg2 * o+ [tl - l)'Moz + I'3.76Mp2] +
I'*n \ 4

n,o1(x,y,I) := x+ I + [(I * 1) + À'3.7q'(l<-

I
i)
I a* := 17,i Mgg4:=
I
Methane x:= y := 4 1é

\ I+ l..o,o
Methane (L)'= #:' M6.g4n1o1(x, Y, I)
Fumes(x,y,1') "^^ ' ''"
t"
Propane x:= 3 y:=8 ct, := 15.6r Mg3gg:= 44

f-
I I + L.a,
Propane(1") := .MC3Hgntot(x,y, X)
Fumes(x,y,1,)

t Butane: x:= 4 y:=lC cl, := 15.41 M64g16:= 58

I + 1..a,
t Butane(l") := .Mc+ttl0oto1(x,Y,f)
Fumes(x,y,L)

t LPG (70% Propane + 30% Butane): by volume LPq?,,) := 0.7.Propane(}.) + 0.3'Butane(l)

Counter l. := l, 1.1.. 1.5

Flue gas production (Nm3A{m3 of fuel)

L 5
Remarks:

LPG produces much more flue gas than

the other fuels considered here.
L Butane
? As a result, LPG boilers compared to Me-
LPG thane boilers, require larger size of the'ol-
lowing thermo-mechanical components:
1.flue gas to water heat exchanger
Propane
2 cross section of the stack

L Therefore, as far as the stack is con-

cerned, the shift from LPG to CH4 is al-
lowed, but not the viceversa.
I Methane
L
Ll 1,2 1.3 t.4 1.5

1..

L
{
 28

PROPERTIES CIF GASEOUS FUELS

Molec Densi- Content of Exhaust gas COz

Fuel Formula Higer and Lower heaing value Stoichiom. air HzO
Mass ty % (stoichiom.) max

C H H' Hi H, Hi
Kel % % Nm3 Nm3 / Nm3 Nm3/ oAYol o/rVol
kg/^3 kJlkg kJ/kg kJA{m3 kJ/1.trm3 Nm3
kmole peso peso ,&g Nm3 lke

Azethylen CtH: 26,04 l, l7 92,5 7,5 49910 43220 58 470 56490 Lg,2 t 1,9 10,6 12,4 17,5 8rl
Benzol CuHu 78,1 3,73 o?? 7,9 42270 40580 $79T4 151 650 10,2 35,7 10,6 3'l,z 17,5 8r1
Butan (n) CoH,o 5g,l 2,71 83 17 49500 45? l5 134060 123 I l0 I 1,4 30,9 12,4 33,4 l4l 15,0
Buthylen CrHe 56,1 2"60 85 l5 48430 45294 t25 860 t 17710 I I_6 28,9 12,4 30,9 14,9 12,9
Ethan CrHe 30,1 1,35 80 20 51 880 47 490 70290 64345 12,3 16,7 13,4 l8,l 13,2 16,5

Ethylalkohol CTHsOH 46,1 I 2,!9 52 t3 30 570 277rc 67070 60790 7,0 14,3 8,0 16,4 15,0 18,4
Ethylen CrHr 28,05 1,26 85,7 14,3 50280 47 150 63 410 59460 11,3 14,3 L2,1 15,3 l5,l 13,1
Kohlenoxid CO 28,0' t?{ 42,9 0 10 100 l0 r00 12630 12630 I,9I 2,38 2,30 2,88 34"7 0
-15
Methan CHt 16,04 0,'12 25 s5 500 50010 39 820 35 880 13,3 9,52 L4,6 10,5 11,? 19,0
Methanol CH,OH 32,04 t,52 37,5 12,s 23840 2taga 36200 32030 5,0 7,15 ó,0 8,6 15,I 23

Propan CrHr M.O9 2,01 81,8 18,2 50340 46350 I0t 240 93210 I 1,8 23,8 12,8 25,8 l3,g 15,5
Propylen CrHe 42,08 l,9l 85,? 14,3 48920 45 ?80 93 580 87 57s 11,2 ?t,4 11,9 2:'9 15,1 13,1
Toluol C'Il, 92,11 4,87 91,2 8,9 42850 40940 208890 199 574 10,4 42,8 10,9 44,8 17,l 8,9
lùfasserstoff H2 2,016 0,090 0 100 14t 800 119970 12745 10780 26,4 2,38 37,0 2,88 0 34,7

Brenn- und Heiz;werre bezogen auf 25"C und 1,013 bar, die Volumen bezogen auf 0"C und 1,013 bar (DIN 51850)

Lower and Higher heating values ref.: 25oC and 1.013 bar ; Volume ref. : OoC and 1.013 bar (l'lorms DIN 51850)
 30

PROPERTIES OF SOLID FUELS

Lower Heat. Stoi- Wet COz

Analysis by weight % flue gas max
Value chiom.Air
Fuel Hi
C H o N S A w
o/o
kJlkg N /ke lke
Steinkohle
?3...83 3,4...5,3 1,8...6,5 tr,1 0,9 4. ..7 3. 5 30140...330?0 7,7.."8,3 9,2...8,6 18,3. ^- 18,9
Ruhr u. Aachen
4,7..-5,2 5,4..-12,5 1,2 0,6 3. -.8 3. 5 28050...31400 7,9 8,3 18,7
Saar ?0...78
4..-5 9,5...12,0 0,8 5.. .7,5 4. 5 28460..-30560 715 7,9 18,9
Oberschlesien 72...78
Rohbraunkohle
j 9...r2 0,3 0,2 3 50...60 7 530...10460 2,4. 3,0 2,4...3,8 19,8
Rheinland 25...32
tol 9,2 0,3 lr0 5,7 {? 10460 2,9 3,85 18,8
Sachsen/Thúringen 2,5
12,4 0,2 3 55 9630 2,6 3,5 19,5
Lausitz 26,6 2,4
1,5?...20,9 Y 1,O 5...7 25...44 14230...2512 3,9, -6,5 4,6.-.7,0 17,8..-18,7
Bóhnnen 12.-.7'l 5,7...6,2
Braunkohlenbriketts
15,9 0,6 2,1 8,9 15 20930 5,4 6,0 13,6
Mitteldeutschland 52,9 4,5
2A,l 0,8 0,4 5 l5 20090 5,3 5,9 19,5
Rheinland 54,5 4,2
o,7 0,35 6 t4 20090 5,2 5,7 19,7
Ostelbien 54,0 4,0 2r,a
1,5 29 300 '1,7 7,7 2t),7
Koks (Gaskoks) 86 0,3 1,5 0,7 12
25 2 lr0 7 20 15490 4rl 5,0 18"9
Torf (lufnrocken) 40 5
35 0,5 0 0,5 l5 15490 4rl 4,8 Zrj,2
Holz (lufttrocken) 44 5

lleizwerte von Holz s. auch Bild l:6-3-

C: Carbon; H: Hydrogen; O: Oxygen; N: Nitrogen; S:Sulfur; A: Dust; W: Water

Steinkohle : Fossil Coal

Rohbrau:nkotrle : Raw Coal
Braunkotrlenbricketts :
Koks : Carbon coke
Torf : Torb
Holz Wood
I

I
I
I
I
I

I
:l

.l

,J
 2

I STEAM GENERATOR
r-

r
i

f'
I

f-
I

I
t

I
t

t
(

t
I
(

i
I
(

I
)'
 c
I STEAM GENERATOR FUNCTIONAL SCHEMES
r
G*i-- J^
I LIJ-r^s
( $uperheated
I
$team steam Heheated {
Drum
stÈEm
**,i5$.*l,ii
o ""[-a
t- fgr.r
I
( Reheater

(î
High pressure
turbine exhaust
&-r'TsJ
r' c
I
[4
ú
É
T:
Economizer
steam
(1

d
I
.L- vór*
Blowdown Eeaerated
-É r].l
_J l! beiler feedwater
f' q
l
E;
Fci {u
t hE f Flue gas
{h
5E*"+
Tl-

4
I /
En-rl
,4ir Fan
Coal-air Hot air preheat*r
Ambíent
+\mix lnlet rir
Fuluerizer header

lnlet
header
f Ash
Hot Eir
lrug"s* *-î
y^*;-^ ,l W* vlFÀ-
J rt
À'}|r'*t' \*t tnfiq.;* r-

I \
Í*. f,-\r.l.c tGlu* \a :-=3i56*(fi.'
\ Snperheatecl
steam Reheated $t€arrl
$team drum
I

Reheater

u
Slowdcwn è
tconomiser

Boiler Seaerated boiler

Coal
flue 5
l-air m
4-r
Arnhient air
'Pulve Hot alr
nzer r
pre
Ash
n
l"lot air

STEAM GENERATOR
 t-
&
STEAM GENERATOR
6

t
d

I
f

' lì{:

{
I

t
(

Combustion
i" chamber
of a large
steam
L generator

l
t"

{*

I
 8

STEAM GENERATOR
TECHNICAL DRAWINGS

Aria

Prèriscaldatore
dell'aria
Bruciatori

atorè
o a serpentina d vapo re

Al camino +

combusti

premente

aspirante

255
 10

r- BOILERS
*t,i'." * &"' o! î
r
I
*.'5 n'If
t I orl

n-Lr

To Tr
( +-t
*R&
l. Q, -s'*'c9*^' #e, Q,
-_\.
ffio . .. ,lTLa

rnh
*fflt
ù
rnb

cs^to
Qu Qn
Qo Qo

Fig. 1 Fig. 2

Ordinary Boiler Condensing Boiler

The thermal balance ovef the Control Volume (dotted line) in Fig, 1, yields:

Òu-Qo-Q,,= Hou,-H,n (i.1)

_
= ùr C (\
-7,) -ltituc ,t(Tu -7,)
or
+ tit"c po(To -ry )
.ta{'ns-+tlb
Considered that Qu = ùt H, , arrd, mrs= mu(l+ ),a,) andunder the hypothesis Ta:Tt :To , we ge't:

Qu=ùr,H,-Qu-rh.rQprTl -7") (l'2)

Thus:
Q,, =ù,, H, - Q,, -ùoQ + )"a")C ,,"(\ -7,) (1'3)
L
The boiler efficiency is defined as:

L * rhu(I+ )"a" )C,;1,(7, -7")

,Qo
Tc
fuu H,
t
Looking at this formula, to maximize the effrciency possible strategies are:

5 Minimize the heat loss (0a), via thermal insulation of the boiler mantle
6 Conduct the combustion with the lowest possible excess air L'
7 Achieve the lowest possible outlet temperature of the flue gas (fi but avoiding both the
t" impairment of the stack draft and the formation of acid drain.
 '12

ffin,o
Q.", Q,, +, ffif, n
= 6,(Tf -Tu,,,) 'l-r
mb mh mb
-w mb

overall useful heat Qt Q'

useful withottt
hàat heat rccovery tr^!!!,r",17, Laten( heat
recovered
,,\:
'{., i
t
1r
L- {l:" c ^.t .-: ,r :1, : .r_-

The efficiency of a condensing boiler is then:' i_ ,'.

4cn -Q,*Q,"" =v^qQr+Q,'

rL muH,
muH,

Currently, assumed for a conventional boiler r\c:90o/o, we get :

o/o
= 4c . = 90oA + (2 + 3%) + (6 + S%) = 1 03 + r07
4 cn
#,. h,
heating
The efficiency appears to be > IA0 %because, (as usual) reference is made to the lower
value.I/i. As mentioned above, more appropriate would be using the higher heating value ll". In this
case, ofcourse, r1ro<10006 '

.From the previous equations it is also clear that the most suitable fuel to use in condensing boilers
are
importantly, the highest water
those presànting the hìghest water vapor mass rate in the flue gas and, more
vapor mass per unit heat obtained from combustion.

The results of the analysis are reported in the following table.

H, Xfl'' morr* lH
Fuel Combustion reaction ffirrrr*:morolmu
(MJ/ke) (e/MJ)
Methane CHo +2O, -> COr+2 HzO 55 2.t81(l'16):2.25 44.9

s0.4 4.t81(12'3+8):1.64 32.5

Propane CrH, +5O,-) 3COz+ 4 HrO
t 0. I 8 I (2.(4. 12+ I 0): 1 .55 31.3
Butane zc4Vrc+l3Or-+ 8CO2+l0HrO 49.5
_> 45 2.18 l(2.141:1.2r 28.6
Fuel oil zCH2+3Oz 2COz+2HrO

The table shows that the most appropriate fuel to use in condensing boilers is methane;
in addition, it is
also SOx flee.
additives'
The acid drain, having a fairly low content of HNO:, can be neutralized by basifuing
The heat exchanger must be made of stainless steel to prevent acid conosion'

As to the flue gas along the stack, two main drawbacks arise:
losses;
1) the heat àxchangér determines lumped resistances with conseqYg,* tlÎîl_ure
draught'
2) therather low tJmperature of the flue gas at the stack entrance iiùpaid,the stack

To overcome these drawbacks an extraction fan is required to promote the flue gas along the stack'

A sketch of a condensing boiler is shown in the following Figure.

 t4

CONDENSABLE MASS

fbr
To evaluate the condensable mass, the calculation starts from the water mass to fuel ratio, which
methane fired boilers is :

ffiHro floro' M rro 2'18

xHro = =
rnb frrro'M"rn l'16
Then:
ffioro 2.25
m,, ^ 0
ùn.o = "'"
"mh
rhb =2.25
H,
-+
A \cu H,
1cu

quality:
In order to determine the theoretical maximum liquid mass, let us remind the definition of the vapor

x=ffi,1(m,+m)

Then the liquid mass in a water liquid/vapor mixing is :

m, = (l- x)úr,o = Q- *)# /nron =(1 - x) 2'25

-+
If the vapor is totally condensed (x=0) and for a typicai effrciency rTca:|\So/o we getl :

*,1 J+l 2.25(kgr,o lkgro) j6oo I =0J54 kg

=(1-x) 1.05 50000 (kI lkgrr,)-
- h klI/h
Ql,no* H,l,=o
Tcu

As an example, for a boiler of nominal power Q = 50 kW the maximum condensable mass

flow rate is

ril*,o =0'154'50 = 7 '7 (kg I h) '

I
t-

t_

I
L
r If the efficiency used in the calculation is > l00yo ,its reference is the lower heating value' Hence the numbers in the formula'

L
 t6

CONDENSATION MASS FROM MIXTURE OF GASEOUS FUELS

The ratio of the volumetric rate of water vapor to flue gas is:

I (Vr,o)o
vr,o reaction

: products

V^
'l
I
reaction
(v)t,
products

with L
=(T) (v),=ww v,*=(z) lt
:
w w
V*i,
t' (v 11,s) r,
n
^,,
o v,,,,,
r) k

Therefore
t nrro\
I
reaction
(vr,o)o I
reaotion ,% )r
!*
vrro prodrcts
=
vf
T (Vy)r,
I 3l
no )o
!t
reaction reaction
products produots

LPG:
EXERCISE. Calculate the volumetric water vapor to flue gas ratio for the following

30Yo CtHs + 70% C+ Hro (%bY volume)

vr,o E(T)r,r 4.30%+5.70% 4.7

+28.81
vf (2 + 23.5 ))' 30o/o + (2.5 + 30.9 4 1)' 7 0% 2.35

E(î) !r Condensation volumetric ratio

(N-'/ Nm3 of flue gas)
lff 1,1, *-*3f0,
20

+ 1'r\1f

t8
t Methane
40-1.
t6
Propane
L '--i

l4
LPG

L
*-{
ll.t _
12

L Fuel Oil

10 1.4 1.5
1.1 1.2 1.3
L l.

L e4 $,o 'ft tÙOr +5 f\''o

',(

'l
 18

DEW POINT TEMPERATURE, OF VARIOUS GASEOUS FUELS

A Mathcad worksheet

The dew point temperature of selected gaseous fuels can be calculated as follows.

Atmaspheilc Pressure po := l.*13'10-^Pa

Trial values : T:= 3&{i'K p, := l*f .Fa

Methane Water vapor *rdat fraction

t-
fiir.en p Vdster vapar pailial PÍ*Esurs
= î{h.}"ro

t pE
{e:"stnatzt- i *;u
*xr:l
.--ht{Ir*ù -?a
Water vapffr saturation pressure at T{K}
x.,} I

LKj
fr"rr)\ îe(r)
I "' !=Find{T,P} ts{h} :=
l- - 3?3.15 hSrttuanedX)
= tR{$
L p{r} ,J

i
Fuel fiil Water uapor rxolar fraciiott vfXì :=
S i + 7.1-É.X

Trialualus* T:= 3*S'K p ;= tr$l-Fa

Èir:en p = yih)-pe Wat*r'aapor partial PrÈ5sHre'

f torse:t --.flr\1 Fa
p = eryt 65.s1 -
I
: I - 3.e?s'lnl -
\t'l l i'i
Water vapar saturation pressure at T(K)

LEi
t ?e{\i
rF.{x}
I
= Fínd{?'.p} ts{h}:=?-173.1j 5''uelsil{I} = ÈR"{I}
I p{h}

Dew Foint Te*lperaturs ['C]

L
Melhar"ethS

L .f']"Joitrrl
Frops*,(X)

L fujane(r.)
i-?G{ú

t
g l.c 1.2 !.1 i.3 t.3
T

t-

L-

L
 20

CONDENSING B OILER PERFORMANCE

than the dew point

The following figure shows that, as far as the return water temperature keeps higher
progressive harvesting of
temperature 1iz;y, the boiler efdciepcy rises slowly. This effect is due to the
heai as long às th. flu" gas cools dóryn. As soon ur th" dew point temperature is reached, the efficiency
curve rises-sharply, becíuse of thelubstantial contribution of the latentheat. of course, this effect gets
higher and higher as the amount of the condensed mass increases.

I Su'ch a ,p.rlfi, behavior defines the fields of application of the condensing boilers.
appropriatì are those appliances that permit low water temperature at the
to
boiler
use in
inlet,
dwellings,
Particularly
such as low
hospitals,
téàpout*e heating, swìmmirrg pool heating and hot water production
conàominiums, and in many other civil and industrial applications.

1**
t,l.4lt,nAl tÀ49 * ít9 biíÌxú
l?,13

$f*lC?"1{úklÉTHlS 4,,1"'{ E 1r.Í'{ kqihtl *{fucl

mriq= 120 g/kWh rr.q,arT t'?tftnl $lÍt${
lis
CONDENSED MASS
àd

ft: 6't
u
TJ
{*$
g
$l
ú Fg,itf Filil,lT
Yl $s
s
th
.f}s

,at

tì; mnq= 0 g/kWh

ss
1rÌ l\) 30 .14 5$ 6A ?Ú ì$tl lls t{q n1#
It'tLtiI \r"p.Tgfd. ÍEh{FqE/.r? Ltfi li,'{"'

fifi. * fi1'fstt *f lrtn*t ÌYlrt*r'Íer:per'ntul'e ntl

fi fftci*ltcrv *t' il*ntfcneiug. lÌ*ll*rrs

a{ ue i s[+a
Itro uto c.\tÎ,r t6 b ?,,, b le n*qc^*ì U-Q {r}}l
À f,b^ q"'o-{o 5+ L
t ,fu$$o f.^-ploo.t,'c ti

I
L

L
 N J')

t- Ambient prÉ$Èure Po ;= 1"ù13'bar

F.*, ;= fe'}'HlS = 8"1'?7'bar

Partial prÉs6ure of the wateriapor:
t-
KJ
Lat*rrt heat at Pu :
r := 23Si":
kg
t flrorn the Étesr& tables!

rrEAt--.- Jt
۔ Bf$
s
Saiuration temperature
ffrarn the steaín tables!
t-

r
I
Dry air mass in the flue gas ffbs= rT - mlr

Therefnre
&uc= Í\r.r + E,* - q.j"cp*"{ut - tu#
t-
[*"
nU'[-'r
m,,I I
!n
'{"r - u
sdherwise
Qrr"= + I+ h.cru - -fllt^ f'Lofs
I
ll
qL ls
úonrfuustinn res,Étír:n: clJ* +?'Î.{CI" +3.?6{} *+ úCI, +?f,fr$ +3(À-1jÚt+A 7"5?'q

Mole nut*ber and $Ìsieeular weight iltÍ14 := I l'{5114

= lS nE{ZS F f S&Cl6 := lS

with rrl"r ;= nHlO-MH2ú = *î6 nr6:= nCFr4"H61tr4 = 16 n1 := 16 + 274'5'L = 3L?'95

fll-.
' .
ffl",
cpfu ._ t t_
KJ
we obiain : = 2.23 = S-113
ke'K
m6 fif

{ *".\
qt = jr=5.321 x 1*r.g
ftì" .

;rjO. {u, - u,#

o* = + h n, - :2-TB1 x 1oî"fr
Thus :
-mb kg lt

L {t+{s
Finally rlgg :: ,f* * = 1*6-3"920
lEt-

L The sensihle and latent heat contribution to the ihe nverall heat recovery ';an assessÉd as fnllowe

L
YI
_: = lg.s.t6
5
ET.
= 5-$'t'o
?-t-
*'f

L rvliich sho'r,vs how pre'ialinE is the latenl heat contributian

L Flue gas sutl*t tenlperaturÉ of the conclensig bsiler

It is supposed ihe flue Eas be cnalerJ down ts the saturatisn temperature;
thus:

L îout ;= Tsat = 5?"od:

L
,ro
I

r
I

r- openings in the boiler rooms and stack diameter

I A Mathcad worksheet

l
- A boilerroom hosts a gas frred boiler of thermal power Q=3A0kW, efficiency îtC- 0.9, operating with an excess air
index
oc and po:1011
is taken form outdoors at To=
I t=t. t t - n.t.r*ine the size of the ventilation aperture, considered that the air
mbar, and crosses the hole at wo=0.55 m'/s' ar
fan, the fumes go through the stack with average
l- Calculate also stack diameter, assuming that, thanks to an extraction
I *o.tatore q: l2}"c,presswe p/= 1018 mbar and velocity w1=1'5 m/s'

r
I
Definitions MJ := 106'J mbar := to 3.bar Nm:= fr kmole:= lo3mole

Tn:=273,75K Pn := 1013nbar

Data:

Q:= 30OkW H::=

MJ
50'- 16 := 0.9 l" := l.1l q = 287--
J

kg'K
w^os:= 0.55-
'kg
Tu:= (4 + 273.1)'K Pu := l0ll'mbar T1 := (120 + 273'l)'K Pg := 101&nbar wg := 1'59

lnlet air openings - Rough calculation

By adopting the recommended value of 6 cm2 / kw, one has
immediately:

2
s^'=
.t o'!f
kw
'Q = 1'8" lo3'"*2

*.,--F =47.873cm

For a square hole, the side is L,=..8 = 42'426cm

t- lnlet air openings - Rigorous calculation

t Pa kg
Air density at outdoor conditions Pa Pa = l'271
\ru m
J

t
Stoichiometric air for Methane: ar',-- 17.1

L
l" 2
S Q = 1.821x 103 'cm
a Hi
Cross section area
L Pa'n6'wu'-

L
with good agreement with the previous result'
 26

I STACKS

t-

t
t

{
t

L,

L,

{
 28

For a stack in ordinary operational conditions:

4= 0 pt N po wtxA

then the previous equation reduces to:

2

Q=!2-1P
2

provides the flow with the kinetic energy and counterbalances the
passive
i.e. the natural draft e
resistances R.

be so high as to
In sealed chamber boilers (Fig.1) or condensing boilers (Fig.2), the loss,R might
require a flue gas extraction fan(forced draught stack)'
In this case the specific work is given by:

p,)-a
T* R+vr(p"-
-[ =-At'

This equation allows us to distinguish the type of combustion chamber' Namely :

Po- Pt> 0 pertains to sucked combustion chambers

Po- Pl <0 pertains to pressurized combustion chambers

and, as such,
In the sucked combustion chamber air enters under the effect of the natural draught
undergoes the effect ofoutdoor conditions.

In pressurized combustion chamber the air enters under the effect of an

intake propeller fan, with
air to fuel ratio with technical
substantial benefit for the combustion, due to the possible control of the
means , as in the burners equipped with a variable speed fan'

[}
7r \
il|llt
ll rllilI
il illillI
l@l ll ilillll
.qsoops$+oI

c12-C22

Fig.1. Fis.2
Sealed chamber boiler Condensing boiler
(V = extractiorr fan)
 ti',rt''' 30
i,o' 'l-t ,

ACID 'fD EV/ POINT TEMPERATURE

(Soz Sol No, Noz
In addition to water vapor (Hzo), the flue gas contains nitrogen and sulfur oxides
of very corosive compounds such
etc,..). When these latLr còmbine with waLr, the result is a number
u, ,uífurous (HzSO:), sulfuric (HzSO+) and nitric acid (HNO:), among others:

',4 SOr+ HrO -> H2SO. Sulfurous Acid

*fi SOr+ HrO -) H.SO4 Sulfuric Acid
NOr+(I I 2)H2O + (l I 4)O' -) HNq Niftic Acid
-.r

Such acid compounds are able to damage severely the boiler's internals, as
well as any material they
they produce the acid rain'
come in contact. Not only but, when released to the atmosphere,
are the heat
As to the boiler, the most exposed components to the so called acid condensation
wetting the metal
exchanger(s) and the stack. Theìonosion o..urc whenever the acid vapor
condenses,
acid dew point
parts. ú míke that happen, the temperature of the flue gasses has to drop below the
and that of
(ADp) tempe.rature (firp).The Taop-depends both on the molar fraction of the water vapor
and reliable predictive formula for
in. nítrog"n or sulfui o*iú6 present in ine flue gas. one very recent
the acid dew point temperaiure due to SOt was provided by B. Zarenezhad
(Pso, and Pu,oParttal

pressure of!O: and HzO ir1the.flr11gas):

t.1'", i (,u"i"
Tenr =1 5 0+1I .664 ln(p ro,) + 8. 1 3 28
ln (p r,ò - A,ú5226 ln(p ro,)' \n (p o,o)

with: ToÙ in oC

Pso. and Pu,o in mm Hg (lr,nm Hg:133'23Pa)

Since pro, is a partial pressuîe, it can be calculated as a function of !sc,, I

Psor= !sorPo = /sor763 mm Hg

=l+ Then' for po=l afm:763

Further, only a few %oof the SOz is oxidized to SOl, usually !so, 5o/o.)is'o, '

mm Hg (ambient pressure), we get:

mm Hg
Pso,=/so, p, = (0'01+ 0'05) !so,763

190

,l
rl0

179

'16{t

<J 1**
t
.3
F
rao
Prasta serl correlatirrn is slrourrr in 5911(l liftÈ
130
,*"-" ." lll val
YHiti lSBVrsl'h
-ry .- V A:2.) %
12Q
I lì20 ". ')n
rirtl 41, *{r* 'y'rii.i} = 10 vol -u"u

110 ' Yttt* = 20 'tal ''/o @ v;tzc -svalri

100
rt 104 ?..frQ 300 4$t) 'ú0
ys{r3, pPrî hrni}
 32

I
r 1}
HrO +-
I , {,4.- s-
Combusfien reaction of FlYdrogen ; H^+:(0"+3.76M)
è 2\ -) "A
3_?6Àr:
2 ''t &

. *'ff.rO ttlll,
-llJ,- = 4'erùs's
r
fulass llo,Àt rate of f{:S fllg,O=
- fllL 016
mt+,s :=
lff
_- .l
lllg,g - -,- Nm- 'f$r*-* =
Nm
Vslurlretric flow raie of ffeS
tt _-_-: = s-$il"- 55"38S'
"tlr0-n'- FH=s-n s hr"
t- at nrrrnral conditicns:

vtt,o
_:-=_o = t!"ltx).-
- -- - Nnrj
I Mnlar fraction uf ffrO : sry -
-tf,ru^.= V.
't-n Nrn
3
Yare = t0-r3'ol* Yn i:: l'Si? x tO5PPm

Combu*ti*n reaction of Sulfur :'9+.{.{01 +3-76'elt} *+ SOr+ A 3.76ni: +{f -!)CI:

Itls 6 ln< t/*iù1<^

r
kE
# ni" = 0.!3$^:
Mass flotv rate sf SOa : n1g6,,=
- tll3 ttlb
-'-'1116
mg.Sr:= IMa{
4 nf

-_
lirl 3
Yss.. o :=
*"- lllc^ I i\fn Vun - = S"08?'-
Volumetric flaw ra.te of SOz = 2.2?1 x nS
fir
5
at norrnal conditisns: Prg. n

Vcrl
de!'* tnJ
* q6
I Mslar fraction of 502 : J!?1- '= !r
\r.,^ - 1,561 x 1s-,i-.- Ise. *.0!J6! Is*o = 156.1'PPtr
Vc^ J
f ilt

Acid Dew P*int Temperat$rs cale$lation

t úxìdation rate nf SOt ta 5il* R := 5!rà

6m
3

I'r'lolsr fr.qction nf 5O*: ysúj := R.'ys*, = ?.$04 x tr*

3
llt
I
t- SG': psr:: :- yss:-?65 = 5*eis x to-
5 rnn'ì Hg
Fartial pressurÈ úf

L Fartial pressur'É of HrÚ: pruc F 1x,<r'7$3 : É{J.$61' rnffi Hg

Èt4
Acid Dew Point TemPerature T.+pr := 15* + 1l-6É4'ln{pso:} + s.1il'9'tnirn:*} - *":n:zre r"1pso:i'bt{pxrsl = t3*"e

t
I
L

L
 34

r CALCULATION OF THE ADIABATIC FLAME TEMPERATURE

Let us first assess the flus gas specific heat. It is defined as the rveighted mean
value of the specific heat
of any constituent over the mass:

c.- f/-th
pl
r.C.
rc ptr

Here x* is the mass fraction of the given species, while its Co* can be withdrawn either from analytical

correlations or from tables (see next page) as a function of temperature

T. Now being Con=f (T), the
calculation of Taa requires an iterative procedure.

EXAMPLE : Determine T"o for CHt

The combustion reaction is: CHn+2(Ar+3'76N2) -) COr+2HrO+ 7.52N2

Thetotalmassoffluegasis: *t,=Z koÚt=1.44+2't8+7.52'28=290.56 kS

k

K*{"""
The mass fractions of the flue gas are:
(8= A 6' t- \t't'l)
ffiro, flrorÚro, l'44..
mft = 290-56
x"o, - =0.151
ffiÍ,

xTro =
ffiHro
=flrroM,rro
_ 2.18 =0.124
ffirt, ffi1,, 29A56

tfrNt *,. '52'28 0.725

xr, =!*,M -l 290'56 =
ffiy,, ffirt,
To avoid the iterations and just to grasp the order of magnitude of Toa, let us assume
a mean
range 1500-2500"C, as follows:
value for the specific heat of each fiu. gu, iomponent, valid in the

cpco,=1.24 ) cpa,<t =2.44 i cpN, =1.19 kI l(kg"c)

(kS"C)
Thus : Cof =Zo *oC*=0.151L24+0.124'2.44+0.725'1.19=1.35 kl I

Finally, fot To-To=20oC '.

r.d =r..%*#3= zo *t'ffi = 2oY9 "c

 36

BOILER EFFICIENCY
according to the italianNorm LrNI 10389

data (boiler testing)

The problem is the determination of the boiler efficiency on the basis of measured
.

To this aim, let us resume the boiler energy balance:

Ò, =,iru H, - Qo - th rC pr(T r - T")

By definition, the efficiencY is:

'IC= 4= = F -P+
," ùuH,
-4 o- + )"a,)(r, - r,)
H,ùu Hi -' ,

Assuming negligible the term Q,t l(thbH) we get:

4, =r-!o+ )'a,)(r, -r,)

the stack loss:

The energy efficiency thus reduces to the assessment of the following term representing

Loss =fty+ )"a,)(7, -7")

I

This term depends on Ty , To , l, which can be determined by direct measufements,.

Actually ), can be
measured volumetric rate of Oz
t assessed by using either of the following formulas, as a funciion of the
or COz in the flue gas
3:

(tror),
t ^) -- 0.2r
or
^
0.21- yo, Ico2

t i.e. cp1: cp1(?r), the Norm LINI 10389 recommends either of the following
since also cpldepends on 1.,
formulas:
( r I A2
*7")
Loss=l g*=:t__le,_r,) or Loss -- B+ (Tr
[ 21-/o,)'' !co,
Ar , Az , B are constants given in the table below:

Ar Az B
Natural Gas (Methane) 0.66 0.38 0.010
LPG 0.63 0.42 0.008
Gasoil 0.68 0.50 0.007
Fuel Oil 0.68 0.52 0.007

I
t.
The following Mathcad worksheet shows how to calculate the term n, =!Q+ Xa,) with a more

rigorous approach and compares the outcomes with those obtained from the IINI
10389 method'

L
I

3Such fonnulas will be demonstrated later in this course'

l
I

ri.
 38

Mean specifltc heat of funnes

+ sug3'xodx3 + cÉ.fi 'xî*i#L; + coer.*"*li:a{ h}

cpf { x} = ilnccrr^nc*tl 4

Ye
f;*s coftcenkatio* inthe flue gas Yc*:t$ T

I := 1,1"S5." 1.5
COI Concentration in the flue gas

fgc'2iÀ)

I ?
I t.t 1.? 1.-ì L.& 1.5

L
I
Rigorous method
! cnt{h}
Furnes ffitfialpy {in P*rcent}. tri{h} := '{t + tru-x}
q
t
UI{l 1038S metltsd

I I .{'\
tr{t\}:=ie+ "
1

Funnes anthalEsr iin Percent): B:: tÌ.ù1.0 rtz := $.3S l.t*-

L Ycoz(hlj

t"
CornHarisan of methods
EnthalFy of funtes {in %}
SxlS-{

t
5.5:.r 1S-

h{h}
I
H{À}

I
I
4.i-'.i;.S-

I
4x {t
I t.2 i-J t. -'

T
 40

I Csse f: Gasoil fired &cffer

t- Combutiorl reactio*:

t cxr*|a$"+ 3.76ffi) -+ COz+IÍzÚ +-3) #-1i0* +-.îA ,13"?6Àt-3

Data:
l't.rot
n6fr)=
f {x- U
I ,,1;t{$=
Number of nroles [n flCOZ:* ryg6;= t
theflue Eas
[- 44 ir'fg26:= 18 M62:= &f1tr2 3S
Molecutar rnass i\{g61= 32
=

t KJ
i{ =.3Z7SS frnm Tables included in the Uhll 103n9!
l-nwerr heafing
kg

I \lalile

Stnichiometric aÍr t* fitel ratia ct* := 14.?

Staichianr. c0ncentretion of CÚ2 Yu :* [5"1

in the ftue gas

t Snee heat 0f th flue sas co nts at 150.C

{Ta[<eri fror* tabies in kJlhg/K]
Cpcú"l *-s9l CpÉl]o:= l'881

S.929 Cnu; :- l'S-108

t' I
Cos.r7 :=
uv-
t_
Mass of the flue gas

t no*{h} := nCO:,-ebO: + ng26'}!1g6 + ng3{.$'h{gr + n},{2{tri'}"'11g2

f
(- s rcmpsnefits:
Mass fractian of the flue
( na:o-Ma:o
l ttCO:"I{CO:
xccz{hi ,=
xH2s(.\),= -;\-i,$
-,of{h}-

t" ns2{},}.l{*: nrnf tr)'tr'hr:

x6ih),= - q11{'Q := -jf: ;:=
"k{.h} Irk{,\l
I
t,"

I
L-

I
L-
 42

Efiiciencv T. "*5 Éfl E'g := 15* "ú

R[Eorous nrethod
r.15{tr}
= I - ryl,i'{rr - r*,1

l Uhlt 1ú38$ nrethod qwqr{r} := I * E {r}'{rt'- ro}

I,
Fuel Oilfirecl boiler Éfficiency {in Y"}
{}.9J

I IC{t}

t *.s3
! n.l t^3 t.3 l'4 i.i
I'
I
I results in close
Final remark : The simple method recommended by the I-INI 10389 produced
agreement with those of the rigorous method.

t_
fì-. f*- {- f- f- f: fl;
-.
 I
2

t-
Steam power plants ate
electricity production.
,9:::,:::T":::-.TJ;# cycle, commonly used for

Electricityìs by far the most important form of final energy for industrialized societies.
countries' despite
From 1950s on, the electricity consumption has steadily kept growing in all Western
f' the progressive reduction obsérved in the primary energy consumption.
That was particularly .uid*t at the time of the so-calied
oofirst
energy crisis" in the seventies (see fig'
r-i ;;b*), ;il;;1r*-.1."rtify consumption was steadily rising although the primary energy consumption
li
1'l
I held almost constant for a dozen of years.

Energy consumption in ItalY

doooo ffral
*.n -*-rrT*^rflrt** ,
250
tTwh=o.o86o
lrr,vr'Fk f,-.ll'L'
t
200
Electricity
--a; M&P
150 +Tl$h
Primary Energy
t00

t
50
'61 '65 '6'1 '69 '71 '73 '75 '17 '?9 '81 '83 '85 '87 '89

Year
t -\

t, Electric penetration
í (Pa / PE)
0.6
I
(
+ USA

{
OJ
_.*_ Italy
{ + Japan
0.4
+ Germany

0.3 "--"r France

é-*** Sweden

0.2 *K- Canada

0.1
?0 11 "75 "71 ?8 ',79 '80 '81 ',82 ',8S '84 '85 ''86
I
'81
I

Year

t,.
 BASIC RANKINE CYCLE
L\,\0, ,t.-
{
l Heat source:
exhaust gases from a
combustion process
d)
V,-t

-.J
.l l'
T ùt- h
j
r.!
1

T1 1' 2 c
s tor (r
a tu
3 È
5

Condenser Tn
{ 3

4
s s

impossibilities
The Rankine cycle can be regarded as a modified Carnot cycle, where several technical
a.re overcome:

o The condensatiolz evolves up to full condensation (point 0 is placed on the saturated

liquid Iine)
o The compressiori (process O-t) is now perfotmed out of the vapor dome
(sub-cooled liquid
region): a liquid can be easily compressed by means of a pump;
. The expansion (process 2-3) is still performed under the vapor dome;
''.\ r The hiat supply (process 1-2) is not performed at constant temperature: indeed, along
the sub-
:i: process 1- 1 ' the water temperature is variable.
1î "- \'
, :,i'
' .
1.,
o The thermat efficiency of this cycle is.(pn = *, ,, /,oW
F*.tlf:,T^.$
Ir _ lrt - D -,n(h - n,> o h - h,
, l.f 4=;@
^_
Pn
tk-t\
I than that
,f) o However, in this cycle the enthalpy variation across the pumping procoss is much lower
measured in the turbine l(4 - hr) .. (h - 4 ) l, hence it can be neglected.

l'\ c An alternative relation to calculate the thermal efficiency is defined as follows:

'1\,1\
- ho 4(s' --so) (so =s, I ss =sz)
'--iirl'i ' =l -Qo,,t
n - 1-h, = 1 - hr*4 $''
I :.:' Qu, 4-4 t,"'
(À
=To. =t-L
=l- hr-4 ,-l
I T'
sz-sr

a Herc, T, is the la Mean Therm odynamic Temperature, defined as: /

-i \,--k ,t ù-
'Ls rtt2:-l,r- 4 (rK)
+.t s"
fi tî f
<ì

flì
\)-
sz -st

tr' L
t rS* L!
I ítn
I
{4,- A ù)

t'i\ a4 '*'' [Ub-

fr]ì f
\,
 TECHNOLOGICAL RE STRICTIONS
IN VAPOR POWER PLANTS

now on, we will call just Rankine cycle the Rankine cycle with superheating, since it represents the
!fr
tll actual reference for steam power cycles.
t\
In order to understand the technological trends in vapor power plants, aimed to increase thermal
efficiency and net useful power, let us look at the Rankine cycle and let us observe that:
r7-n
ffi. i tft* thermal efficiency is proportionalrc T,,
o To increase 4* one can basically rely on higher turbine inlef ternperattres (@ However,
as temperature is increased in an effort to improve the efficiency, creep stress becomes
*or" und more significant for turbine blades. To limit creep, thermal coatings and super-
alloys must be used in tiiO'er design: however, the inlet temperature has still to keep
bqlqol5lg:9---'
2. The ngJ useful power is proportional to the area within the thermal cycle in the (T-s) chart.

\:) To increase this area, it is possible to: tjt

(a) lower the condensation pressure (po);
(b) increase the steam inlet pressure to the turbine (pr). ir

a Lowering the condensation pressure po is limited by

T
the ambient temperature (T^). Indeed, an effective
heat rejection process (and the need to limit the size
of the condenser!) implies a suitable temperature
difference between heat sink and condensing vapour
(To-To* 10+20'C).

a Now, the temperature of the heat sink (seawater, lake ..4

water) is usually around 1i nv 300 + 310 K. This
po
\0
temperature corresponds to .a saturation pressure
po = 0.03 + 0.06 bar. The cglclenser actually works s
under a considerable vacuum degree. 222
T2

a Increasing the steam pressure Pt, fot any glen Tz,

always implies lower vapor quality (x) at the turbine
outlet, hence a more marked erosion of the blades to
the impact of the tiquid droplets. In this regard, the
minimum recornmended outlet vapor quality is
x: > 0.88.
-qoqbtt
o The latter problem can be overcome by splitting the
expansion process in two stages, with intermediate
reheating, as shown in the following page' 0
S/ 9J tJf
 llo,r r' 8

IDEAL REGENERATIVE RANKII'{E CYCLE

Let us consider an ideal Rankine cycle (without superheating), one of the trtf$ffid#ngs
of this cycle is
relatively low
that the heat is partially transferred to the working fluid (feedwater) at a vanable and
temperature (process z-i;, which makes the luleanîhermodynumic Tentperature
lower than that of thc
equivalent Carnot cycle evolving between the same pressure levels'
The remedy to ihis shortcoming is the pre-heatìng of the feed-water before it enters
the boiler, by
transferring heat from the expanding steam.
just (ideally) homothetic
In this case, steam.*punrion in ihe turbine would not occur adiabatically, but
to the process 2-3 (see +-6 inthe figure below). This practice is called regeneration.
Regeneration will increase the Mean Thermodynamic Temperature during^heat supply
in the steam
g.rr.rio1. (now limited to the process 3-4), thus raising the thermal efficiency of the cycle.

3 4

T 5

ABCD S

a a

Now, such a heat transfe (2-3) should theoretically occur in a counter-flow heat exchanger ideally
r
embedded into the turbine. obvíously this solution is impractical, because it
is not easy to build a heat
exchanger into a turbine, and because this process would itrcrear" the moisture content
of the steam at the
final stages of the turbine.
various
In practice, regeneration is accomplished by extracting (or _bleeding) steam from the turbine at
points. The steam extracted from the turbine is sent io a heat exchanger, where it conciensates
while
^heating heater (FWH).
the feedwater. This device is called regenerator of feedwater

1k lì

T T

I
6
s.G I
L

0 6
J 0

tl-u)kg
S.R

only part of
Actually, the process 5-6 in the figure is not executed by the overall steam mass flow rate but
iU indeóí the rest is diverted, along the path 5-2, to the heat exchanger (S'R' in the fig.) to pre-heat the
the net useful
feed-water. This implies that regenération, while increasing the thermal efficiency, reduces
power generated per unit working fluid mass.
t
10

I EXERCISE
data are known:
Let us consider the vapor power cycle shown in the figure below. The following
t- pr: p3:30 ata: (4is)r : 0'85 ; Tz: T4: 500oC; : 5000 k8/h'
,;no = 0.03 ata; 80 ata ; lzlu

power reiected to the environment

calculate the thermal fficiency,the net useful power (in MW) and the thermal
t (in MW). Finally, calcúiate thó water ru.. flo* rate nàeded for heat rejection
available at T* = I 5oC, and a maximum temperature dtop aT = 8"C is allowed
in the condenser, in case seawater is
across the condenser'

i- h
T

I T+. D
\t-
[;
.À.-h rr]
ft,- - 9.,
o.

15r) l 5

r
tt
s

ri $gLUÎST'I
x
t Sefinitions h := 3dfl{ E hI:= l*-"J &ítr1l := tOS"rg

i Data {i.a = ù'$:5 m.

= 5r]$s"E
n
t--
T*:= (15 + 273"15)-K

P. .: jÉ1.-
ki
ÀT:= $.H.
'
t lig-À-

kcal 1454"i.-
- W k;
Enthalpy values --':= 815.kcd = 34tl.r'ts
h. --
fu:= 925": = h*:= 162":
[]o !:g kg kg kg líg
frenn Ffplller diagram :

kcal - --- kl f6
tr< :- 5J*"::- = 3!i7.1":-
--r h1 :=
-r := ?40..134 = is$B.t.E
h,
lj hg kg kg kg

Turbine cutlet - enthalPiex:

L' h'- = 751.25"-
kcal
h.. = 31*5.3"8
I
tr:. := lnt - 'llgT"ilb - h:) L-s b:g

t- - = 56+.3i.
kc.al
h.. = .162".{--
KJ
h5y := h3 - l1pra'{l'ts tn5} h"--
lis 9d
-
L h; - X5, + l&.- fi:.
'['herrnal efficiencY rì = *'3'15
:
'
tt,--
Irr - hr + ?ta - h-1t

Flet useful PùErèr : F := nro'th: * hs, * {r*o - ttorl F = 1.SS7'h{1\t

qs := rfl*-{Xl5" - h* q€ = _t"t:g.ht&'
Fleat. rejection - therrnal Power

ec kg
Water mass flow rate flL., F tq?: 95'4iS-
- Co""rlT 5
at the condenser :
-

l
i
c i: f_- '::- (- (T
-
 .2'
(rHe rDEAL BRAYToN-JouLE cvcrn)
Combustibile
02 l\
I 2 \ 3 2

Scam 0re c amena di

Ln combustione Ln
Turbin

l.r

0mpless0ne Turbin a
I, Compressore
,/ ,4 Scambiatore
f.t

;,o):
-r 1't' I
s ù r..t

Fig.1 Fís.2 Fig.3

o The ideal Brayton-Joule gas power cycle is made of two isobaric and two reversible
adiabatic
processes (see Fig.l).
r The working fluid is supposed to be an ideal gas.
r performing-the
The ideal cycle may be regarded either as a closetl cycle (with a heat exchanger
process 4-1, as in Fig. 2),ór as an open cycle, as in Fig. 3 where the heat rejection is fulfilled
by
ieleasing flue gases tó the natural environment (air atpo= pt and To: Tt).
r The most common applications of Brayton-Joule cycles are electric power
production and aircraft
turbo-jet engines.
r gas (CH+)'
In both cases, an open cycle is adopted; the working fluid is air, thefuel is usually natural
o the power
The net mechanicàl power (p,) made available is measured by the difference between
produced by the turbine (Pr) andthe power required by the compressof (PK):

I = Pr- lr" I = fi,(4 - h) - th(h, - 4) = rhc o(Tt - T) - ùc,'(7, - TJ

The thermal power supplied to the cycle in the combustion chamber (process 2-3) is :

Q, = ù(4 - hr) = rh C
r(Tt - Tz)

a The thermal fficiency of the cYcle is:

rl
P,, _\-74-(72-Tt) =r_+ T4 Tt-l
I L
Q, Tt -7, T2 \lT2-l T2

=l (see page 1

Now, for a revetsible adiabatic process one can write:

l-k
l-k t-k l-k r, Pz
TpT = cost -> Trp, u =TzPzT -+
T2 Pt )'
Let us define the ws$utgJgfiz. B as:
f :b>r
Pt
The efficency of the ideal cycle is then
1-k

4i =1-L =1- p T2
k (1.4)
ii
4

I REAL BRAYTON-JOULE CYCLE

tr
T
K
r E

I v I
r s

r
(
In a real Brayron-Joure gas power
during compression and expansiJn
"v.r.
processes,-measured
h,S"H."ìilh "Î*àt for.the ineversibility occurring
through the corresponding isentropic fficiency:

I L. T,
(T,)r=q=ffi
_T
(q*), =
-=-
L,,
Li
T,-To
Tr-To,
I
t It could be easily shown that, in this case, the thermal efficiency of the cycle can be Written as :
t-k k-1
T1 o I
( T* ) ? $-B ) Wo -r)
n 5
Qr f^', 1
)

r, (ry)" Wo -r)

The above equation suggests that the thermal efficiency of a real Brayton-Joule cycle does not
depend only on the iressur. rutio11but also on the ratio Tst&. Since, in real applications,
TI: To, oné
finally gets @,&,-I3\. ,
From the foliowing diagram it is possible to deduce the effect of irreversibilities (measured by
the
1

{
i
( two isentropic fficiencies), as well as the role played by the temperature Z-i'

!
Efficiency
\
n
I 0,6
í

I 0,5

0,r.

0,3

0,2

0,r

0
0ll81?1$ 2U ?0

Pressure ratio P

Legend
?ic = isentropic efficiency - compression.
Zie
: isentropic efhciency - expansion

I
I

t-

.,1
 6

TECHNOLOGICAL TRENDS FOR GAS TURBINES

1 400
First nozzlo
Fig,2 uc
inlet temPorat u16 r
Technological trends *a- - -J
'Firing
for gas turbines ___J tom tur€

Turbine ínlet
tomporaturo
240 (rsot
11
MW
I
200
180

q 160
r40 Ou ut

36 120
100
34 80
EfficiencY

32

1 975 1 980 1 985 1 990 1 995 2000

Year

n:-
rlg. ar
Advances in materials for gas turbines
c t
o
@

a!
zw a pi
d(f
BV ur,.** È
r8ii: L;
5
aoot'o 8--
<:
F N:
É utCs
G
ù lrC,5,1rr.
j J.Í9 !tlGLî CrrsÌAL FA x:
òú:
I
c I tlN
ttPl ! ceAAcrcS F !
G oS
f4 o:
lÉao ttPE t c[Rsrc3 E
o
J
!.PEA
qtÉil'-Lor3
a;
líè
t -Arn rurr5
î t?u
E
U
ka cJn:îal
€
f
rX
ùv rtltlÉ éo ì
c'arcrr.,euv gì
F o
?oo lk H26 r vrf !o-rorÉ!
J uîCO . yt
@
ICI:C
ìc
tÉ rO

tÉoo
uzl:
-
r9éO
rgo €60 to rs60 1990
 L:
/i\ \t r 0'\"
rJAl\

r EXERCISE ON THE BRAYTON-JOULE POWER CYCLE

lowing pefoppance data arÉ kftowft for a Elrayton-.,oilfe gfts Cyc[e

t-
: rlg =
I Pressure ratip t5 lsentropic effciencY - turbine; 0.8S
{* =
lnlei ten*perature to the turbine : T-q:= i5$&-K lsentropic eficiency - c0Ínpressor: r1;g := ù.$ù

I lnlet temperatur* to the campressot: Ti ;= 28S-${. Net {unefull pnwer:

i-Y
W
Pr,
= l&S'&{fi/

Working fluid : AIR {ideal gas} k:* 1;l sp --a l.-

hg"K
f'
Cafcufate Massft*w r*te *f iheworking flttid
Gas tentperature at turhine úutlet
Thenr, mÍ p rwÉr reiected to Èhe eflvÍ rofl rne nt {MW}

$Of-tlTlOt-l
t-d
k
lcfesl turbine outlet ternperature {reversible protess}: T4
= E3'[3
T+ = ssf9K'

Real lurbine outl*t temperature inon-reversit:le process): T4, := T3 - ,rtlr.tf: - f*J T4r = $53.J K

t
sc
t.,-:=l-i?1.15
?IK
t4,r = JS$'*
k-t
l3 := I1"13
*^k T:= sgln.
ldeal con*pressnr outlei tentperatura ireversible process]:
f-
I Ln
riLlt
! i - al
Real cornpres sor o utlet ternperature [non-reversible prrce ss]: Tzr = 688"1x'
!^=l.j+-
' tr.
" rliK
kt
Lavors assorbitn dal Cornpressure Lo := Co.{f2, - f1i L"ÀEs
= d03"7
-
IJ
t_ Pouler *xtrs,ctecf form the gas iurbine : L.y:= co.{'rs - Lo = 6{6-i:
"*; 'kg
KJ
Net {useful} pÈwer: Lr,=Lj-Lg L-Lr = 2ì7"?:
L'q
L '-F
É
"il ke
-:
t
m- = 4$].T
3 'Ln
Èas rnass flotiv rate lì"Iq
5É

Thermbl power input ta ths combustion chan'ìber : Qu:= rn*"C*-{", * to} Qg = 3'Él"lidlv

t Therrnal powet released to the envirnnrfient : e*:- rn*-Co'{un.r * Qc = 24!.31'flrr

"t}
a,

t Thsrmal efficiency of tlt* cYcle:

1'l:=
'Q.-
'tl

b
tl = 29'39ro

I nre therr,-nal nawer is relearefl to ihe environrnent ss hot exhaust gases (580 "C!" that r*ay be ccnveniently used to
L- power a vapour c'yale- Hence, the concept of "combinecl cycle"-

I
L-,

l
-t
 10

PERFORMANCE CURVES FOR COMBINED CYCLES

f 14
( Pressure
16
Etliciency ratio
12
.53
10
l3l t

r 260
.52
r e04

r' t t71 Turbine

.51
I 149 Inlet Temp.
('c)
.50

100 5

49
42 0'44 0.19 t 0.53 0.55
0.330 0.35 0.3? 0.40 0 0'46 0.5

Specific work output (MJikg)

TECHNOLOGICAL TREND for COMBINED CYCLES

Thermal efficiencY

0,60
Three-pressure levels CC

0.55

Two-pressure levels CC
0.50
Combined
L
0.45
steam le
L" 0.40

0.35
H-technology

0.30 G-technologY
Simple gas cycle F-technology
t
0.25
I

L
I

1960 7974 l 980 1990 2000 2Al0

L
I

L
 T2

GAS.TURBINE AIRCRAFT ENGINES

mbustors Turbine T 3

u
Compressor

4
=l=l
:l+l il3 Product
_--> 2
out 5

'a
a 1 2 3 4 5

Diffuser Gas generator Nozzle

.s
{a}
(ó)

Gas-turbine cycles are widely used to power aircxaft. Aircraft gas turbines operate
in an open cycle called jet-
propulsion cycle. In this case, the gases are not expanded down to the ambient pressure in the turbine, but to a
3-4) is just sufficient to the drive the
pressure (point 4) such that the po**, produced uy ttre turbine (process
compressor (process 1 -2).
while its pressure
Before entering the compressor, the air passes, through a diffuser, wh9r9 it- is. decelerated
exit theturbine at a relatively high pressure are accelerated in
increases (process a-1;lon the other hand, the gases that
at a very high velocity, much higher that the inlet air velocity
a nozzle;hence, they are released to the envirónment
occurring u"ror* the diffuser: this provides the thrust to propel the aircraft.

Relations to study iet-propulsion cycle performance (ideal processes) z

T, =To +"w-
1)
2Co
wt -wo -) (r, <<r")
h-h"+ ,, =Q C p(Tt -7,) -!n- =o
k-r
k

Tl
Pr= Po
( I
To )

Since pl > pa, the diffuser operates as a passive compressor, (no power needed). Moreover, the
turbine serves just to drive the compressor, hence: L, =lLrl' Then:

Pz= f Pr
To --7, -Tr+7, Ps=Po
t-k
(' k-l Pt= Pz k
k

E)'
l
l

,, =rr( Pz 4=800-1000'C P,=P, Ts T4

Pr [?)"
wr'-wo' wtl1ws -+
Air velocity at the nozzle outlet: h, - ho + -0 if ws= C
r(74-Tt)
2

Mass flow rate ie = tvs A I vs (A = otúlet cross section; rs = air unit volume)

ThrUst: F = rit (*, - w) (wo = aircraft velocity)

 t4

Nolv, let us assurfiÉ that the power provided by the turbine is .[ust suffcient to rotate
tfie compressor

-Lt= ..
L1;
1
hence f;*{r, - rr}= t*{ru - r.}t

Fronr the above equatiùn one can caluclate :

T*m,perature Ia T'4;= ?3 - T2 + Y1 Tq = l*4?'5K "ciroJ = ?69.5 {"q

k
!l-
lrrl
.t-l
j-À

= l"?*4ata
Pressur* pa F4 := Ft P*
Lr*J
I t-

/\&
lPl 1
?s = i*3.dK -c(rr]= 33*.$ {"c}
Tenlperature Tu T5:= T'a"l
- I
1u'Po'/

Energy h,alance sn tfie noezle

tx,r î
-w4
11.f
xr
'rt - 1v4
thai is tc saY ; ú*.{T"-To}+----=S
rlj-tr+T-=w lalr 'r z
t

l"lov4 since uJ4{< tils- one can write :

knr
wj = 3410.9;
Velnciiy at the nozzle outlet: rv5:=
{5Effi:{i-i
Fa !tg
úensity at the noz;le outlet .r
t1-':
&'Ts
Él = $"l'l't.
J
tì1
-

kg
Gas flow rate thrnrrgh the nozrle : îÌro:= f)5ft"$5 flìr: = f :O':

Thru*t rn*-{rv5 - $r} F = 9$"$hld

,g:-

Flight durntinn : ,St := 3'lr

na'c*"{43 - rx} .11-S4$totr

Total filgl asnsum ntistt q=
= --:--::----*-l'rar tn" =
T

I
I
I
I

I
:l

:l

:r

J
 I
I
l'
I
ì

I
I
I
I
I

I
1

J
I
I

I
 errrcrrilr c{
v oLLJNÉTRlc

É,xha'rrst blo-;*ldown
valves oPen
Exha--r-lst
toP Dead-CenGr
GDCI Adiabatic comPression
B

in the Intake
s expansion
dead sPacc

(BDC)'
Bottom Dead Center
Pr valves close
Intake
"*:il,"f$#:l' \la
v

vg
In

and the top of

as:
expreÉseó
abovc figoio' oanbe V,,
riv ith iefererrce
to thre v *Vr- V,,
vo_ =l* Vs-YJL
vg
wtrich, v8
fin= v"

FÍ tu
but:
?='i,?"=l*b
i -r)
L, =1- eu(F
Hence: cYlinder volurne
gases to the entire
of residual
fraction
volumetric
usuaW show:
being P
thP
^ h"oe .8+0.9.
tn Pmctice'
íJ.jJi:ffiíÍ:';-ru'"íS: ano

sk =0'02+0'05
wrth É
deoreases
t
raPidlY
t- effrciency
Tbe volumetnc
f
I
t-
 4

f- OTTO CYCLE

t- p
3

t.

t- 2

r
I
L
----lF
0 + 1,5

t- V

VS

VA
TDC BDC

ldeal cycle for a four-stroke spark-ignition reciprocating engine

End of
Hxhaust Air*l\el
p conrhustion lnixture

lgnition Erharrst
rrilvc i1' ;t
l! ll
opells i^l
lntake Air-ftnl
opi?rÌs rnixl.rrrc
-
tt,atm
Irttuke
il--
Conrprcssion l:orver' Iíxlmust Intlrhe
{clpansion)
DCU StrQhC stroku strokc stloke

{n) Actu*l f'our'str'eikc spnrk'ignition cngine

P rIì {uut
J n

t" AIR Altì AIIT

4in (2)*(3)
'--.IT**-
Af lt

flìl' ,
','( I ) *'1 -l *
(4)-"il)
lt
t.i
lscrrtr0pie Ua cclllst. Ìxcntrr>pi+ a, s (on$t.

cr)mpr'cssl(xl hcnt ndtlitìotr eslransion hcol r:cjcctitrrt

v
(ú) ldeal 0tto cyclo
 (

r
J

I DIESEL CYCLE
6

- White the otto cycle performed in spark-ignition (SI) engines (when the piston reaches the TDC,
f -the is
I the ro"* nr* fires and mixture ignites), the Diesel cycle is performed in compression-ignition engines,
where combustion starts on oontact as-the fuel is injected into hot air (above its auto'ignition
temperature)'
ft, In this type of engine, a fuel injector replaces the spark plug'

tr Qz:
Qz:
p T
r
I
& ru 3

2 3
a/
L

I ,.l
\\

2
Q+t Qot
tr !
1
[[4 1
ru
li V s

Ideal thermal efficiencY:

(e,), =r- lq^l =r_c,(74-T)

co(\-T) =r- k(T'-rr)
,TL-TL,
tzt
I Now, if we recall the combustion ratio at p = const :

T3
f*
t' T2
t
And the compression ratio
\I'
(r\^
I
I
t)
v
r =-ill}--
v.
t
'v v^in vz
-l 'l
(.4 ,l

We can write:

( -t \
(rlo), =l-ru'o ',ro
lk?fl)
 7

COMPARISON between OTTO and DIE'SEL CYCLE

.l,0
llll || lllr llll llll
0,0

() s 0

o 0,8
t
o î
o F
t 0, l,t t
o

I I
U, 2

lit || || llI illt

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 în
Gompression ratio (rv)
\d hd
Typical range for Otto cYcle
t Typical range for Diesel cYcle

The comparison in terms of thermal efficiency seems to be favourable to the

Otto cycle, which
ratio. However,
attains a highei thermal effrciency than the Diesel cycle for any
given compression
reciprocating sI and cI engines do not operate with the same compression ratio.
In sI engines, the
issue is not relevant in CI
compression ratio must keep below 10-11, in order to avoid autoignitiont;Íhis
engines, that can operate with a compression ratio up to rv =20 22'
+
(.I it may rea.c'h 4Q.V,t in CI engines.
iiciillut i.iiu th^*ol
r ro*^n tlrn in ur iq
cffinicnn..r rrr rr arnrrnr-{ J300./n ..rrhereas
v ' v) 't'a
ìiiuiiiiirri virlwrÚriwJ

FD

1. Higher thermal efficiency than gasoline (SI) engines

2. Lower rotational speed, which Jllo*r a better combustion (longer combustion time)
3. As a conseqrr.nr.àf p oint2, CI engines have a lower environmental impact
4. Diesel is less valuable (and less expensive!) than gasoline
5. The engine is less subject to wear, hence shows longer lifetime
with turbo-
6. As Diesel engines are not prone to autoignition, they are suitable for supercharging
compfessofs

I If the temperature of the fuel-air mixture rises above the autoignition tempelature of the fuel-during the cotnbustion process, this
by an almost instantaneous
.uur., un early and rapid burn of the fuel at some points ahead of the flame front' followed
inflammation of the e;d gas. This premature ignition piocluces an audible noise, called "engine knock" , and cannot be tolerated
because it can cause darnage to the engine.
làaded gasoline has a very undesirable side
using gasoline blends containing tetraethyl lead may avoid autoignition. However,
effect: it forms compound during the combustion prór.r, that are-hazardous to health and polluting to the environment' For this
reason, leaded gasoline has been forbidden by law
 i"
9

r IRREVERSIBILITIES ANd LOSSES iN RECIPROCATING ENGINES

o Incomplete combustion process (small volume, little time, CO and NO* production )
I r Heat losses at cylinder boundaries;
o Defective valve tightness

I Different levels of detail in the study of a cycle:

. IDEAL cycle : reversible processes, the working fluid is an ideal gas

I
r LIMIT cycle : reversible processes, the working fluid is composed by a mixture of real gases, their
specific heat depending on the temperature.
I
{ o INDICATED.cycle : actual cycle, as indicated by direct measurement of sensing equipment inside
the cylinder.
f'
I

il- 3
3
p l)
I

+
t
4
p F,,t,,,
16 5

t ,, vu, l/

Indicated cycle in 4 stroke engine Indicated cycle in 2 stroke engine

REAL thermal efficiency (also called "índicated fficiency")

L
ry,
_1
rhu H,

\
L
i
L
 11
Í-
{ FOUR.STROKE ENGINE: STAGES

4
ti[tT]lTllTl
lnlet
p 3 PMS
Compression

tr^
ffi
Combustion

f'-
Expansion
(
6a
po
PMI ..9?.
î,
t O PMS PMIV Exhaust
I

Fig. (b): lndicated cycle for a four-stroke Cl engine

f

I
t
A

c tr
.9 o
o o
.Y o o
ftt o
I ll
tr CL
É E
o o
o o
f

I
I
) 5 5
t

Òt
tù *ù
,9 o
o a 5
É J (ú
I (Il fit
I, è
x x x
IIJ
ut ut

i
t

Fig. (c): Engine layout during the different stages (A = intake valve, s = exhaust valve)

,l

i".

I
I

,
 l3
DESIGN CALCULATIONS FOR RECIPROCATING ENGINES

Volumetric efficiency : 1"

Number of cylinders: I

Displacement (one cylinder): Zt (m3)

Displacement: V: i h (m3)

Rotational speed : // (rev/s)

1 2- stroke
Number of crank revolutions (per cycle): m=
2 4- stroke

Frequency (rev/s):
^N
J=- (1ls)
m

Air volumetric intake rate: v =v f 1" (m3lr)

Air mass intake rate : rit,= prV = PrV f 1" (kgA)

Fuel consumption: mb (kg/s)

ma
Air-fuel ratio : d=
mb

Useful power:

1=4,,H,ùt =2oH,
mb
ùo=rl,L o, rLn, (w) (A)
lho d,m
t,
I P,=L,,',f=P,,"v'L
_N (w) (B)
m
t"

P,,=C0=CZtf=C2rLm (w) (c)

t-
,
where C: torque O{m); a: angular velocity (radls)'
f_

Mean eff'ective prejsule2 :

ptte 4u
t, P, 1, (Pa)
d
I

L
Specific fuel consugrption
mb kg g
cb= -1,pt KWh,MJ
L- 1, P,n"d

L
2
By coupling Eq, (A) to Eq. (B)

t
1

L
 f'
I

15

r
I OPERATING REGIMES - FUEL CONSUMPTION

I km/h
e60

I' 14tl
220
vl
{
:ù0
u / /
180

1ú0 v
l4rÌ
Í 1-r

I' 110
{ il
t00
v il
80

r- f,0
7 *
,4 I
.10
"t
lrJ
.*
r)
1tl# - 50fi) 01ffi
tt'IJ
revtmtn

Fuelconsumption
I
(g/MJ)

I Minimum fuel
consumption reglme

revimin

I
(_.
*-- r*-*-+'ù:
1.".',\ Influence of the
I: -> air-fuel ratio
l)
rl,
on the performance
t' o 5 x
x .E
cl '=
c ts
t_ z o
J
o
!
o ul
ì
o
o É. J fL
r u
t"_ :
o)
lt. \:.i:.:.
:ì$'--
iil:iiii

10 12 14asr 16 18 20

{
Air-fuel ratio lkgJkgrl
I

L
I
t,
ì.'

L
 t

t-
I

I CHAPTER 10
fr-'
I

l''
I

I
REVERSED CYCLES

(
ì

t",

I
(,,

f
\.
r
j
(_
-.

I
t_
I

L
Ì

I
l
 twl 1

r
i INTRODUCTION

r . The most important field of applicati on of reversed thermal cycles is refrigeration.

o Reversed thermal cycles allow to refrigerate a fluid or a space to a temperature
lower than ambient

t temperature, by means of devices powired by mechanical or ,i.,,trf,trrgy

(re.frigerators)'

o Refrigeration, and related technolgies, are of vital importance iiirii'antiiria, both

to improve well- .
(refrigeration,
beinglair conditioning, air dehum-ididcation, space cóofing) and for food conservation
freezing, deep-freezing)
r According to the field of application, different temperatures are required in refrigeration:
I AIR-CONDITIONING : T=5+10oC

I INDUSTRIAL REFRIGERATION
FREEZING:
: T=0+-5oC
T: -5 + -10 oC

DEEP_ FREEZING : T=-10+-30oC

t- T: -100 + -270"C
CRYOGENICS:
(
r The Third Law of Thermodynamics was conceived and confirmed in cryogenic
labs.

are given
r The conceptual scheme of a reversed cycle and the definition of its energy efficiency
( below.
,l
6.: | \-8'r
l= 8'- - à'
I j,I
'''t
Tz L I
(,Àr.l
.'t ì, ''"'

I x
,'
""'1.
L

l.
t r,l" ba r -G'
Àut4t ,-t-l ^ _0, = g=
9
i
I t"
^
#' J'- 0, "-Vr g-4, b -1
\, \,v rod..rìì,r
I Ot
IÀrrn--' P"t(f$aìUs € lè. eJr^^' /,-[;"'
-' 1"Il
{
(_
!1t*':è" '"'
Qt
Itisalways: e)0 I tr
ífi. ,rn,lccl ^
r

"
li
7lt H.,*- .-.',..*--JG".

L Tt
,*
L f,-
, l-f..
t 1 h Ft,

(I
{i'u''* o úx{
6 bi r*f-f,'^- A.* J-l pl*
(
n,-r
t G *nrf
^
ll
{..

i
t-,
 \/
Pu ,* t, * ^ ìt p"'-,t J

15

10

R22
4

G'
2 W I
o-
d, /.
=
o
o
6.,
o-
!,4
L

o,2
/ffi
,r/ffi
0,1
ú
7O?

,0_1
tl
0,04 (\ 7

0,5
IB
O,02
+.,fifTI iQr

0,01 450 500 550 600

100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Enthalpy [kJ/kg]

500
R717
(AMMONTA )
200

100

40

20

10

E'4
ga
oc
L o.
o
Ar tl

E e
o-
o,4

o,2

0,1

0,04

o,02

o,01
-1200 - looo -8oo -600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 8oo 10oo 1200 1400 1600 1800

Enthalpy [kj/kg]
rw €9E*.sr
O q:Ù
td *t-t-tnd-À\$v\\
gnn
^nln^{o- t- . I
(,\\5(r t l\l
?, 5

I ( ieron;coMPRns
*
\_.__.,.,.-
sIoN REFRIGERATIoN cYCLE s \

I REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE

fl 4
?
Q,
Q,
r
I
6 condenser

T Q" p

T, Pl
Expander Compressor
f'
t 7", Po

hrhl
2
f
t s hl hr h Evaporator

Q,u Q"u

Q,,

The processes occurring in a reverse Carnot cycle are as follows: Coefficient of Performance (COP)
for a reversed Carnot cycle:
1. Evaporation (process 2-3)
2. Compression (process 3-4) Q"u 9,o
To,
coP,, = -
3.
4.
Condensation
Expansion
(process
(process
4-1)
1-2)
lrl e,-e", T,-Tuu

Technical unfeasibilitv of a reversed Camot cycle:

o performed in practice by
The expansion process(l-z) in the humid vapour region can be conveniently
drop of the working
means of a flow-restricting úevice (thermal expansionvalve) that causes apressure
fluid (throttling). ThrottÍng is an isenthalpir in.oersible process. These devices do not allow
recovering mechanical work from the fluid expansion'

r The compression process (3-4) in the humid vapour region cannot be performed
with technical means'
(at ieast) saturated vapor in
Hence, a compleé evaporàtion is required (process z-l1,inorder to admit
I the compressor.

a The corresponding thermal cycle and functional scheme ars shown in the figures
below'
l- -1-4 ì1 J -( t5oJ'a&P.c-*-
z-3 .\ "-no** Condenser
r
Lt

T
T1--- p

I
x' rT l{

l Thetmal
Compressor
r;"v
"
I
expanslon
valve

**y 2

s Evaporator

h I
t F t*
ya-"&

t 1
)
tf'*
J e*- I
,-r^ct'

t<. )
nr -{I
l-
L ( l5? r..s.-liro
 f
{

7
t-
I
2. SCREW COMPRESSORS .r,*^"L * ql^ af,q/ d.À,"

filunler rcrtor
shg n{t.t'
shaft seal

I
trurle Lotot'

Screw Ccxnp:r'osso r ii1; r'ttt.:'t tmel

#rdÉ tl$t$r
{-rJl.:r ll'+Li: I
$alfir1t* [rì*liií'l
ì'ì!'ii,nu1i*. C:,,1ìtttl*r

E*firj11*
:'lvr,$! Lh't*'i,1f,
hàrchirrrÍr.*I Sr'.l,.lt
I
t

8ùd1.Ìì Btdit{iù*

krFul ,$*$.lt

*lwir:g

firrt3e*r$ lft àbnr$r'' 3#*lt *íÉj x*ris*

1*lt1.xJiri,1'fti#1
J.lfii*. i:*{:$crt!úel {3fl* ?url:itìe lile! #43 htlqrtter*q
WaÈril{}trírtfrr*'
*i1$ {}r"J1ì"8 F
H,:ifit $'-'rnF$
I Úil r*n{É $Ì}$ &slhs$ht# fit1n'0ritslí{trr'
I
t_l;,f3 hri,l rsll&a* anmtzr s.$frrtr tt
I
 9
r'
/ 4. CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS Cd.^
r t^"r\^
;\r. "#*
.,j""**- J .i, l- I'tg

f' e Oullet

+ Inlet

Volute
Casing

Centrifugal compr€ssor schematic dlagram

r'
Dìtfuser Pl*tes
I

Èi{fuser Passage
DriveSh*ft
lmpoller
t
Pac*ìng fflantl
Packing

0ìS'us+r

Suction Port

fasing
Ii'.ir r;ìi lillir:ir'rt

t,

t"

t_
. s ;"7:,',*

I
t-

t,

i
I
(-,
 li
I CONDENSERS

Dry.Coolers

l Eapor?tive Coolers

spray saler ffor

Heat exch6nge gprsy woter flow covers coll surfdca

!
(

counter-flow

Refrlgerant
Potcntlal dry polnt hrmlng area

I
{
Evaporative Towers

l A{r ouÌ (ù.,h,,ot b* ftrrgormt

Alr Out (,ít",h"a'l

Ddfl €ltminsl|ffi .--+ Prffi!nud Drift Elimlnstors

Extomal
1 {*Hot Wster $praY WAtOr.ir",{,t"
rí',, Diàtribútion

:ì.a:;
Qlo$€d:Ckouíl R6trigsrafit
Hesl ExchangÉr or Qìt,h't
Aùh Alrin Coil Procsss lluid

Watet ltt In
^'\, Alr
,ìtuo,t"& rh.,h,.,

Cold Wat6r
To Pilmp

t
 Éc
I CALCULATIONS
{ 3

T
Tq---
L
p -\e.,,,
I

I ,T u

ll
I
\

7
tV\p:rl x
s h

Heat entering the evaporator (cooling capacity): Q,, --,h,(IU

* hr) A
,^ (J-t
Jî,rÎ' À.!*
Heat rejected by the condenser: Q"=ù'(h-ho) .v' t .r-\ .l
/' .fr.

I -P =rh.(ho-k) Cq^*'3
!
Mechanical power required by thlcltppressor: '' rf'\
^I^
0c= 6qv * L t^ i.fi'. $ott'"
\ EER=fu=ffi
do!t
( ^
Energy Efficiency Ratio : 'r-^-
ì-c'

L"qq" * Sq; '

ON

I rbJ ri "f"
T p

î
I
L
To
I

T"
\ I
I
?.
T.u

s h

(To), in
a The condensation process must occur at a higher temperature (T.) than the ambient temperature
order to allow heat to be effectively rejected (T'-To = 8-10"C).
a The evaporation proce,ss must occur at a lower temperature (T.u) than that of the fluid to be refrigerated
(Tu), in order io allow heat to be effectively removed from the low temperature reservoir
(Tu-T'n = 8-10"C).
a The compression process is not isentropic.
The ineversibili{es process are accounted for by the isentropic efficiency:
tù^q.tt
al fttl-:$":lf:_?"sion
ii
(e,,)* =
l', hu-k hence: -P =ie'(hn,-rrr=trr+#
n.=U/o
 _ _ ../
l1
r) A.l
l\>' \
^xr' 1-

l" '' ''-l

- ' jr.
, a ,- :{) (, _l
i
i
,}
l'rl' ,',,

à
.,-. ,f',P i, l-.E?n;)
5 :íì -' \.i', '!'\
\, i1 -lri "ti
(: lfl',
I

.::;< \/' --
{ 1-r"-t;
ù,1

,J :t cÌt
/[ \ À) .-;1
')J' .,..ni.',,.,'iJ
+,- '' l, )t
..1 ;\
ll l"ì
v u! "
...>i',í,I
/"
tl'
iìt fîr/tlz "ll
' r ,...:j.;: -l..1::í!,. ..' . ... . ,.:.i,. :.1 . :i:Ì:;:l;;', i.:l :.'r" - :'

IrrB'o Ér'óIie *tt'bt v!_'q(.t *.t"Ébr ,B'*zî lsoo'n f:htt5"z sùÍ'6[ ú44
{tú1 76rl'*
ef'gJa L9'2ft ú?'f.6r rrf "rge zfr'9fii gtúù'$ &1t6t'z t É.?'e 'c *ó
c6 S lpa'cr c,ú[?'o
tî'9*t 4z'ege bgoa'a gplo"r hEL'tt|.. a!é
ltfrg'{r ?r6t'o c+ t,4d sú'691
rl Brú9"* zrs*\'o tt'gZt go'fcr lE tt'ir 52.''tgz sa'rll ggfro'$ deGa'1 r Fr'1e.

ll'Att a?'llr *rsr*'n gglf:'a 6rA'Fr s9

llfr*'cr tr*t'* f,d'$l e rÉ"?!e eg'S6r
gqt&'a
.

gl.e"5r
o66*'ú TsrSî"ú gp'tle 5l''*rrt Èd',r{i t - "{ta r{'úzr l,íT*'$ ,*$

tL**'o Er.'ttz ?\',&v\ 86',?zr

ct.È4,7 zl'{.zr zflu'p a?sd;.n la'€l
r efi
tc,o6'* .-h
!['Ex 6t"r5z az'lar 6!r*'c 6E6x'u g<s'u r
lru6'u L9rF"a *g'rle t L.L:Ì

oúoú'* b\aî'o ro"rJe 6l"t6u *e'elI sú"61e lft$'+ l?sg'r: óóe'+r hv

tú'$5t 6i'd*r ro'dtr 5r'gctr *Br*'s p8lfi'$ orL'*r eV
{Éo6'o *r&1.'a br'ó92
r1zu6"* ,98{""t) ?r'g,og lp'zvt úr'gar gc'gtr. n['{or 6dx,'p \rtij'{ tgrnl *b
l{l'u6'p :*lt:L-{) È{'lpr zt"ryL re.[*r &a'llz B["a*r úrrQ'ú r5 9$t's g6zv'ú tt
fSu6'{, plgf-"o a9'rrt lz'p9t $e'ocr rr'9b r l$'{'ó cd{g'r fiFrr'6 ge

g9o$'* +tg$€'o 5t'5pr Ft'prz" tL'16 er'|ttz s5'^?6 gÈ.c0'13 c'l5g.r'a t?c?'g
rtgr6'* 6v'*Í'. st"b6 et'tte sl't s u{zqr',} ÉltrS's grSr'g
a6tl.-"rt st'?ge
gf;f-l"w *{'isx ur:'rl tit'rd ú1'Lîì7. ,f6'ad lge*'x Jrf g'c g*rtl'l
*.Is6'*
gli:fi'o zntt'r: c,!'z*t. ,\91'dB gr:'zttz 0fl'ú8 \,az*'ú zgfg'* Slrtz'!.
gcrÉ;* :s{r'l'Px f'rl'5À) \*'Yîe *F'!S gl,Y*'* 6rl'S',:t
egcú'n
[rrÈ.a 5t'otr ! b'11[ oÉ'rÈ :n'0tÉ rú au lrto'rt llrg'o ao(b'o tc
fi5n6'*
ge"lI lé'JÈe ú,a'*t BSÉrl* lSr6t'r: *9r1."1i ut
z*r*'c taSs'a *['a5z 6o'r.gl
grr6'* 5Èlz"* za'9\z e 5'!'El 6g"rJ st'\Lz llil 9nto'* z9n8'€ gÌbrf 91

zLz6'* $b5e's l*'b6r *s'lw 8r'99 Éq'ÉÈr Éa'5s úgE6'e tlúi:u ti6eh"?
{l'*'p gf ilz {8'*B {s$o'n ttpgl,'a s!l*'6 s
q[ró'o tf Ée's ng'r4z Ir:'r'úr
SrttSr 5';'5\ dr'{rr gn'S6 ú49ú'* lo8l'a '
,59d['I
6ptú'* d91t'8 :zrll'a
*62únq rlÉr'* IT'lT,T
,
ayr5 g*'lrr úr'ú? ó*gc'cr
*ltî^z
-4:
{:l^'ib od,hir ?6ls'0 hhn j, n
fre6'o l/ls's. cd' 8r iz'**z f 6'tre
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 2T

REFRIGERANTS

FREON and CFCs

(CFCs), i.e' organic
The most commonly use4 refiigerants in vapor-compression refrigeration systems are chlorotl.uorocarbons
which is actually registered trademark'
compounds, containing oniy carboi, chlorine and fluorine. They are àlso known as Freon,
a
in refrigeration cycles, such as high latent heat, high specific
CFCs show favourabie physical and chemical properties to úe used
the atmosferic preisuie; at the condenser and moderate pressure (below the atmosferic pressure) at
heat, moderate pressure luuoue
the evaporator. Moreover, they are not toxic for human beings.
to the number of Chlorine,
CFCs are identihed by a code made of an R (Refrigerant) and followed by a series of digits, according
In the the most used working fluids in vapour-compression refrigerators. were Rl 1
Fluorine and Carbon atoms in the molecule. pas-t,
place of
(C Cl3 F), Rl2(C Cl2 F2), R22 (CH Cl Fz). Most ràcently, these CFCs have been replaced by Rl34a (CHz F C Fs - used in
HFC
Ìrtzy, n4or, and R410a (both used in place of R22i.-These new refrigerants do not.contain chlorine, and are called
(HyúroFluoroCarbons). The reason for such a replacement will be discussed in the following.
other
Ammonia (NH:) can also be used as a refrigerant, It is sometímes referred to as R717' The advantages of ammouia.over
arò the iow cost, the high EER, the favourable thermodynamic and transport propeÉies, the detectabiliry in the event of
refrigerants
a ieak, and the absence of polluting effects. However, ammonia is toxic, which makes it unsuitable
for domestic use and adopted
mostly in industrial contsxts.

OZONE DEPLETION and GREENHOUSE EFFECT

be hazardous for
Refrigerants released in the atrnosphere (mainly due to leakages and machine dismantling and diposal), may
(197s) cFCs destroy the protective ozone layer due to
the envíronment. In particular, it was iealized by Éowland and Molina that
This implies more ultraviolet radiation penetrating the earth's atmosphere'
the reaction between ozone and chlorine.
of a reference
This effect is measured by the Ozone Depletion Potential (oDP), defined relative to the ozone depletion effect
CFC, namely Ri i which has been assigned ODP = i.
(GWP), whichisdefined relative
CFCs are also responsible of the gre-enhouse effect, measured by the Global warming Potential
to the greenhouse effect induced by COz (GWP = l).

Code ODP (Rll=1) GWP (COz=1) Vita media(o) (anni)

Chlorofluorocarbons Rll 4000 50
R12 8500 100
cFc
R13 1 1700 600

Hydro-Ch lorofl uorocarb ons Ft22 0.05 1700 13

HCFC R 123 4,02 93 t.4

R23 0 11700 0
Hydrofluorocarbons
R32 0 650 5.6
HFC
R 125 0 2800 JJ
R134a 0 1300 15.6
R143a 0 3800 48
R152a 0 140 1.8

Azeotropic blends R410a 0 l 890 U

R407 c 1610 0
Zeotropic blends
R717 0 0 0
Ammonia
F.'744 0 1 100
Carbon dioxide
tine in the needed to reduce conoentration by

1989). New and

For this reason, the use of CFCs has been banned by international treaties (starting from the Montreal Protocol in
not all new reÍÌigerants allow the same level of
less hazardous reÍÌigerants are being developed in tire meanwhile. However, these
refrigeration would consume more electric energy, thus increasing the rate of
performance as the ;ld CFCs: this mleans that systems
bOz emission by the power plants.
the direct effect
The parameter that miasules the overall environrnental irnpact in terms of Coz emission, taking into account both
(refi.igerant release) and the indirect effect (electricity conzumption) is the Total Equivalent Ir/arming Impact (TEIltl):

TEWI=mGWP+a coz
e ,: {-='

. m: mass of refrigerant released in the atmosphere (lealts, maintenance) (kg)

. a.co2 = mass of COz released per unit elecfric energy (kg/kwlù
. r= life-span of the refrigeration system (h)
. e- mean electric energy consumption of the ref igeration system (kW)
 pt
EFFICIENCY Of AN ABSORPTION SYSTEM
W
)An absorption refrigeration system can be regarded as a thermal cycle operating between three environments
(heat sourc e at Ts, heat sink at To, refutgerated environmen t at 7,,). The thermal cycle receives also the
work
P which is usually negligible compared to Qg,,(P ( Qs,").

The thermal efficiency (Energy Efficiency Ratio) is defined as: T0

EER= Qroot - Q"oot

ft Qr,,+P- Qr", Qn + Qr-

P

Now, let us consider the following balances, /

while keeping in mind that(P < Qgrn + Q"ooù: is
Qs.n

Energy balance: Qr+Q, =Q,oot +Qgu,+ P * Q*a +Q,r,n

Qcoot

Entropy balance (cyclic process):

ó+*' =?-.? "++cr

tù
$rr= =o ì lev

By combining the previous equations, we obtain: T

11o 1*
Qroot To Tr Qs",
ri
EER - -
Qr",,
1i 1 t'J - '':n'
Ciclo Diretto

Tu, 7,, -l i .1'

o
To

In case of ideal cycle, o :0. Hence:

-r
ti! 1 t'j -' t*
11 \ -f
) .{ Ciclo Inverso
L
,ù
\
To Ts T0 ( 7,, ì_
1 -r,

r;I
EERC Q",
EERt
11 \7" -7"" )
ryC

- Tnu To Qc EERC

This means that an ideal absorption refrigeration system can be considered equivalent to a direct Carnot cycle
combined with a reversed Carnot cycle, óperating between the outdoor environment (Ir) and - respectively -
the heat solrrce (fg) and the refi'igerated eivironÀent Q,ù (see figure). As a consequence, the ideal
thermal
fficiency can be calculated as the product of the respective Camot efficiencies.

With the following typical data:

To: 40"C: 313 K; 7",:7oC:28AK;Ts: 11OoC : 383 K à EERi: 1'55

However, the real thermal efficiency is EER:0'7+0'8

 25
I ACTUAL LAYOUT OF ABSORPTION SYSTEMS

I ,1,]',1,1 ::,,. :

. W:tR.[f
I
I

' .envirorruetrt
J\
4 Beî

t l{ectilier Cr,rrr;rirtor
l'urc N lI3

I Ir(")
()
"---'* lleg$n(lîlor
Dxprnsion
ralve

l'lgpitnrìon
calvo
,{bsorhrr

Nl{1 i I!(}
Ittttg N}h
,t'pon,1,
I
I Punrp
i QwJ
I
I
I Coolin8 rvrtler
I I

til
Écs,(aÉtlstruB sf4'tEF

{ fútJuÉf,l5ltlis
HArAfI
0Lt?

sTEÈrd
f

Èi.rit}.i,fi*
fdsî*K

EXtl{*t{&ÉFr

{ $StUTú4,J ,lÈPFl*:Ér?'ef{T
FU?fF ]#Ù''at
{.

I,

t_

t
 RtF h tÚe f'*\s(" 27

ONE OR TWO.STAGES ABSORPTION CHILLERS

I a" $ 0eneratnne

Inndensa 0re 0 One-stage

I
Absorption

2 9,
I Scambiat 0 t' e
_t* ri gen era t iv 0 Chilter type:
3 g
0 0
HzO + LiBr
I
HzO + NH,
Ivaparatore A Pompa
I
5
Ts=90+110oC
q
a
Assorbitore Te=7+t2oC
Q." Qu EER=0.6 + 0.8

15
Generaîore
alta press.

Gap
11
I
Two-stage
h
ì_
Absorption
Scambiator
9g rigeneratlvo
I 1
12
Condensatore
Chiller type:
7
Gsneratore HzO + LiBr
bassa
3
16

17 Scambìatorr Ts=120+140"C
rigenerativo Ts=7+L2oC
't0 I 6
EER=1.0 + 1.2
F

18 Evaporatore
t lornpa

4
Assotbitore
Qo lq*l

o An intermediate device (auxiliary absorber in the figure below) serves as absorber for the top cycle,
and as generator for the bottom cycle
. Heat source at Tg x 150+170"c (steam or superheated water)
. The thermal efficiency :
EER:1.1+1'3
I
 'r;
.rq.,.d{:.
t;;.r-,,1(r"
29
, ,2\:O PRIMARY ENERGY RATIO (PER)
4,:
!'

The thermal efficiency of an absorption refrigeration system cannot be directly compared

with that of avapor-
compression chiller, ú..uur. the rèspective definitions are not coherent with each other.
Inclee,J, they lespectively refer to a tÎrennal energy input (AB) and to mcchanical/clcctric
cncrgy input (VC).

Primary
In order to allow a fair comparison, it is suitable to adopt as a common basis the consumption of
Energy. The primary energy (pE) is defined as that form of energy found in nature (contained in raw fuels)
that has not been subjected to any conversion or transfomation process.

It is then possible to define the Primary Energy Ratio (PER) as follows:

E,
PER =
PE

Here, Eu is the useful energt output (thermal, electric or mechanical energy or cooling capacity), while PE is
the primary energy consumPtion.
As iar as iefrigeneration is concemed, the comparison among different technologies has to be
made with
reference to the cooling capacity (Er: Q). Q*:
If we refer to the followine values:

. eet :0.50 Mean effrciency of electric power plants (nationwide average value)
. rlc :0.9 Conversion efficiency in the combustion process to fuel the AB system
o EERvc =25 Energy Efficiency Ratio for a vapor-compression system
o EERre-r :0.8 Energy Effrciency Ratio for a single-stage absorption system
a EERre-z: I.2 Energy EfÍiciency Ratio for a two-stage absorption system

We get :

Vapor-compression system PER,,^

YV
_A _ = EERvc' oa = 2.5'0.5 =1'25
h
:
PE

PERou_, =
a =#n= EERou-''?c = o'8'o '9=o'72
S insle--stage absorption system :
PE

Two-stage absorption system PERnu_, =

0
PE
=#^= EERnu
''4c
=I'2'09=1'1

These results suggest that the use of an absorption refrigeration system is profitable when:

. a source of inexpensive thermal energy is available (e.g' thermal waste);

o incentives for the use of natural gas, such as for summer cooling of buildings' are provided.
 3l
Excerpted from : Dincer-Kanoglu : Refrigerafion systems and applications,
Wiley'2070

Exarnple 5"1
the presrure lirnits of tr'ú hIPn
Consiiter a two-stage cascade:rufiiger:ation nystem og:erafing between
rnd lgùkp* u,ith rc.frigemnt-13,{a"as the wérkifig niio lFigure 5.5}" He*t rejectiofi ftotti the lower
the pressure
cyr:le to the upper u,t*È tok** plnce ifl úit adinhctir; counter*flo,w heaî e.x*h*ngel'where
ú 16e $pper inci loner cl,ctes nre CI.4 *rnd 0.5 MP*, lespective.ty. In hoth cyrcles, fhe refitgerzurt
yflpflf at fhe {ornprcssor inlet, tucl tlte
is a s$turuted liquid at the conde.nser exit flfld ft s$turilted
isenhrpic *ffrciency of the conrpressor is 85$ú. If the mass florv rate of the
uefiigerant through the
lower óycte i-0, 0.0? Ic.g/s, ia) draw the ternperature-enhopl' cli*granr of the cycle
itdictting pr*ssurcs;
determine {b} the pi;ss norc, rate of the lefúger*nt Îtlough lhe upper
tycle, {si the rate úf heat
*noval fi"onr the refiig*rated strHce., md {diìhe CoF of thÌs refÍige.rator; and (e"} deterrnine the
betleeen the
rute.of heett mmrrla! nnttr the cop if thís refiigerntor ope.r*ted olr a single-sfage cycle
ffiuuc pressurc liniiîs with the s$me comp *u*oo efficÍency. AIsn, fake
the tnass llow late of R-134n
thruugh the cycle to b* il"0T kgds"

'Opg

Éondenser
7
ff
w
Ccmpnessor

I b

Evapotat*r

Condenset

"5 p

14/

úcmpreseor

4 î
Evaporatot

01

Figur* S-5 Sclrerlrr'lti* gf tw*-litagrr cascadle lefi'igeleti*t ÈyslÈtu consiclsled irr Exarnple 5"1
 JJ
I The mass fl:ow rnte sf the refrigernnt thrnugh the upFÈr cycle is derernrine,J finnr *n
hutralrce fin thf, hent exchang.er.
Èner€S

l'- - fts} -
rir*{&s ms(ft1- Jrr}

ma{?55.5,5 - 135"S3} lcJ/lcg - ru"0? kg/sl{tdT.5? - 73.33't kJ/kg + rft1 : fi.ll3Tkg/*

{ca The rans of hear remsvsl front the r,efrigelnted spnce ix

Ér : ms{Ilr - t+l : {O.frî Ws}{3a2.8{ - ?3"33:} kJrftg - ll'8?klf

t {dl The pswÉr input rurd thc C{}F ffE

Iir
- rm*{fu - fts), *,mreiftr - &r}
I * {ú.113? k$r}{l$s"tfi-?55"55} k#ks + {fi.eT ke/*}{rd?.s?-!,,11.8fi1'kl/ks: 5"56hW

t-
coP-+:!g-t.rs
w 5.56
{e} xf this refrigprator operntrd nn * singl*-st*ge cjcl* fFigur* 5.?] hetu,ser tlìe .ra.rnÉ presst$e,
lirnltsn we wÈftld hflve

ft1 : ft*ot*filsn: l4t.S6 kJftg

rl :.rl@t&l*I's - 0.$-1S? kJlke'K
P1 - ldoo mn
| ftr* : 2gg"s! kJ,,l€.
J!:^rl I

*:Ì*-j"
- fel &r
28$'5r
il.85 = - 'y';llti -+ IIr :3$s.5& kJ/ks
&r - !4t.86
À3 : &"66,1ssohyn: t"ì5.93 kJ/hg

fta
- hs - 135"0"ì kJ/kg
É" : mrtfir - ft+J : {CI.ffT ke/s}{!A!"S* - 135.'lJ3l k,trikg : ?"4$ kW
d' : *nq1r1 - ft1], - {0.S? kg/sltlfifi.5& - f42.S6} kJ/kg : 3.TS kW

coF-g*19=1"sp
- fi'*3"?d-"
r 2
Eg
úH
hlf

il.18 idlPa

4
Og

S'igure S.T f-.r diagrarn *f the.sir:gle-sloge cycle cnn"ciderÉd in pmt {d} nf Enarnple S.1,
 35
t- EFFICIENICY OF MULTI-STAGE REFRIGERATION CYCLES

t-
Zout
D\
TJ, h''. L '?_"' 0r

a \.['(
Qout

CI cv

W-rft +_ Wz

Qz:Qt+Wr

EE& = a "-- Wt
W,

Qr

Tt

With reference to the figure above, the EER of the overall system can be stated as follows

EER =W.' Ot+14/, a 1 * EER..EER2

a, + 0r:L ,1+ 1 EER,+ EER,
EERI EER2 1
*_!!L
EERl EER2
eent+{fffi
Yi r-!._-:--jji- " L#t,
For n-stage cascade cycles, we have L,î+\
E(,fta { {,&,
TInnn;
EER = #--
lnrno
k--t

Examples. For a two-stage cTcle (lF2),

with EERI:2 and EERz:3 , yields:

2'1
EER= =o.s
2+3
with EERI:L2 and EERz=2, yields:

EER=1'2'2 =0.75
L2+2
In conclusion, for multistage compression cycles, the overall EER is lower than the lowest EER1 of the
concurring cycles.

L
 JI
METHANE LIQUEFACTION
by means of 3-stage cascade refrigeration cycle

More realistic schemes

t 2 3

7 I I
& Pronane
./ -,*'.*. Ethvlene 2 t3 t4
I -- Methane

vdnS
31r/
6
Xorí..
b
LNG N6

*lr S$n l*xt 4[{

. . 'E{cBIl*Fr
lljrfi*lic*t Erohrnglr i
È
-i

b5
trE
ù"*
EÈ
# *
ì, fi
ft
s: ff ffi$$w :l

Hèat gx€$eqÉèrÉ F!Èet Élréhang*fÉ F{éat ÈxchÉn{ère

FR$FÉilf irSr
i*t LRiIE rilET}IAH3
Elfndxu
atftw
:1. l t--ÉE
w**.",,n1'

*
Sa*q* ttn*s
R €lrdL4sdetE G
, Pufri*rt l*at
FA $utm
 I

t"

t"
CHAPTER 11

CRYOGENIIC CYCLES
t

[,

t"

L
f

t-
\
l_
\
 2

JOULE . THOMSON EXPANSIO}{

Throttling and Inversion Curve

process occurs. The

When a fluid goes through an orifice, a porous plug or capillary tube, a throttling_
process is iserihalpic iníhe sense that, while thà péssur" d.rreur.r (pz< pù, enthalpy at the
inlet (1)-and at
process is also isothermal,
ihe outlet (2) sectiòn of the device are equal 1nrhz1. For an ideal gas a throttling
or decrease in temperature. The
whereas foí a real gas or vapor the expansion produces either an increase a

latter case is interesting whén u gu, ,oàling is iought: in this case indeed the aim is achieved with no work
decrease in
expenditure. In matheÀatical terìns, when a decreàse in pressure is accompanied by a
temperature then:

u=tl
' dPlr="ou,,,
>o

where p is the so called Joule-Thomson cofficient.

For any real gas or vapor, and based on data, it is possible to plot the family of isentalps, as well
"*pói*ental The highest
as the contour where p:0 (inversion cirve). The region where p>0 is the cooling region.
temperature achieved by the ìnversion curve is called the maximum inversion temperature
(T**).
As a result, to achieve t-he gas cooling via an isenthalpic expansion, two conditions must hold:
1) the initial temperature I must be lower than T,nor ( T< T*o,) '
Zj tnepoint représenting the initial condition (7lp) must lie within the cooling region.
the
The inversion curves of*o-. gases are reported in the following figures, whereas the table shows
maximum inversion temperature for some rele',rant gases'
6*0 u<lJ
{heatin{Í1
U1:sp*r
7' tt.tit ttvti i n v* t's i tix inver*í<ln
*rX
t'::tt1?*,t",.tIl1{* ternpereÈLtrs
TiK

40s

F ,'i t - "
/1 * crelS{,

2A*
Inlertir:n line
Low*r.
invttr*ittrr
liìrì-ìpfìlrdlirrr€!

{i
tut'î}
*
r,VV 40s

6r/altn
Maximum inversion tem efature
Gas T** (K)
COz 500
1

Oz 761
Nz 62r
Air 603 Ambient Temp
Ne 250 300 K
Hz 204
He 40
 4

(T,S) DIAGRAMS F'OR ORDINARY AND CRYOGENIC FLUIDS

Helium

'c t8

ng I t6
lr
100

ci ,r-otl I
l4
ello

ll
ll
il t2

400
lr
I €

I
tQ
I P * cost,
I
,
lYro
JA0
I \
I ; cost.
I
I \

200 U 4
I
40 ó0
I 30
\ 10
entÌopis, J/roole'grado
I
,
I pt frÀ \
I
t00 Hydrogen
I
I pÌeÈ$ion6, alrn
I Yt ao e
o e o

I
r50

i{r
I

0
I \
cq \ 140
n
')-
I

l -t ,460
4È0
I

rur \ I aaò
lt \ \. 12r1 Ir
420
ld rogsno

I l0
ll
\ I t-...
I
380
'1.
/ cH4 I
I
360
Q3 v
/^ \ d
5 I 340
I
ll0 320
/a'ftt 0
V,
I
a
/y È

X
70

U1Y 280

ilt 260

-373
b
Lj.1e
ó /2
50

4ó
critlco K 24Q

22 o:""*"
-4 0 I
2A0
,e'
s
î-n
4 180.*_. ù-
80 90 100 ,..-L2tJ 150
10

3456789 10 ll l2 13 1l

ontropia, call!m-grado
 aF lrrdsltì réliÚ".trîtt lz ttrtt "'^ !44t {91;t,

k:4tE t? ?i Q *tî t3î t t,/r \ lrvv;t. ,1,,;4q qr25y.t: 4tîsÉ

tJ: t'í îri:lí, i:lt"l'j izi,t'l 9:i1t r" 1y:11i;. : 7p,V7-t: 4f.zi éi ?î. ètlì ,.V,1, i|;f;t :rirt i ,{i{,9f i. t'lti}' ';rt{Îll
fitî-i tÍ.ii ttí'l gt{r t |4tr't 89't tt î{itî ù
{i:}t' itfe lTlJ:i aí't1 ttit.1 tti*t l
y,l{; I il:ii t &i'alt. îltt\'ti îtt'l' LL'7'i fS {I I Lîrr- l<'r'l l'!.i} t 'í!tl\'í
!'ti 1

, Éilit *, lîì[ : i'îfi1 . ii;i;'l ':i!ifl t{ri{i i:

lili 5 1r1: {?t:: r ?.$íl $iír'J lt '-l'l , *:-!'
l)' I l9il' i wtli1 17;i',$ $rÌt t$ Ìi 'tít'1 l;at I WR+'L ?ít$ $
?lsY *! f1i I 9Fì
íí It ,18 | i{iîg i {.tîir'* {.*t. rf I lÈ{. rr* t l,tl$ i Itrí,r'a1
it t'l' 'A) l'r1 4/itt' I 441:
rfÈi,t
{,i'iì i o.i.i: I i'"/:i /- ttrlYl ,t?i rt 11i1 94tii 9ill i:l;',: #l;::t *i* I tt6\t1: a.

aútl
'&!
ll àì It tr {*i1 lr I t ?i{i I fni tt"t eítÉ* *L f, +l i$ti t lii i,{).1 1t,1 1. ni{irt'{.

it'{.1" tr) Íî ! (t)? tlr'l ù.;tt l lltt'r: iìs'ítr; í.S9 9 4*i i9-si ?l'0i 1Jr|t 1**'l î*) I lÈtri9
yi ?l t, iiìa i:ii'l ;tt: \ '1r'!îí t\it\\ |îliit:' ,iiì 1,iì;É,1 í1)+i ti!:'t '!*rj:l
4!:|
n'1t
*:
tff't ,i;i' \ |:fi'{ ,f tír, {ri.J 4 t},i Itrri íc òt í].t{ t{:'l uxr'l it tll ifil"{
ll'{} arft'ttt" :til'l
t-Èiit ;tt, í lú$t r lri'1}l? {: 4}\\ tb g; ti'i;l î."fllq.inl I d*ir I {.r'rúi 1'à,91 I

,;î/Jt:. îltii J"if'l vit:it ,;ì'lf i.' ri.j'rx:r: ^'/gt

Znr:iV ì:i::'; 1L:t:: ,;!l t'i.it i,rtt't .'*.{i li i6î. É.l{{ l
úwia *r'; lìÌix it{ il.rt t $ù? t
î stt4î {,tr;'l
tr'& r'iiîf, sitl'l Èt{ìt {}i.d'l rg'{1t
t;rí
tÈ{f t4'$î $.}l.t' *tt l St1'\ 9Íít i S{ f^:t {t t! r} i}*í r+ i'í i l{f i"itf't fi)lil I

ití:i't) i4'{e tt'i;l , l.i;{ tt1lt i}y4 i i!:i{ 9' . íi't;'i{ iiti i
fi lt tE*; .!,:ìil: {i?f l :{'ttti. 1$'$'rí *4i!
{i:'{?' 1!î'f llti iit'sÈÈ lrt?; ù {ÌSi ttrt 1f'1li t{i'l Í"*, tif:tl ? et t{l [{$î I
itt?'? l{{ì{
2

rt 8lí i il{ È4?'t ,X4r ófiF-t

f,1*}. rìí 1 sÌs I y)L'r'l f4 1i 1! t\
{dít' fdliìt:i |X:tfl à

'1*tt *41"1 tt:w, ;1i1i1r1 rg1;..;;; zg';1;'i

iii"I! 1 l:r:í . ?:its f. tsi:l {tr, i ,il$f.r :ti..j.t{ LI?,t:,,1tii
t1'r $1'1?.$ {lfl? t" f't {}K i i""li fff t 'K1.j 1:F!t'9 l?{;î,í? +l'î: l
t{ t} w.!,; { 9Íf i?rf (4;t> l 1
è

i.g'Lí *;$t' fi&'r ll t'r'{ íi31i ltvt L-r*î l:<ìt"l t#J1 ' L;ir1l {ú'îi{ 8Èiv'l
Al(ll **!1
{*"el: r::i';? :àtl:Í :: í$l:' *lr#:À' f"r" sì ;i ;;t r;rl ''E?il iÍ{l'l t.}iî":} !'àít}:î \lî;" l
rs sl {f?} rffl l{rtIt li9*t t!{ti. F i6't 1 { -ci; *{}'1 yl3 l {(tî'9 ól'i*1 ?rc8'l
l6rt èt tja. zlltL't2 t\fiI l'lii ttîr ttà I ttj!?i'Ì it?i t nr'l-1
,f€9i rs{l' dill'l L
{v;lìi igt{ î
{rúì:' eqí!1 lii íil: :lilii ù , i*; 1.1 at) i l|ìrt:-ìl
'* l,ltlt r $ì 41È'l 7.-tú:1 rii8t 9 gL&i
it a{. I iltf t{lr'l îtú€'L èt'g?l' sr Tr
ftil t)î'it 'l: í1" 4, tJtìtìl t,lf'{ llixì'v 5l ílt trí, r
È9'.tt é:sr, L
(j !$r1.] ,t/ri', t:llf i'l?'{ f 1fi1r:9 f$r:{
L î6* ,A,, titY'l ii:!'l f{ls9'$ îlt lrr *?,r't
sg"'i t ft\t f6t l 6fq I {;ltî **'r"tr
fsa't
fl ltÈ a *
i{{€e
{r}'é1.

ix.*a) .wút L
aÍP {s"ii$i ffi.a'.{ttrs 'fdgelruu .u.'lt _}; {X.flìr.$$ y1a
.'iAeL
'"s0;l
ltvn&l: "Jj
.,y*'r'j'.{Suq41 'ÀrP*qJ "tf*lf ryw-,' '*rtl legtf Itt'èt {dFx$d 'ì,*ù
&uÀ'?{t. teata lge.rîll. w'taA

{a;aqdrolups Fregtle$ *Elii fè!}q Si{f l Sr'{1 ,e 6H:3 3't}

f R$r.}d{ilr! {,qt'} *ít firn"a!ìfi t"tJ*tf

!l{9lfi+ ,lÉ;€ *f!-s.! I s1] s1$Ì,;i:dffiJ?

$t\îAf )qi}, *:+,1,1v:w ììtgd'is 9E1U
s{th iú*t', *tlg F &lzti 4l'4î
, r.i r't rln's: {.ff r.ill 4it1i.";:: 41r;S; $,$i sir?l'1". *ft";': ?{'il- ti'.3.1,':
91't S$Yrì {^99 x'tf' I C'r.t-t rYt Agft <îyìL'? lÚtr-ìt lii'tlt ;3'íl- {,rftffl'$ íìi , 1r: ài I I l',l-?.c
rfql ril F',1* I 41:tt. 14'î:l l']?'jr 6ltli'i llîg fi*.8^ t'ìl tfr!? tr91? tltcî.1 rs *!I
it l. dir $i 14{ t. '1if,l *ii't. {{trrr'l ltl:í{.t 6r?(,F ;i.-; iff l* !ttt iv't'il sl:t{i r:.

s] 9 Iti t r {18 ,J"*fi I f, ili'l 9gi t $:ì'i ffittig l1*r-î ll'ù/r lltî 4t!' a{}$ltf!} t &tt xl'tÈl t-:ìt$t
t Yz)'ll ,.itl t'rrll $.e'l 1 y31'1 lir:t { x#], { {d:'49
iitif. 9llltt"Q s l{{ ,r ì0i
ì í$l ; glli!'s tî.ír'l ii;lù
Fir
if,J,r rd'i {{j îi't: $ì11t4'rl
iz'{ iIw
&'?r I
ìt cit 1{rÈt t$í'l 3??i ti:je"$ ítlt'€^ sl'-ss ?f 10' Ll(tW# tu( ititl,
'!,í''ì Efr'È,
iil!] ,'Í'i*
*&-q It'* 4'î&l t0'i !,? rtl *-49'l t*irl Y!.i)î, l4t"!l't ,fltt't ?rfíii Ll'L$- t{rl'lt\'l} f, t9'rù
lit I J/l I ;r1t; ;air g ffí.;'- i-$ ll N{l 9rlr4 } ir{it , iil"x;i,
ii:t n*;1,;l', i't:r1 IS

à?s *E lt t,i'? î'Ètl 9 tìrl ÀifÉ {,*i{ tt{ìi-$ lt:ll'l {{ir$ t6 {!!- ltfil l'* vnq cili'ì
alt'$ ,te s {gl ?*i) ! t$f, l *'l'l?j{ $r!{lt* 6tla 1$St?- s$?tx'o ?'?ts {;'sf
ir"rrì?t tl tìl ,tîlÎrt{ i ti.g ti.:?$
-
/ r'{ { fll Vr:4i I
fxl Nj: 4lî.t*rtl
r?fxri
sis ì 9t6 ttirt', t?(/U {6{fY frStî-''* tîig l91g Íi.'fr l'41
lî4ll ti.4 t ,f sll {'rÀ I 1

{?ql eii'l &t$ t:&.{,1 4''ti1 ffi't art {**g-{ I ,g.td îè.41t- {f?? ffi'6, ú{r 9l &tj8

isat ;à1 L È{'t ? ili: 4 S-4.t

(tLl! | t.:, i ,1ll*"1'5 ?lí,rf-I 'ú!iri,\ Èl!*9 !E ia 4ru
îÍ'r.j 01.1"1'1: .461Éì'É , 9{l'ì}

Àrr I ,fl'{ $f ri tt:itz t1$:t {l*'t ff{q'( trtll't wÍà tt'ptl- f${{?t} ffrs 1i13, 0r€È dllll

à{rìl tî$ q wî" *t6 gr*'1 $ri{'Í t{'l:( *ftrl- rZ6Zt'* 6L$} l$tt. lÍ fr x}'$
Í?:{i ìtfbl" |g?a*h v*t* &'l!!; fr$ îr9
1
$lro
r f$; Lttft WI ,ìì$t s
tffr 6$'* ts'|tl &6tt { srix I ${.: I str$ tt}.l l l*îxs tfili'í
rl {t3ìt 19fi},*.€$l$li'Q 9l.l{t $l'tX ertn {.1}{t

{t$ I wit {aa$ s t$l rj'; A$.13 ra*lll* {i8${'! If{ì* l*$
(}'*9 t
*$ {l fl{:9 1'er| t9? {*s ll s't9
t{.-t?
lgtt
rl *t"J q.f,il &i"tt '4 vf, ntÈ | 4ri8 ì ítl4r2i tr'{? if,Èsl 9laÉ.121r tr?}'Ì! '.:{{9} #ì'19
'*?
Fe
!l xl$ I t$t et? ú tft L$A'I ltiiìì s !)tÈ lfYr 6X'.R$l* tSSt,{? Adt4 lt'l! r! tq
&
ftc$
tt {e
tF"6
o&*h *}{l tlq{e}i rg$q
aqh* ffÎ{t
B4ítrJ. rl4, ${iÍ.{ X.uelur:dmJ. *ngr*i
" {X"}C}frl
o

tH'*ril{ls x"a4ri KlzYs*i} 4}.r1r,fi ,&sAttt'* naot{,4

Kpilì ìFq5Ftal;lH. ,*$,4qaÀ 'ot g*utt r$*rO*"Àd :aq:{

a$t'l aeìq* #ql Eg 't*d8À plr$ 0$rI 4q'qt!# $q! $ù pq$hl.l Js rùNlrùddt**X (;tV, 6Ít ;llRrsi$lq'tt!
-":"-'s&!rud

SAT$VI gTTTVTIVAV
9
 I
I

8
(

THE LINDE CYCLE FOR GAS LIQI'EFACTION

I Multistage
i

II Iil intercooled
compression T 4
t"
*

d,
L Make-up gas
I

l
Heat
exchanger

Throttling
IE 3 t
valve r
bl{ u
Flash tank
t
5
Liquid air ù

Definitions:

Yield (i.e. fraction of liquefied air, out of total compressed air) y =Yt =l- xq (r = vapor qualitY)
m

{ m, -h,
Energy balance on C,V.: ffizhz = mrhr+(mr-*t)h + v,=
m2=h,h', -h,
Í
Actual work for the isothermal compression w,h = ml(hz - ll -7"(s, - fif
I
I all liquefied) w*i, = mnl{h, - h,) *4 (", - t,)]
Minimum wor* (if the compressed air were

Figure of merit of the liquefaction plant (exergetic efficiency):

r -_W,ni,, _,, (hr-hr)-T"(sr*sr)

-
' w,, " (hr-hr)-L(rr -s,)
Real operative conditions for air liquefaction: Po= I bar, To= 29o6
pz=200 bar , Tz = 40"C
p4: 1 ba\ Tq: 73K: - 200oC

Achievable values: yL= 9 + l0 o/o

y-.1
:- +9o/o

{
1

L.

l
 10
t-
I ADVANCED VERSIONS OF THE LINDE CYCLE
Two Pressures CYcle

I Multistage
{ intercooled
t
compression t
H

13
lr Make-up gas
f,
0

Heat
exchanger
I
f"
t

$
5
Flash tank
No. 1

I
Flash tank g
g 11
No.2 s

Liquid air

f
I
I
t
Energy balance over the C.V. : mr\+mr\+mro\o = ffidh,t

Mass balance over the C,V ml +m3*ffito=m4=mi+m8

By combining the previous eqs., one obtains the new yield:

l
tltrn !r. - ho mB l\ - lk
1/r.
/'L =
m4 L\-k,
-= mo h- hto

Actual isothemal compression work :

W,n = Wn *Wzo = ml(\ - xs)we + wtql

= mlT - xr)(h, - l\-|,(sr- s,)) + ho - 4 -T"(so- sr)l

l
I
{_
Minimum work (if all the compressed air were liquefied)
f
w,,'i, = * nl(ho - l\) -4 (s,o - s, )]

{ Efficiency of the whole liquefaction plant (achievable): e = 12 + IAYo

I
lower than in the previous
Although the yield is y,r< ! r,rheoverall compression work in this case is much
\ case, due to the reduced mass compressed in the stage 1-2'
t.

t
 t2
COLLINS CYCLE
for gas (He) liquefaction
I

l Multistage Helium make-uP

intercooled (1t: lbar)
compression
(I2bar)

Liquid Nitrogen
I
Heat
exchanger No.1
**li
Expander No.1

1,5 K

I {.,$ l(
Heat
Expander No.2 exchanger No.2

?6K

16l( Heat
Expander No.3 exchanger No.3

$l{

Heat
exchanger No.4

Fash tank Liquid Helium

I
4.2K
I l bar

(
i

I
I
I

I
I
I
,i-"-.

i
t_
CHAPTE,R 10

HEAT PIJMPS
 I{EAT PUMPS

o The heat pump (Hp) executes a reversed cycle but are inverted the positions of the user and the ambient
with respect to the machine. More preciróly th" condenser is on the user's side and the evaporator is
on the side of the external environment.
o The heat pump is the equivalent of a hydraulic pump. This latter serves to rise for instance water
from
a lower to un upper basin, the former rises ieat from a lower temperature reservoir to a higher
temperature one.
. The heat pump is therefore a device able to provide heat to the user; as such, is a competitor of boilers,
electric wires, solar thermal plants and sb on.
o The energy efficiency index is the COP (Coefficient U
Lerformance)
o Current values of the COP for HPs operating at nominal conditionsr, are generally

COPx3+4

Reversed cycle for

Reversed cycle for
Refrigeration Heating (Heat Pump)

(
Extemal
environment
Tz
User side il Tz
&f'\e/'ts4Í'N0

(
Qz
0,
<-- L
<- L

Qt
vr

Extemal
User side Tt
Tr Évfik*rronú environment

f,
L+O,
a, 1
,o, =@ L
lrl A'-4, Q,
-t lrl
a
With: s>0 With : COP>-I

HPs nominal
1
Nominal conditions are operative conditions conventionally set up for the HP testing. More precisely for "air-air"
:7oC ; air temp. at the condenser side: Tc:20oC; for "air-water"
conditions are as follows : air temp. at the evaporator side: Tev
HPs air temp. at the evaporator side: Tev :7"C ; air temp. at the condenser side:: Tc = 35oC'
 J

COMPARISON OF TECHNOLOGIES
FOR HEATING

ENERGETIC CRITERIUM

The comparison must be based on the PER, for any given amount of delivered heat : Eu: Q

f' Electric wire : REP =

0
EP
=P^1'
lrl,
=n,=0.50
'e'
I

Boiler (ryc:0.90) REP =

a - 0 =n^=0.90
'v
EP Qlrt"
r
P!1ol cop
rì Electric HP (COP:I.6) REp =&
EP= = Tu, =t.6.0.5 = 0.8
1, lrtr
{

PICOP :
Electric HP (COP:3) REp =
EP =
/4,
Cop eut =3. 0.5 = 1.5
i --9- P,

It is clear that, unless the COP is fairly high, the HP is not competitive with the boiler'
I" Thus it is worthwhile seeking for the minimum COP (COP,nin) to make HPs win the comparison with
boilers, from the energy consumption point of view. To this aim, the following condition must hold:

t rlc
(REP)HP>(REP)c -> r1,,COP 2rl," -a COP >
Qet

t
As a resuit:
I 4c
coP,n, =
I 4et

With previous data, we get :

coP,nin= .?"=o'9.=l,g
t rlet 0.5

t_
Current HP technology allows to achieve COP x 3 + 4 >1.8
REP

t 2
HP
0.90
Boiler
L,
0.50

t 0.5
Electric wire

0
t- COP.n
,)
J 4 COP

it

I
 5

'lM 0.t4t'.-'"
To proceed with the assessment of:
coP^i, 1rr,
cb

thc following currcnt costs can be considered:

e
Electricity cost: cut =0'20
kwh

W= Methane
35
Nm'=g.7kW4.
Nm'
Lower heating value (LHV): Hi
42!g =n.6kYh Gasoil
t ks kg

r ,€
Ì------;
Nm'
Methane
cb=
Fuel cost on a mass (volume) basis 1.sg Gasoil
ks

Fuel cost on a LHV basis

cb 119.7 =0.t €,lkwh Methane
C I kwh Gasoil
cb
Hi 1.5 lll.6 = 0.13
Finally:
0.2.0.910.10 = 1.80 Methane

coP,nin =4ryr=
cb
0.20.0.910.13 = 1.38 Gasoil

I Since current Hp technology attains coefficients of perforrnance as high aignff!#lryryetut 9t

as the
of boilers and electric
running costs are considered, is clààrly established the convènience of using HP
instead
wires to provide heat to the users.
t should be included' That
To complete the economic analysis, the capital costs of the overall equipment
will be done in the subsequent pages.
t
c,o lorc'01
Gasoil fired
Co*' Cc' boiler cost
L
Methane fired Heat Pump
boiler cost convenience
t Electric region

1 1,38 1.80 J 4 COP

COPmi'
 7

Economic analysis
by a Mathcad worksheet

Definiions : klVh := 1S$ x 3-6'J h :- 36&S"c Eura = {

Data:
Euru
g-1 ;=
È{ $"lJ'- COP
= -l CoEW lso-E*u
k&r
C,
k1,Yh

t 0.s51.-
Er:ro
tlg = S.8f fiog:= 3'f,ogW €-
t'!F
cL
h1ÀIIr

i= 6$1ó n;= 5 yÉar! f;oggr:= l"Cog

t"
i{i + l}r
I Gapitalízed cost factsr F.=
-a" Fa = s'!37
ii+ lln- 1

f,apitalized cost : fo6r.Va := Fu"#og1y CoCa F Fu'ffug flaHFa;= F"'**trgr

Euro
33.T*'l=: CoCa
--- Er:rs
7t'219'- €o!{Fa - l*e*1s"ffi
C*crrr"
-ol.lva= --- kW uw = kW

lntersectisns
- CoEl.trra Csx#a * CoCa
CoCa
fi;=5=521.5.h fr= ---- ---=3165.i"h
'c6 " ctr cel
Lel
T1r.
rv
1lC C.*F

Globalc6$t equatiÈne:
j1'r ot.,
Cgg,{f } := CsElVa + cel-f cú{r} = co'.n+ C1fi{fi := CoEIFs *
*O,

f r- a)"tr
"5*.?r..
3&S8-h

tf ùIobal Cests in EuroiYea*WV

t
I

Cp*l,f'!

\-c\ r I
clsdr)

i-
* lx ls: ?xxr33 3xi*3 4xi$j t*1*3
t. Ik
{_
 REVERSED CYCLE USED FOR COOLING
ff

lnside
air

Evaporator Condenser

Expansion Qout
Qin
valve
wc
Compressor
E=+
Outside
air

fb*rr-

REVERSED CYCLE USED FOR HEATING

Heat PumP operation

I
lnside
air
i
Condenser Evaporator

+-
óou, Expansion Oirt
valve Compressor
€
Outside
air
I

L
 \

TYPICAL FIELDS OF APPLICATION

and matching with thermal load for "air-aif" and "air-watet" Heat Pumps

On the basis of the previous outcomes, we can conclude that typical fields of application for the
HPs
are those which require relaìively low temperatures at the condenser side (30-60"C), namely building
heating,
domestic or sanitary hot water production, swimming pool heating etc. HPs are then used mostly in the civil
sector and in limited industrial sectors.
A special feature of the most used ooait-aif' and "air-water" HPs is the problematic relationship
occuning between the thernaal load (user side) and the heating capacity (HP side). Because of the fairly high
sensitiviiy to the outdoor temperature, these types of HPs may show a heating capacity profile opposite
to the li
outdoor témperature profile. that is particularly evident in the case of the building heating (Fig.2 and Fig.3).
From the figures beiow it is clear ihut *hil" the heating capacity of the HP decreases with the outdoor
temperature-1, (Fig.2), the building thermal load (which occurs for Tr lower than 20'C), increases linearly
witú decreasing f,lFíg.3). As a results, there exist only one condition of perfect matching between heating
the
capacity and bùilding ftermal load (X in the fig.3), Indeed, the HP heating capacily results to be exceding
thérmai load for Tu) Tx while insufficient forln < Tx .In this latter case a back-up system (auxiliary boiler
or electric heating) is necessary to supply the difference (darked area in Fig. 3).

,qndailqni.o potenza termisa i8$+ PompÈ di s*lqre arla'acqua

ecque di ritsrllo,l0{c 'illF.ndttc d5'e

,15

Perfotmance curves of
;Q
commercially available
Heat Pumps

I,*

tÌ
e .---",*i5i;*f0 àhi$3
6 """','@.t5/JFì) titrec6
**'bf+rúr+"C Éqhur BAip
-'.', à5.45ri Èqtrt Ù.,i11
îq

.i !i' ,lr ,ú
Fig.2
& P *.(Ì ,.li É',
T*ìì'rp, iìrat óit{rnf

Q (%)

i00 HP
heating
capacity
X
Aux Excess

Thermal
Load

0
Fig.3

rlril^ l-lp
't
{Vn\ Jì v t 5C{ ot {,.,"^*'o Jil,!. +n;:,r"*-- ìf) }X^ lq,.rv.."*, *u,r-N'
*"-'t à"; 1i1^) f'"\'k
; u rvr *tt l^ ìr\^ [^Èl t" L"^
 13

Evaluation of gas heat PumP

by a Mathcad worksheet

A heat pump, of nominal power Qpc= 50kW, aclopts R134a as working fluid-
The condensation occurs
efficiency is ry," =0.8' The
atp,=I1bar, whilà the evaporation is at T,u: - 10'C. The compression isentropic
Taking into
is driven by an internal combustion engine (ICE) presenting an efficiencv 4u:0.3.
"o*pr.rro,
accoìnt thatg0o/o of the thermal waste can be recovered, calculate:

1. The mechanical power P needed to drive the compressor

2. The COP of the HP
3. The overall heat (Q" ) delivered to the user
4. The PER of the overall equipment (HP+ICE)
5. The pERin case the same Q, is produced by means of a boiler with efficiency r7c-90o/o.

PE I.C.E HP

USER

Diagram of the refrigerant R 134a

IlAÍ
(srd i

*s*g

g&

J
I
,w b*
4, U2r
\.ti, J
"tÌ t&.

*$ "*

lo"
t'.3

la

*$ Í

$.t ,{9$ alltl1

353 4{x,
2i|\! i$f? "l{3:
h {k.}ÍLai
 15

GROLIND IMAT PUMPS

ground
Geothermal or Ground heat primps take advantage of the more fhvorable temperature of the
i comparecl to the outdoor air.
't'trat is slrown in Fig. l, which plots the tenrperature profile in the near
temperature
undérground at various depths. It is eviclent that below 8-10 m fiom the grouncl level the
higher than the
stabilizes at the alnual average temperaturc ol'the outdoor air for the given locatiotl, i.e.
mean air temperature in wintèr andiower than the mean air temperature in summer.
That is beneficial for the
thermal cfficiency of the cycle in both seasons (COP 5-6 in winter,
:
H.hlR=3-4 in summer). ',|.'heir

perfunnance is thus almosi stable throughout the year. In lhis kind of HPs, the evaporator is a heat
accommodated in
Lxchanger, consisting in a system eif pipes buriedin the growrd near the user location and
trenches (fig.2) or in borehsles (tîig.3).
I
I

I .*'*{xr:e l+lltp*ri*fllr*
* ìs \!J
lJst)|n
('
I

5*r

Fig,l
l*dlx

I lt +11

Jfrftl
lf*èelxl:y *t*t'ly i,* i{rrr*nrb*r fidErgur*

Fig. 3. Evaporator in boreholes

Fig.2. Evaporator in trenches (10-50 m below the ground level)
(l-2 m below the ground level)

t. -)

!
i
CHAPTER t3

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
OF E}{ERGY SYSTEMS
 t
GENERAL FRAMEWORK
l
TECHNOLOGY
t

C
o a +

EP m Process
0 Eu
b P
u
S
t
I
o
Environmental
o Control 771.r

n Technology

mp

lTlab Qout

Definitions

: Heat ( Q* HeatingPower; Q- : Cooling Power; Qou, : Thermal waste)

a
P : Work (Mechanical andior Electric Power)
t71p : Pollutant mass
lTlab : Pollutant mass displaced by mitigation te'chnologies
lTxr : Pollutant mass discharged to the environment
EP : Primary Energy

Primary Energy Ratio: PER: E, / EP

o
Emission Factor: EF =YP lò)
,
EP MJ,
m''
RF = (ad') \$
i Removal Factor:
ffio q
Krt'
Pollutant removal efftciencY : ,lrn=%=ffiP-l/l' =1-PP à
t mp ffio

m.. EP FE FE(I-rlo")
'I- :--Lt,, =J+-m, EP E,,=-- REP=-
s.. mo FR
Chemical pollution Factor: REP
I
t
Qort
Thermal pollution Factor: Io
8,,
t..
 t-

t-

ABSORPTION REVERSE CYCLES Qout = Qo * Q'o En = Q,

t-

t-
To
î'{
o" g\
t' $::-
Qr {"
Q'O Qo
Q.'o = Q, * 0, v
t- \J

<-- î1c Qt
Qs r *tV

0, Boiler da cui I

Tz Q"lQr+Q',lQr
Ia -Qour -Qo*Q'o =
8,, 0, Q'l Q'
{ 8-Q' ,
Qr+Q' 1 *t+1+s
8, 4c
t I
I
--Jl
rlc t

HEAT PUMPS Qì,u =Qo Eu = Q',

t"

L
i To

thus
coP

Q'o= P+Qt
=+

Q'o Qo
t.
I0 -Qo,t =.9-.=QolP
coP + P <-* n <- Qt
8,, Q'o Q',1 P
t. Qz Prime Mover 1-1
(EPS,ICE ...) _!
t Tz
COP

I
L

I
 5

t.
Coz EMISSIONS
the carbon dioxide
Among the many pollutants produced by combustion processes, here we deal with
only, bicause of its relevance to the global warming effect'
etc., and is at the
Coz is mentioned i"À*y national ind internationul nonnr and laws, EU directives
international
center of worldwide attention (since the Kyoto protocol (lgg7),through manyother
catastrophical events due to the
covenants, up to the Marrakesh ugr..*.ni(2016) to prevent natural
uncontrolled climate change.
(among others) by:
The reduction of chemicaipollutant emissions by technical means can be achieved

. combustion control
' flue gas control

As far as COz is concerned :

on the fltre gas :

N* ittg"tt"" technology is used by now, although the feasibility of the "COz caPture and storage
(CCS)', is under study."ihis wouldimply extraction of COz from the flue gas with chemical means,
or
th.n óornp.ession to liquefaction and final sequestrationin geological sites (marine deep-water
petroleum/gas exploited reservoirs).

1 on the combustion chamber :

lrcproductioniswelcome,asthatisamarkofgoodcombustionpfoceSs.
t Indfi'"r* tt higtt toxiciiy of Co, the incomplete oxidation of C to Co is less exothermic than that
which leads to COz:

C+ Oz -+ COz + 393.5 kJ/mole C

29+Oz-+ 2CO +2211 kJ/moleC

Since, at the present, no mitigation technology is adopted for the COz control,
then

4 n"coz
:0
.\
As a result, the pollutant factor for COz will be:

I ro"
ffi, _EF(l-rtr,) _ EF
Eu PER PER

energy technologies,
Let us now proceed with the calculation of EF and PER for the most widespread
in view of the assessment oî lro, .
 lnn îft tJ'l
7

PRIMARY ENER RArIO ( PER )

the user (in

Let us remind that, by definition, the PER compares the amount of energy required by
and tite so called
the forms of thermaipower, cooling power, rnechanical energy, electricty etc.)
primary Energy, this làtter to be understood as the energy derived from not renewable sources such
as the
Tìl*:li;se such enersy sources *. &Ff"vr*ìL that they are of concern to us, expeciallv
derived
when we think about future geìrerations, not to say about the environmental consequences,
from the unavoidable combuition processes to convert fossil fuels into heat.
forms
The pER is also useful when comparing different technologies powered with different
In
of energy to achieve the same purpose (fot inrtutrce fuels and electricity to produce heating).
such caiés the primary energy is the common basis for a correct comparison. So,
by definition:

8,,
REP
EP

The following table collects the operative formulas of PER for the most relevant energy
technologies.

DD
Internal combustion engine : REP,",
ILE =+!=*=,pr
EP P, lrl,

P, P,
Central poweî station: REP",*
uro =-!i=--:!-=T"r
EP P, lT",

Electric heating REPELH =#={f6=r',

a a =Tc
Boiler: REP(. =
EP Qln,

Compression reverse cycle: L/L

REP,,," =g==9-
EP lu*
= t.crl,t
P,,,

Absorption reverse cycle: REPAT. =#=h=Earc-tn4.c

REPEHP
o P"tCOPFHP
=COPrr,, r7,,
Eiectric Heat Pump
EP P", lrl,

Qo, +Qr"
REPr,r,, =
Gas Heat Pump (GHP) EP
 I

@ trl
r CO: Pollution Factors fbr basic ensrgy technologies
bY a hfattrlcad wnrksfueet
r
g, 1t6.J
= to-s'ng
kwh na,l
t- Befinitions =:S'tOS"l =
ke
CO" Fullution Factor for electricity É'r-F
I_r SJo.--
hwh
t-
Thermal Power Teehnolngieg
t-
Bailer
t- rlg := *,9 EF ;= 35-S PÉE t1g
Data
$'f5
=

C0, P*llution Factor u*l ,= IEL = 23s';k ItsL = 6l'!"# #

#
Electric Heat Fump
I
ncoz ncg,r 3el

Sata
CSP:= 3 Îggg!=
n-= Fr1'Cúf
=-cfip

Iel
CS* Follution Factor [r.sp,= trEHs= l$f.7"kffi f-
UIEIP _ 4si-gL
6F h.f}

Gae Heaf Fllmn I

gr mco,l EF
IF-=t--
Data
FEE = 1"*5
il,{t a FER"

EF'
ff er
= lis's" En:.g J i.Y-t"-

t_
CSs Pollution Factor kc{F,= ffi ?sHF
kV,ltl
lJÍ!.f = rIbiu
6r

Eleetric heatinE
t.
lgp;= {.1
Data

L sr' Ef
CO* Pallutian Fastor
r
aEtrf = ,t.*"-*
6.^
-- trsgd = 1: a-y.-
Ìb{J

t.

L-

L
 11
ì

!
I
I CLASSIFICATION OF THE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES
with respect to the COz Production
I

t-

COz emissions in (g/kwh)

?000

t-
l 800

\
t- CPS / CC
1 600
\
\ ICE
t 1400

CIC
1200

1000 EHP

800

600

400

200

AIC lst AIC st

CI
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.2 t.4 1.6

REP
Coal technologies
Oil technologies
Gas technologies

L Nomenclature

CPS Central power station

L CC Combined Cycles
ICE Internal combustion engine
C Gas fired Boiler
L CB Gas fired condensing boiler
EPH Electric Heat Pump
GHP Gas Heat Pump
L CIC Compression reverse cycle

L
 f
I

13
I hr"r
I
e$i{e
Frimary Énprgy wtrrld fiensLiffl ti* n
.w
#i$ try
'%à4[Ì
Million tonnea"mil equi\lelent

q{},al
Rfilrr!vàtllÉ$ 130se
I lydroefeotricitl.- "" "-
NrJfilÉal enargv r?0ú{
Natural g*s
0il lsflt
1

1 000t

grN{

Bú{'T

700(

$ù0fi
I
t 5úflC

( "lilnt
;J{ùt
I
2tXrt

1 ù${

3ír Jirt;.:jt,ii*i :rl!i;:tt. :,1 iriai!.1 i:j:::i.;Í ri: iiJ

Carl:on clio:<ido affissì*ns {rnilli,rn tcri,ne* CÚr}

Í3*s*CI
'' &'tti;:n F;:li;ií|r:

n Africil
r ffi ,tiiir,ite t,lr*t :lt<xtj
t ffi lir.rrt:iLl.: & í;nvillill
H t;. * flrlnî. r.1;t:tlríi.:;:
:Xl iri;rrtlr Airi,+; il.;;t 'Ji)í]ilrl

(
ilfi{)i,*{}

t,
I

ì5{Ì*{}
I

t
lú{)r}il

,:itll;13

f
I t)
t
tiir 7A i$ 'i:iíj ri5 !iu 1-.{$ í}{"} {,):i 1* 1 i.l

I
tr)

H
t-{
z ùl
cf {o-ul aal Éutrr*d snltelFeu [_* nnl $u;*.tnE a*ltelPsg
a {*s ltn} EuP.lag aúltslpeg
LT qt et
rq o G
a # Èt(}()
ts 'y.!:

o ì, a
*e t;
H *g
V) Ltr l.'
tn
.{ (3
ú{ óc5 ,$&H s&ù
ahq r{
oa gffi 6S QI*N
r.! F {J
Erll frì g a à
g ù
i,ll |;[ a
s q
rrì l+i
z* {r3 g
;3& ffiuf
=a ff# g B 4
o
s ts
>
ca rg :i '"
til*
À>
FI\ s
F È n
(!
O **il ú t3 {5 c} (5 cl
{.s
,Éo* fr}
r! @
qs €r !t? a:I {q {t
J d t\l$i*
r! {udd}*ptxogo ilc.qrg5 {gdd} eireqrst! {qdd} ep;xg .$nsj}t$i
a
c
z
14
ú
F
 I a

For hydrocarbons, we have:

0u t
l^.
c,Hu +(. .l)(o, * s,76 N,) -) r Co, +ln,o re
[r
+
X)r,
l;
fì
lr
lt Mas.F flow rate of COz
I
ffico, Mco,
lÍîca.z =
rnb
rnb -frco,
nu Mt
thb
b (1.1)

r î"
I with Qtu' Îta
mb =É 6r: 'tr- Vqr
xt
(r.2)
fI
l
4r,.H,
ri\cc
F
I being Eutheuseful energy and q,,the energy efficiency.Stlt. given technology
AccJrding to the fuel, thJ previous formula can be specified as follows :
I

Boiler 8,, = Q, Q, =4c

Int. CombustionEngine Eu = P,, 4u =0u
Central Power Station Eu=P, Qu =1'let

I
Volumetric flow rate of COa
II
)1 A. ,Nm3 -
I (v co"), =ùro, (rro,),, =,hro,
î s

V.^ i, , fficorlco, /rr , R"orT I P 1(é) I .m-

(-)
3

(Vco,)7'p=ffi,V,o,),=dffi(Vcrl,),=ffi(Vco,),=(Vco,),p62n s

t"
K1
I"o,
t COz Pollution factor:' k-/q
Bycombining(1.1) and (1.2) we
'"L
#J
t nr% Mco,
\rb\i ilìr 'Eu
nt Mu
L
Reamanging terms, we obtain a sequel of formulas available for technical calculations:
I
t(
FElfu &$
_W"o, l._ ffico, I
*Éw,
I
L, flc,orMco, I hs
rco, =
nt Mt U,,H, ,ffi,,H,?'lo EP 8,, l{3 r,t
IJ l.
t EXAMPLES
EP
o(f,
5'9'* [" r^r r- r

I
L ::.1 Q€g'

j
I
 t9
COz and SOz PRODUCTION
from fuels of known percentage of C and S by weight (xc, xs)
R

From the combustion reactions of Carbon (C) and Sulfur (S) :

C +O, -+ CO, S +O, + SO,

12+32=44 kg llwnole 32+32= 64 kg I lwnole

I
We can get the following data:

Mass flow rate of COz a,nd SQe:

{Lot
tN"
-Yf /
mro"rm)'7 M
ùro" =_t_]Íllu = xc
mc nlt ftr: Mc
\ {\.r
ffiso, m, *, x- til,
frso, M

nrMs r)
ffisor. = ffib= u
ms mb

By dividing side by side the previous equations, we get:

I ks
I
= 0.545 ti,co, J;- ( )
thso, =
ffi*ro, î s

That allows the calculation of msoz as a function of mcoz.

l
Voiumetric Íiow rate of COz and SOz:

I
in o'normal" conditions
t_
.Nm3.
(V co,) n = Lixco, (rror) n = *ro,
T ,f
1) A, .Nm3.
(V so,), =ri'Iso, (vro)n =,irn,
î ,'

L in given conditions of (T,p):

(Vco,)r,p =(Vco,)
16) 1
C)
t ' p(bar)'27A ^f

16) 1 .mt.
(-)
(V so,)y,o = (V so,)
" p(bar)270 s
t
OI:
L"
v*"" =44
msoz
vco" =!o.tot vrn,!É-=0.37s vro,b
()
64 mro, 64 xc xc s

I
 2l
Combustion reastion of HYdrogen 4++(o,+3.?6&:) -+ xra+f;3.?6rl *Q?o,
ml*,s.,ii{, ,tlrf-
^ \
Mass flow rats of lf:0 : tds,o=
u{t" *t
'lnb **,o= ì#*l*=
\ *tlt /
{3.se3-f

-, i
rit+"Q finì
\lolunretric flow rale of lf:O vvn-F
:&JV-! =o.oli.N*5 Vs'o o = 5'i'6lJ'--
ft
at norntal csnditions: FH.o-r

-3 v-^= S4.6tS,L
J

Volumetric flsw rate of HzO ts.,o Vnno-n{ = S.oH .,v

= ? h
t at Tr= 15gog"

llLo-tr 5

Molar ftaclion of Èl:O in PPrn: yx"s o,loú.r{m fir,o= t$.6'Yo ]'rUr= t'O:f x l0-'PPm
= rr- = I
I lblass of ÈlBO in the flue gas
in {rngflIn:} ;
'Ln

tn,o := ylrjo'Prtrù-* = S.: x 104"

Nm"

*gi
Nm-

ConcBntration ofHrO
mi+,o "^5 mg
- 1@.?3' E
-
5r"^È-=i-lxlÙ--
anrv BEo
kls"h
in the flus gas in {mgrirWh}: a kW.h

Combustion reaetion of Carbon t C+A{Or+1.76$I-r} -+ CQ, + à 3.76 &" + (zl - l} O,

nigg" rng
"
Mass flow rate of S9e illcc..=
- mC
ulb
,** l* *j"o= r2t oei'E
=
t .tnc )
lnb
-'- I

vsq-n:= -""g- = o.orr

t"] Vco. *= 61.647
!\m
Volurneiric flsw rate of COe
PCS-s
--!1
at normal conditions:
J
-l jL in
Volumetric flow tats of CSe vc€L:= vc*-s; = 0.0)T v^^
vqh= 95.501.-
atTt* 1500C:
,, --3 f
Molarfacticn of OOa in PPr*: --^ yc.or= l1.g'% I'co,= 1195 x l0-'ppttt
JLVÌ'
- =E*o-llg.Nttt
Yf-* Nm'

fulass sf COs in the flue ga* tltgi

rcB, := )?c!'Écs-n: t.: }€ 1ù5'
in (mg4ún.t] :
Nrn-

Concentration of CO:
ntCO, .J nìt E
rà^ -=-=J-UJXtU'-- rF^ = tVJ.tJ'-
auwr "-q kW-lt
in the flue gas in {mgkWlt): e htr\t-h

Comhustian reaction of Sulfur : ,9+f {Ot +3.76N2} -+ 80 t + Î. 3 -76.ì'r! + {,1 -l} 01

Msss flilw rqta of SOa;

.
mgg,=
-
tngO, mS
.
t's{t, :=
l. = vrr'-
lr,rro,xsj'rnb ^^.kg
L mg Î16
-'-'nlb Lìil
m'.n.
--' 7.21x 1*- 5 l{ur3 0-ssl'--
i\m
Volunr*iric llow rate of SOe \.'96.. * i= = Vso., n =
n
at nortrral conditions: fiso-n s

t J
Ts
lt.--j-'l
nrJ
Volunretric flolv rata of SSe \rsq:* !'ss*1; - 3.'lt x \L^-11
=0^125'L
atTt= l$916,
t
V,.n- *
x t0-4
,rr3
Molar fia.ction of SO: in ,opm t'..^ .= -jH = 1.561 yso, = ù.ú1561'9ù ]'s*, = 156-l'PPn
'lú ln
L ME
hlass CSa in ihe llue gas
of lgo, F Ysor'p3o*ú = 4+5.9- '
in {mYfil'n:} ; l.l*3

L Conc*ntration of $Os tnso, .." mg

gc^ F-=ftv'-
in thé flue gas in {rngdcWh}:

I
 23

DETERMTNATION OF (r*,), _*,,

We have by definition :

Vror l mu
!*, wet v7 Vy_,* lmt
-',,
Calculation of Vy
_,^ I mu

Vl I
mb
-nu, -
mb
tI
reactants
Vyu + (Yo,)u + (V*,)ul=
fuel bound

I *Vr"o *Y "'Nr*Y "'o, +(Vo, )o + (V*,)u7=

LVro,*V'rr+V'o, +Vro,+Vt'rr+V"
mb
from combustion of [C] from combustion of [S] from combustion of [I/] tuel bound

I Y"^ lt *^ *v' r, v" *- *Y-gt!. ffici

mb Vcmc'V"mc"Vrmc

, Vo,o V- r, vn, * *l+? * o, + (vo,) + (vr,) u l

V,,
,.
nz*v=,-,'
vr, ffir,
r.
n2 vr, ffiH,
I'2 u
n2 mu-m 't2

Vc mc flco, , fr' r, .|-

, n'o, +
*u nc nc nc
tgi

,vrmr ftro, , flt'*, , n"o,

-r- +
ffis ffit ns nr ns

L
, vr, mrt, ntr,,
tY2 ,
nrrr^
u2 , (Vr)u
, (vo)o -r-
t
l{Y*v
ffio, mb (.n", flH, fro, mb mb
\. .

xs xN.
=22.4{(
xc
+
12 32 )[t*^t.ru+(z-1) V+l t+Lzte +Q'-r) 22
+ !e- +
32 28

t.
 25

CALCULATION OF !co, wet

AND !co, f
-dry

I
In a quite similar way as above:
I
v'o, vro,l*u !*1'o"
I
(t,o,), ** = V1-rrt- I/7-*n lmt Nm37
-,,
but:
r'
t
Vro^
-= Vco" ffico, t/t, 22.4 1.44 xc
22.4
xc
f-' mb ffico, mc mb 44 L'I2 12

N
Therefore

I IN THE WET FLUE GA$

l 22.4
xc
(!,o,) =
r -** 22.4 r*Lr.ru+@-r) lnrn*b
(fr. })r t + )"3.t 6 + Q' -r)1. + l12 2 )3228

(r,o,),
-,,,*
=ffi=ffh= pco,(r,o,), -*",
='o' h(/,o,) 1 ** i
tft9co,
Nm3^
'"'I wet

IN THE DRY FLUE GAS

22.4
xc
/*, Í
I -,1,v

22,4
xc
+ 0 *lz.ta''g?r.#.*
I T2 })tt. ^3.76+(1-t)1.?r contribution
I of H2O

-*,
//t8co,,

f
I
(r,o,),-*,=
ffî=ffih= pco,(!,o,),
-,,,.,="' h(!"o,), 3

t Nmf -drv
i

I
L

1.,."

i
 27

Flue gas analYsis No"2

by a Mathcad w'orksheet

the sane data as in îhe fulatJrcad worksheÉÉ 'fiue gas ar,lalysis h'o" f i plot the concurtrdio* of ÈO: '
SOr and S:
lryit11
a firncfion of l, in (ppm) afld in fcr dly and wet ffue gas. Evslude also the content of C$r and 5Or iu
as {rngr\'rn'}
(mg/i{$t) and cornpre-ttrire$dts sdú those obtained in previo*r rvorksheei,

tpfa.. e:=,l${ktr!' ng:= 86?,6 xg:- &..391c x,q

= 0.?% x6
= ta?9{ other := f'39'o

Analysis of wet flue gas

. - u] - T * l't''*''* {r - lirn
""[{* ;j
Wet flue gas per [tg of fuel; vr-,u*t{h) = n, + r"]-rs+ tr
[t
in {ltln*s lKgr}

Volunne ofCOn and $Ot vCOl:=

la r
'rC vggl:= g"xg
12.4
Nns /Kgo
U
in the flue gas pxr kg of ftlel:

ltcsz -6
Tso.:.
Concentration of CO* and S0" YCO2f* wer(X) F 7-'tu
vf
-
Ysóx.u*t(tr) = rf
-
PPm'rol'
rvetl.y rs'etl^l
in t.he flue gas in pPm uol :

t.l
1i$0n'
-'-'166
s.l
=Sxl$-î- kg / kgt
Mass ofC0r and SG" TICOJ:= ltCO:. rnggX
=
:2.n 4.4
I per kg nf tuel:

NBCI? È.
nrg/Nrn3
50" "sotf,- ,ver(l].=,,'osoirt'lcd
Ma,ss of CO2 and ucols_yrer{h} 10"
vr,r"t{r} "f rvetl^l
per Nma offlue gas:

Analysis of dry f,lue gas

Dryflue gas per kg offuel: \s-*v{r} = .

".rt{; #) tt+
}.'3 ?6+ {r- r}l.
T [-. j-trru'^* ir- D{]
in lN*rs /Kgo!

G0" and SOn UCOI :=

?:..t-C --
Vgg2 :=
;2.{ Nrns lKgo
VolLrrne of
in the flue gas per kg of fu*l: " -'xg
vcoz trtso?
= \ary'{x} 'ro€
-6 ppm t'ol^
Concentration of COt and SOt :rco:t_ary(ri :F vsotf_&yir)
in the flue gas in pprn vol. ;

-'I{
a-a

F -.
64
YSO:."fr; = D- >i ru
.^-3 kg f kgt
fu1ass ofC0"and SO2 nrco] := VCOI"tZ* ,trSO2
I per kg of tuel:

nso:,
Mass ofCO" and SOo t*6 zs62s &rix) to6 mg/Nn3
t per NnTs offlue gas:
'co:r-a*tr) = ffi vr_4lx)

Comparison with the previous worksheet

I
Îtís worksheet Previnus lvorksheet
x.rgi - 1.19s
h:- 1.15 ]gg:f 11'ut{h) = l'l$s x 18] against 1.193 x 10r'5 PP*r'rol. Error := -=---::-
1.199
= -0.-t%
L

fg62g n..{\i = 156"? against '155 1 ppr* vol Eror :=

W = -s38n
L
Such a negliglhte dlscrepan[y prúves tlraî the two methcds closely agrfie to sarh other

c
 29

coNDIrtoS
f
I
fi*tut*Nc'
To make comparable the measurements of the flue gas composition canied out by different
prescribed by
professionals, as weli as to compare the amount of pollutants to the threshold values
(
I

ànvironmental law, it is necessary tà refer the outcomes to a common basis (reference conditions).
Moreover, that prevents from escaping the law by "playing" with the excess air to dilute
the
pollutants. It is oúvious ìndeed that, by increasing on pu{pose, deceitfully, the excess air, it would be easy to
ieduce the the concentration of a given pollutant below any emission limit'
The o,reference conditioni" p..r.ribed by the current legislation are stated with reference
to the
oxygen content in the dryfumes and collected in the following table.

RE F EREI{ C E C O I{ D I TI O I{ S
EU Directiv e200ll8clcq &,D.L. 12-7-90 (G.U. No. 176 del30l790)

Fuels (ro,),", in the dry tumes ),,,, = 0.21 I [0.21 - (, *), r]

6% 1.4
Solid fuels
Liquid and gaseous fuels 3% t.2
Solid urban wastes 1t% 2,1

Turbo t5% 2.5

5% 1.3
Internal combustion engines

To calculate the concentration of a given pollutant in the reference conditions, the following formula
is presuibed:

2t-lo,
Euf = Eu,rorurod
2l *fo2J,,,oo,,"a

where

L
Errnorr,red measured rate of the given pollutant (in mass or moles)
oó
measured rate of oxygen in the dryfumes and expressed in
[O2 J,r"orured i

0/o
i [Oz J*7 : ref. condition for oxygen as read from the previous table and expressed in

I 0/o
2l volumetric rate of az in all,.,, expressed in
 31

BOILER QUALITY CLASS

Blaue Engel standards

Normative NO* co
m9/kwh ppm mg/rn3 ms/kWh ppm mg/m:'
o/o
Oo/o 02 3% 02 o96 Oa 3 Og

Norma TA t70
250 142 250 171 159
Gasolio EL per impianti> 5 tvllv 93 'Í00
200 100
Gas per impianti> 10 MW 200 114

DIN 4702 parte î (Edieione 03.90)

Caldaie con bruciatote a gasolio e
bruciatori a gas ad aria solfiata per
caldaiefinoa2MW i09
Gasolio EL 260 I +t1 260 t10 102
150 tao g3 100
3. Fam. sas rììetano; î50 B5
!|3 [W 200 1i4 200 too 93 100
300 179 315 t20 118 126
3. Fam. gas liquido

DIN 4702 parte 3 {Édizione 03.901

Caldare speciali a gas corl bruciatore
atntosferico 1:er calciaie fino a 2 NIW
G 20 (corrisponde a nretano Hl 200 1i4 200 î00 s3 100
300 179 315 150 1+7 158
G 30 {corrisponde a butanol

DtN 4702 parte 6 {Edizione 03-901

Caldaie a cùndensazione a gas
per caldaie fino a 2 f\4Vt/
G 2O (corrisponcle a metano l{} 2Aú 114 200 î o0 94 100
G 3O (corrisponde a buianol soo 179 315 î 50 147 1SB

Marchio Angelo Blu g0t 74

RAL-UZ I bruciaiore a gasolio per max 140r ) 81 140 l BO

i0 trslh i'i20 kWi (:n

t30rl 75 130 BOl I 74
RAL-UZ 46 gasolío Uni'r
1>er grr.rppi Unit fino a
120 kVf
'too 57 100 60 56 60
RALUZ 39 caldaia a gas sPeciale
fino a max 120 kW 90 84 90
lo0 57 100
RAL-UZ 41 Unit a gas con bruc. ad
aria soifiata per Unit fino a 2 MW 47 50
BO 46 s0 50
RAL-UZ 61 caldaia a condensazione
a gas íino a nrax 2 MW

Valori di Amburgo (programnra pilota)

valida a partire da 4t92 per impiarrtí
fino a 1 MW 98 48 45 4B
lmpianri a gasolio 98 55
35 o/ 44 40 44
lmpianti a metano 62

Ordinanza svizzera (LRV 92) 60 56 60

20 68 120
Gasolio ÉL con btucialore ad aria soifial'a 1
60 56 60
Gas con bruciatore ad aria sofliata BO 45 BO
Gas con bruciatore atmosterico
120 6B 120 100 o.t "tao
Potenzialità < 12k$'' 93 104
80 45 BO 100
Potenzialità > l2 klv

Valorí stantpali ìn corsivo-grrasseffs =

Dati indicati nelle normatìve.
t
I fino at Si. tZ. 92 vatgoio ín parallelo: NO, = î5A mglk Wh, CO = gOmglkWlt
 33

CONVERSION EXERCISES - 1

mg_
To convert : y,(ppm)r o, -) EF,
kwh

the conversion factor can be stated as follows:

,r,(m) y,(ppm) *"(r *;y'), # r#, "rc' (ff) =, ffi

I =
",*
being Mithe molecular weight of the Èth pollutant'

Thus

tu!'-
nr,tffi)=y(ppm)# ùtryr'

EXAMPLE

a) Convert 3 ppm of CO with 3% Oz to mg/kWh

We have: Mco =12+16 =28

M"u 28 mSco wl4co

J., J
nA-=3
" 22.4-=3.75
EFco =(lro)rr"o, =3.75
(ffi uno,
kwh

b) Convert 5 ppm of NO* wìth 3% Oz to, mg/kWh

t. For NOx (treated ut itlO, ) one has: M uo, =I4 +2'16 = 46

Thus
t.
Ylgt=s- 46
-22.4 .!s.\o' =to.zs\T?:
EFNo, = (!ro,)uno,
22.4=10.25
" T@;- 'u'ou kwh
t.
I
L-

i
L
I

l
/
 It- .J *a-
4t
t@
$

Italian !\mrms a
É

for S0*
î
Emlssion Elnmits E
2
È

Jm so so {m . 5tr ò0c

DL31412006 No. 152

I

"'l tL
ss,,nn ct R. Bjal 11 1- ttt'iìJ:rù l"í
E-
.iî
I

.4
rL.-
- - -L - - - L.:- !
Legge 152/2006

< ffi_-*rJ''t',-l' t.
I
'l
't
./ t Nuovi impianti I
I

-g '
tt
l,

pi combustlbill indlgenl N

- ',* *'',3*"i
, : r:1tj:_ t'' l r:-l .r'r rr-j'r*r -rJ

4to $0Ù 60{} r*f 7w lo0 4os

Pdteita lsrntra {lllv}

{r,) ússigeno al 396

.} {}) Osslgeno al
'?-'-a1ll|,-PlR,.fJ,
6010
tr"nil t
GMNùC. n 4&6tje'

XtmÉimnNmrms Legse 152/2006

1n*-=i*J"il
tmissEmr: HErsrits f,*r N*n r Nuovi impianti t

Biomasse

ùL3t412006 No. 152 Turblne a Gès

?oo
(*)
(*) ?00 -
i
r;-
'tOtt

óoo
ó.Èldl dL flroto
t00
ùr$lrfl dl e?dto - Co6ùurtlltlll g0ù3o8i

o5- roo 1 È rl
ff;
H
e E ;l
e.ì soo ---r''-.'!
b ooo -' S soo
É,
s- +so .....1...--L
3 rooj 1t-" T t
.9
qso *} 400 !l -,".-f,...,^.
!-."-

Ò1 .t
n
'f; 'f; roo I r00
{ .oui 3"' i
-s{5îqd

ci .{
t _. -..i.---l
2ú{l
Izooì . g,-* 10ù
ú". ti É 150 'l
I t,
E] il , tùo
ij ro{, i ; lil!
ìth) I 50
oii
{a} o
o
100 al0a 300 40ú 900 660 {, tOO 2oO SOO 4OO gm f'Où
o roo 2td 3Ùd 40t tsst *Ót {l
Potoo&o formlèù {Mt'1,
Pateda terÉletr lifi8l P{t{ffi aérmlcú lMWl
ftl ossloeno al 15 9'o Per TG (r) oslgeno al 15 oió Per TG
(r) rlsslg€ro al 6oi) ''css;éelroal qò
3 fErdlvlgen dlcalore Ossigenoal 3 ryú peraltrigen di(alore
 I

37

3*slt ]
2t.Î!.:ùrli lG] {311i*i*l J,exrnr*l rltt" lhc F*rr'1r**rl Cl;$ir:rluttitles r.

',{l.i'{\'fiJ{
ly
Eh{trssK}N xls$'r l'.{LuEs F$K 5$1

tJquid fir*Ìx

A" f{3i *rx!lr"'ir:n lfinù r-alux. *uprcxotd in n$Ji'kn3 (:1 {snÎffiÎ 3'X,J t*r h* ,app}i*d fui ]lctv -ud s'{i}tifiS $lenrÈ
pursuarlt tlJ Iî"tklÈ 4{l} .nril 'f11}' r*s;r*ctlvcly;
I

nq S*t$lnf

I 2w

t7{ú

tFc+

r0Èú

5e&

4{{}

w lgfl 5{10 l!i1\,1*'

n .t{f, fl'ulrsinn lir,h r/,clr!*r. {Jlrr{-lrí{.* iu irxiNnr! i0: a";}rì:tt:Iî }-}é} t* b*;rpglle'J b1 rxw pl*ntl Pisrst$nt 1*
,r'ni*lc qt4 rvirh ti:* *a:*ptkrn"of g'r t*d:irxr'

** llt{} kfVrXlr l${} ro i{H} If*trrlr I 3{}'i! ${'11:rlr

5{}

i*i0 'túú ùr :fifi lffi

ilir:xc dccn;t<*! {ri
.'{}l*frt*rs:
{ti l*iv:írl ùr iira <*vaf iìllt fu3irvrr' u'lee Bî{} i{t l{i{f n6;1"':nl flirurr du'n*,r*i xlul! r.lrir'11.

c.rlt{. allÍ lth*:iru trr b* lìivrrrrrf

tn rl* rx* {..d ir,oql is{.}]Jn-ti{:n* 1}irì: n ruixíZ î.h4r.ftel ìnp*t of J,& \4\h* ttt
i*fol il'is*,,-b..er 2r.rfli lhd *ffiir${,!x Inrit salu* r'l t ;ito 'T jl{nr} sh;ll *pply'
 39

t 3{.fsJr s
I
I
27-t 1-2f,l$r tffi-l tlfl'trial Jrxrmal of *ie [tr*rp*ar:l Ctrnu uut:itic:q

.'{f'J3\'}X Tf

&{gBSfOl{ tI,Iì{tT YÀÉUES 80ft, &nr tli{F''\SUR'E$ JrS N$;}

.1. .l.ltl" *nrlrdr:n lÌrrít rnluee *xprarred ifi rrryfNml $!* ecrmcnr úÍ6 inr solid fi!':]k, X% fnr liquió tvrd gxenur fux#]
'";$;;i'fi"dlat*";i"t*dtirgphttr.gTJr*.srîtdAni66'îtll and${}l'r$fecdvr1u"j

( l$t*lt1lt.:*rt fl
Qpe r'# 6r*l *nÉS*ti

${dd {1, f}

t
ú{1r}
S{i ur S$fl l'{!$z}:r

li{fl 9{ù
},fi!'îII:

frúrrl t 3ùtó

I
t*$tà*rY
ffi0
iú ts} S,0S ?,{lvth
p9{1fl h{rb'l}: f*{

li4ddr
t 54 to S|XJ lrfl$lirl
4S0

.gr0
-:'?[tl hftltìh:

l]^lfú0{s!l

}U0
50 lù 5S* !'f'k'tlt;
3{'}11
>!ù{i }r{ltr1b:

.li*cqrl h Ìla <rx rf dre'c.htnnart ltq*r*f *4rar* tlx {<i{*{'ìi18 r'*'s: '*ha?l
l') "ilS.t:
*rliej lL p:rrfr! rt9t!
,hilirl e{{1 ': Itl ll Nrl *ilrry* 1 }{Hl
liquld: ,ll*

{1

f!
I

t
t

t_
l I

I 4l
r. 3ó9JI7
'.tt.r1"2{ll}r rtil $fItd;rl itlurtral *f út* Eurtrpcatl C{h:rÍlttrlllfu$

TINNSX YfI

.Ét{$SmÎ{ UH.ff YI{'LIJES S0È fft't5l:

fÚelr' x X' f*:r Íquid àl]rl g;r#!,|lr fi:icls'l

A. 1rùlqsr e{Fr*[#rd in n4t'f'lm} [n] #misrit d S fnr lr'ìliÉ
'"' flrllt a$i3siùillrylimiÍt
;;;;W11*t *r*: ur* **i,íing pt*no pii**tr tn *.ntol* .t{t} ar*t ^{{{" rmp**tír.ely^

nilàid dttn*d iîrp'dt liraii*rt* :{ilîb vak*x

T31re rJ fut',! ${et} {ugÈEf il

5$l*t * 5tlfl tfi

'tfi0
{?l
a $11{t

dl plart* sÍ
t- t.*tr*t {xl

{Ta4{{ri$ ;ill plxrrt 5as.nruk

t li i{ir hlart lirr mc* 6',*

I ;{l l;rî f;.úiff pr<xluc# hY tf.e rtotl

indrstly whieh c,ln ht rscd
*ls*x'hrr*

{'i

t fl
giwta úrar l{!'.è.

lt }x applt*'* fiv m*r' pLrr:tr" pì{rcrir:Ì lo Àrtidc *tà wirl* t}*

H. nu${ ,srltisifin lirail E*t*es. *xpr*cxd in rr'.gil{m}
*x.cxpf*n crf 6ss trlrl:lrrcs:

I Srlúlu* {il} t'sr,drrf S t't

5* io 1{l$ îf\4!h
l l.{1,ì! Hni{h

sfi *ll

Lilpúdp-'b {(J' darrrftrl 3 i%]

I
l{f:e l{14} lltllth r 1{!.{}t{'#th

$rl
5(l
t

b* licarr*rl
tlx *aJt al tw$ in*;*ll.lti*ra s{llt ir ratet.l tl'*rnql !rrpr:t.*f ?5* h{\Yth *ttt {r*le sxf
llm-:q{'nr 1o
hr
t tlil it ka*r;i* rmr rt* *rrtirJ+n In:it v.rlr:i: tf 5fl rrrgll'lr*r d:sll appf'
{ir*4u,rJiuls 1t.} s rdls{lli } 1Y')

I
t- .l.r e n:l*
3

i0
F*r trh*t fr:n:'lc* 13t.

lar g-is,x pr,:xi;rr.rxl hv t]:* rt*el indixtry r',ùi:ill **n he: .1rl
t r:r{vl dlleìt'h*r*

t
t

t-
 ValorÍ ìimitc di emissione SO: espm*si in m5/Nme (tcntre .ti O: di riferimmto:
à
Fertr Il È
óyo) che devoúao essere appticati asli iapianti lruovi, che utilizzano comlustíbili tl
llrlorl ltnita dl ooalrtloaa solÍdi ad cqmzjone de-lle turbine a gas. o
o\
Scglono 1 PctcÉE tcrrolca Àcrdn lc m VdcrG lfurltc ill oalnlonc 8Or
tngt fnrcllfa3l
Valorl ll*lto dl cmllsfora dl 8Ch 5()<P< IOO 850ó
P> 100 200
Conburtlblll rolldl

À.
1. Valori timite dli ernissione SO: espresi in mg/Nm3 (tanore di Oz di rifsimento:
69d che d..oollo o"*r" applicati agli impianti €ntcriori al 1988 a 'gti i6pignÎi
mtcriori al 2O06 che utlizzano combustibili solidit:
aÒ

Fotelsr teridca @rglrr81

nornlaalc lPl lxwl à'
50fP< 175 G
gegucnte
r75<P<500
formula: ì
st:
P>500 a

!e
F]
2. tn deroga al paragrafo 1, 8U impiand afiteriori + f 98a-e- gli Í:n-Piantí snttriori al
iiloà, ar ft**)o t.imica niminÀle pari'o superiffe-e rt0o M9/ e c'he rtîiliz':no F)
esclu'sivs;ente coobustibili solidi, i quali, e Pafiirc dal 1" gennaio 2OO8 e 6no.al N
er a partire
à1 ii**Ut" 2015, rron síaoo in funzione per più di 2O00 ore annue N
d.al l" geonaio 2O16, m simo in fursimc P* Più q- 15OlJ 6e unw' $no ttl
Fl
un valorc L*lt ai cnissionc rli biossidodi zolfo pari a 80O mglNm3. Il 4
"*".tti"a
;.il; d, ;; difuririonùnento € calcolaro come me<lia mobíle su(f}mpetentc un periodo di
Ùn
5 snni. 11 gestore è fenuîo a presenÎ,re ognì anno- ell'autorità
d.ocumenîo-in crri sono registraie le cre annue di funzionamento dcgti impianti' rf1
E:
o
B.z
t-
rît
I Per gli impimti che éc@ìlmilo @bùstibj[ sotidi indfumi, qualoF i val'ofi ]imitè di embGionc
6i dowà otts!rc
a; .riio"n Bon Fssqo 6sff risPettÀti Per le carattqierbhe de! coobustitde'
Ji a.="ir"eion< pari ad almno il 6O9o nel caso di inpimti awn ti una potelu t€rme
--"i"J
;"ffi1;fci;; p".i i. roo Mw' 7soó Íel cq@ di iapiÙÎi-avùrti rEÀ lrcteox tè8i4
;;;h; pcr iúpimti di Pot'@a
auIErcÉ & 5U0
;p.rr;. ' a'!où Mw c ioJsire o pari a 3@ M\r e ry)Ànomirsle
o itx; UW. N€, cÀs dr imlxnti &ventr t': P"l*a.t:Yca qualota
""pur.t"
i4ii','"i un Erado di deslioruione pai ad àneno il 94'%, o ad altudo it 9?96 @ 4i
^óud*a gÉ nql ca$o di
.i^ ,'tio.farc un ànraco rehtivo atla misu a pmto di u si{EÈa dt dcslforuignc dci
íapiilti aBti ua lptcM teúi€ ngBilalc ia&rbF o pati a 3oo Mw c, nclgndo.di
prim del l"
u VI
"r"to
;l';'f;Jdl ;;";;;;At e i hvori di instalírzione dello ÉtGF eiano iniziati àpi*ti oooii rna lntera temica nominale eilPcriore ." loo-yW' si applicheÀ
msimo o*eúito G
deiolfosime psi d*.oo il 95o./u, oltre ad un mlcrc linite di eaissione
gmnaio 2@1-
:6'
pad a 4(P rtr*/Nm3 "à
' contuMlo-@bustibili solidi indigaú. qÈalor a i EJori litritÈ di cmtssò.e
í Per c,li inpisli che i S-a *o in àri A combustibile urilìaîo $ia cGrjtuto da bimasse il valorc limítc di cotssione di 0a
si doua oencre G
di cui so"m non poss&o 6ffi uspcttad per !c ÈaraRsistbhe de-t-@nbusrdbile' bioasido Ci alfo è pori a 20o mglNmr.
p.igl t ;t.;.t vàlorc di 3Oo Í€/Nm3 è02 o un gr:do di d*otroruion'r Pari ad alnmo iI929" G
"'" :
À'

;ó

è
(,
 s
B.
i. di emÍssione No, espressi in ag/liigts (tenore di Oz di riferùne,'1q:
vutori ti-it" I\ì
Sczlotrc 4
à"l Fer i rnmbustibfi solirli, 3olu p* i combustifrili liquitli e gasslrsi) che de.r'ono o\
esseie appticati e8tì imPianti nuovi ad ecezione delle hlrbine a gas:
Vdort tlnlto dl enlrrioaa dl trO* {nlruetl clncl trO.}

Potccgt D@brlc fPÌ Velorc llultc dl cnlrdooo [O'

& lse/lfu3|
t.yuto'ilimitediemissiorreNoxesptcssiinmg/No3(terroredi'ordirifcriocnto:
-*-t""tiliti 505P< loo
é"r.p.ii solidi, 3%r peì i 9og!Y"rilt{ Ite"id ggssosi) che ^dcvoro 400
"
i*"..[ "ppfi."U eigii impianti anteríori al 1988 e agli impianti arLterimi a] 2fi]6:
100ÉP<300
{30O nel caso in cui I cogrbustibile
solido
Potonra
P>300 200 (t)
600 \
50ÉP<500
è-
è 200 Potcr4 tcrolcr lotrb.lG lPl Vrforc llrltc dl enkdooe Xo- G
fEwt farlttnol
50 < P< 100 400

VeIo$ llslts {l orllrdone lfOr > 100 200

ti:
iEtesra terlrlca Íotoflrl€ {Pl {Ewl È
lúr,rI5!r3l
50<P<500 450
îù
Fotolgtcmlcr Vdoro lloltc dloPtrdsae Fo" F9
=
P>500 200 lqc/lfin3l
50<PS300 150s
N
P>300 N
1002 lr
-i
<P<500 300

PA 200 2, Vatori limite di emissione No* espressi in rrg/Nm3 (tenore di oz di riferimenio: 41

iSZ4 tìgvono essere appticati alle turbine a gas, ai scnsi dell'artimlo 273' "rl
2:
comma"frr o
2. in deroga. aI paragrafo 1, gti impia:rÈi anteriori aI 1988' 'di Poten?-Tn1.:.4 F
combustibili solidi,
;;;;; aÉoo uwi .t.itiliazano esctusr'vaseate jlo15,
non siano in
r6rli ; "ip*$*
E;-tu JJ i; g"rrr,uio 2008 e Eno al 31 dicembre
di cnissionc
r.r;io". pcr più di 2ooo ott aluruc sono soggctti rd run r.alore lioitc
a* sennaio 2O16' gli inpi:rq
or€ annue' sono soggetti ad
lloJ,lt ài "lrL" pari a 6oO mg/Nms' a paiiirc
;àd"ù;h;-;"^",i*t" in tirnfróoe p.t fitt ai 1500 45O ll -rrumero di
iri *f*. ii-it di emlssione di ossiài di amto pari a su ''rg/Nmc"
;; di furri"**ento e calcolato come media mobile un periclo rli 5 arY'.l V)
g""ton" t tenuto a presÉutare ogni anao all'autorità coapctente un docurn€llto lll ed altri G
1ll gs oatumk è il Gtaac PÍsote in rutura con noa píù det'2o'va in volune di i[dti \
l"i ..si"u"tet ore annue di funzionamento degli impianti' tù
"ì"" c6litusrti" dallia polcm 0e
s psr ig;diveridal gas mnrrale il limiE è pali s 2OO mglhÍir ildipèad4ÎeEentc G
t6mi€ nomìtalc dclt'mpieto 6
è-
F
6
s
À
(ill
 47

Mathcad Worksheet
DeSOx Efficiency fon a Fuel oil firecl pÉwer statisn

106-Y lirneît:= 103'**l* h= 36&*"s ppm:= 10-À-

Detl*itiofts l,g,l=

sER'= lss.Er g:: lo 3.tg Nm;= m ton:= {}l.kg

Data

116 !ùl'É
r $69/o xg ;= S-5910 xg := other := J'5ÚrÉ
Fuel Oil chemical analYsis xg := ]r:É :=
hy weight
t

F;- S0ù"&fSr Eleciric effciencY 11* := 4{}9't

Electrie power

t- iVIJ
L 1.1) Lnv'rer h+ating value l{r := 41,'-
Excess air index :
= rÈg

$:g
of CO" Nil.*r t= 4.t' *
ke
Molecular rnsss of *arbsn h'$a := 12'
krrrsle
Mslecular rnass
EMOIB

hs ka
uf H" :=
ts
:."- Molecular nrass of 50n ${ca: i= ${'--
Molecular mass r\r!.g EmolÉ
ff110I*

kg
Molecufar r*ass of $t I'ls := 33"
kg
Itr,lolecLrlar rnsss rf air M" := 28-9-
Lurole
knrol*
J
kg m
Molecular nm*x of $* il'13:= 32"
hnole
Nor*al s$olsr vsluffie r'*
"= LJ,"d'
hnole

Freliminarv catcufatinns

hf.*. he
hlúrftral rlensity of Cù2 Écor := ll
Pc*f, = t-Es4
-a
i\ifn
-
I!5s*: lrs
l{ormaldensity nf SSz Psr::. F Fsoz = ?"$5?-
Yil "
?ttrur'
-
kg
Stoichiometric air is CIr. := *.ì'{}-el':Èg * 8'rs + xs - fio} (r-. = IJ.JJJ--
" lro
..8
fuel nrass ratio

( ** $s* on 1 .. t)..- xol ^ = s'23r'-

^^^. ìd*3
Free oxygen in the flue gas
per unit fuel masa
o"
'=
""
f

LL*"
*
ou* trtJ ,t - uhj CI]

Vclutne of dny fumes

s
Nrn
kg

01
Csnrentration of free O"
]'c,; = 3'{}92"Y'ú'
in clry fitn*es cÉ
 49

RÉff d al
r
n rrz E
Er*ission Factor ref. tc,S0t !-È!OX F !1rgG2 = r.r of Prinrary EnetgY
IIi h.lI k'l-Lf'h

fenr i=
faÉo:
Ism = 4'3
I
Follution index ref" to SO" kX,Y-f!
F of electrie enÈr$y
-

De SOx efficiency

O2 referenca value in dry fumes Y6 til = 5Yó

far liquid fuel.t

I .r1l$t _ 3,$,2_rr
gsùz *= t-?l$x l$j
mg
Nsmalization CIf the 5O" ;c^1Jv&r.
* -= a4ftl'-
3lúó _ 161 l{m
J
concentration
Ì

Thermal power nf the boiler er=l=l5ss"Mxr

1ì:
{stea*r generato$

Ernissìcn limits filE

z1i6
= 4&['-i
r.J
llitì1
{EU elir ?00118úlCE and Lex 152120t16}
for industrial boilers af G: 500 MWr :

inimum desulfuraticn eff ci ency

f'f
zg8:_n - ztirx
s=
a.F- 76-$."-.Éó
to coraply trrith the emissìsrr linrits E$ùJ_Jt

Student's homework :

t Carcy out the analysis for a Coal fired power station with the following data

Cogl cheffiical analYsi* xg:- ?56/i xg:= 196 H* F 394 :tg;= $"04 other:= lSYa
t_ by weight

Electric power: ? p d&S"tofl.V Electric effeiencY 11* := 4$1&

h,Ii
Excess air index h:= i.2. Lorner heatinS vsluB Hr:- X5';-
l'ry
"à

and compare the results, paying special attention to the environmsntal indexes'
CHAPTER T4

HEAT TRANSFE.R

ESSENTIALS

1
 T TRANISFER . OVERVIEW
A general concept : Heat is enèrgy in transit due to a temperature difference'
Heat transfer occurs whenever a temperature difference occurs between two distinct
points in a .
point of
medium. The heat wave is directed towards the negative gradient of temperature ( i.e. from a
higher to a point of lower temperature). This mechanism is quite similar to that of a fluid, which
the
moves towards the region of lòwer pressure, or that of an electric current which moves towards
point of lower voltagJ. The "negative gradient law" is a quite general law of nature, and occurs
*h.n.u., there is mu.s o. en tgy transfer. The driving force is the difference of something:
case of
difference in temperature in tn tur" of heat, in pressure in the case of fluids, in voltage in the
an electronic stream.

The modes of heat transfer are : Conduction, Convection, Radiation

CONDUCTION

solid, gaseous or liquid media

)"

- No apparent mass{ransfer A
- Activated by a difference in temperature
between two distinct points in a medium

dx

T+dT T

o isotropic and homogeneous medium'..

o ...where two distinct isotherms can be found
o and with the thermal flux orthogonal to the isotherms

In this case, the heat rate (or thermal power) is :

Q=L^L#Q=-^o# (w)

and the specific heat rate ( or thermal flux) is

q
o
=:A= -n dx
dT
(.w_,)
m-

the negative gradient of temperature.

and represents the aptitude of the material to let the heat wave travel across it.

10-2 Insulating materials and gas

^.w* )=
tLl 10 -r+100 Construction materials
m"Il
l0t+102 Metals

2
 RADIATION

o Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic (elm) waves. Such an
emission is due to thélnternal energy of the matter, which in turn is linked to the temperature of
the matter: U:U(T). Only ob.iects ai T=0 K would not emit radiation. But T:0 K is not attainable
by the matter, as stated by the 3-th Law of Thermodynamics. As a result any object in nature emits
elm waves and the intensity of the emitted radiation depends on temperature.
oothermal"
a The radiation field relates to the energy conveyed by elm waves owing to the range

fu= 10'2 + 102 pm

a Radiation does not need a medium to propagate. Solar eneîgy in fact crosses the sidereal spaces and
reaches the earth.
a Radiation is strongly affected by the direction of emission.

nl Í72

The thermal radiation heat transfer can be expressed as follows:

ì

*rru) t $o\l \1''nù g

Q=c(Trn
with
SurfaceareaofS, andS,
c= f Spatial position of S, and S,

Radiative properties of materials

N.B.

i
In reality the three modes of heat transfer are always simultaneously present, although in same cases
one mode may be negligible with respect to the others.
t

Qradiation

Qconduction

Qconvection

4
 Therefore
i- Q^,, = dA.(q,-Q,*a,) =1.ffia*al,a,
r
I In they and z we have similar expressions:

Q^,, = dAy (q y - I y*ay) = r# ay a* a,

(-
l, lff
Q^., = dA, (q, - Q,*a,) = a, a* al,

I As a result:

,';tA: 9,,+Q^*+Q^" =X( azT' a2T a2T -L- 1V2T l

dxdydz axz
\ -J- ay2' azz

In conclusion:

The term V2Z assumes the following forms

t :
Qt = XYz
{

a2T azT azT

in rectangular coordinate system
YzT =
ax'' ay''
-I-I-
Az'
azT I AT
: +-- in cylindrical coordinates system
Ar' r òr
Then: !

pC+=)"Y27+qi I
dT I
:

Defined the thermal dffisivity as follows.

I
2
1 nx
(l =- I ( )
pC J
L I
the Fourier equation becomes :

t dT Qi
= aYzT + I
ì
t

t_

I
L

I
6
t-
 MULTILAYER WALL

Ti To
?uz l.r
( dt ^lr
ù d
I lù
\ Tz T: T+
$
t" $
{

I c)[i
Sl S2 S3
oc6

Since the flux q is conserved across the wall, one can state the following equations:
['
qL tT, -7,
I
q= at(Tr*T) di

q=rt1^
T-7. J'ì
ota1 '=1,-1"
LL
sl t

T, _T^
"
q=4- *) q* =7, -7,
J3 ,,
T_T
q= X3'3 -4 q* =Tr-To
s"J 4
Q =auZq-7") q\ -r To -7,
a"l
By adding side-by-side:
q(
I &*lr
+ xo oo'=r-' -r-e
-+
d,i ii
or:

q
1
+
,s,-
^ +-
1

I di k=l )'k de {ìr I

,1
f

t
Let us define the GI úal resistqnce ( Ry ) and Transmittance ( K ) as follows:
1
I
L
,R,
I
o{,i
I ssk +- {-I
? ).k de 'w1
1 .m' K.N
ì=; <g7>
Then:
I

( W.
(
4= K(7,-7'") m-")
or
t,
1

Q:qA=K A(Tt-7") (W)

8
 HEAT CONDUCTION IN CYLINDERS

Tr

Tz

(dT/dt= 0) and in cylindrical coordinates reads:

The Fourier,s equation in steady state regime

yzT =a + fl*lt=o
dr" r dr
With reference to the figure above and under the following boundary conditions:

;
I

{
T(r,) =T' T(r') =T'

j after performing the integration, the difîerential equation gives:

T(r)=' -f'-? nL\

ln2
\
(r).
J Thus in a cylindric layer the temperature profile depends on the log

t The heat flux can be calcuated on the basis of the Fourier's postulate, in cylindrical
coordinates:

Q= -l'- A+
-- L+
dr= -A'2n, dr
By separating the variables, the integration of this equation gives :

ti '2

0 f lL=-zoLl
r I dT
ri Tr

I and finally :

T, *T,
8= 1
-hLrl
2nL)"
[,

L
10
t_
I

i
I
 t- INSULATED PIPES
I

i f,te
l

Te
I

I'. Convective

t'.*
&i layers

Yt
f'2
t" l'' a
Insulation
Ti
l Pipe wall

By using the previous approach, we can state :

Ti -7"
8= 1
* 1 ln"* I rn'"+1
d,4 2n L), 2n LA" rz duAu 11

,19, -T")
1
+
Aí -r"
lnj+
A, - rnr,+ A'
ai 2rL), rr 2n L )" rz d,A"

The transmittance per unit internal arca Ai is now defined as :

K.=( L* 4, ,n',* At r,a* I I'

t ' \.o, 2rcL\ rl 2xil" rz ao(A" I A,) )

Then:
t
Q = K, At(Tt-7")
t For pipes of thin walls (rr x rz) :

t A,(7,-7")
Q= | * A' hL+ I

I
d, 2E Lk rl a"(A,l A,)
L.

I2
L
I
 THERMAL INSULATION

From Kreith - Manglik - Bohn. Principles of Heat Transfer 7tl' Edition Mc Graw-Hill.

'Tls*re í*t* ÉTiirÍly s,Ttuatj#slri, in e nginer;rÌng d*,sign v,'.hen th':: *kirr:rÈiv* i:i tF te'd*a'* the
$* mlZr,linlirc
tBnw r.if lxcaÍ. fin*xn;:?#,s {}f xuaf,h *n**.u í*el*d* tÍt* irnxulalÈr:n *$fotti?d.ings
l"r*$t ?*ss, i,xr tfu* winien- a ZÍr*rnr*-r; bs]tr€l.* in kerp r *.*t{** hr:90 nritd a, ski jacknf t*
i*n
Alr,rlu*clÉcp;r*s:.i:lv* h**f nqlss ff*m ;N skÎ*r" .4,19 q:'f fh*x* xxxmpl*r' Yl:qffi.t'* àtr* u;n*
*f
îheru:uI in*iul,x{i*n.
'Ilher:n*l th*narnl cc?t:{SatcfiVi$, lm n:*'*l
iil$fi1,;:ti,*g1 n:;st*riil.lu znuxr hrav* rz lexw
trifsegr thi* is iwiii*u,rd b3: trqrping ;rir rr :;*Fni: elher .gil* ifl;ilt*t: xntxll *'*vic^;*r
àn n

na:,I!d, [-"sut í$#fiT"1*l]nres f]tr-r sitn * *f{*rt rynb* g:rc,duceil 6,.,'iillixts"

I'he'xp;lc* ac$Ú5$
whi,;h il,;tt t'?rw is {* h* rr;ih-r*,lrf writlr smxXl. :;miirtr g:xrÎir;?*s *xt13 trup;:?ng ;li;r
l.:e}'lx*tl
'Il:{::;* tyg:*:+ *f Ìh*na*ill ict:Ìuf*tirrn atr*à*rirrEs t*x* fÈt* lnh*r*mÎE1l l*v*' u*m,'
{trrr," pcr"li*?*s.

tlareii,r'Èty, t+{ u g:tz,*tr: íril:*:ii hsat J?q}w.. l'l#ll,r}v*il, sinc*

gas*.* ;tv* flu}'ds, fue**. t:isw xlsrs
?rs fi:n:rsf*n*a! i:y nntamll *:r:nrru;*,l.irrr:r ínsid* t.?tr: g;r* pil*k*tl* xr':a}
hy ru*di:atim$ hrf,t'**tl
gìhr s*lid *ncl*:;-a:r*: z,,,n11u. 'l'$r* *cltductil,àff *f insil.ltiilg wn{*rÌ;*9s ix tll*r*f'*rar nr-tt
r;rJ'll*at flr"r,r,+' nt,*rh-
r*ni}3r n rnstcriill g:r'*p*r:ty vsL;it rullz*r fÍ'l* r,*srulf *l*a ci;mbi.llxài*n
*fiisrìffi. 'îh* rhrcnte;il **ci#{r*{i.rrÀtll *?" ins*l;l{iu'rr is r;st +:{f**tt2v* l'n}u'*^ ^'t*gÈ f}zst
rtrr;xngrs nret *pily ivith t*:::6:*:r*{ur*, hlst a?x* l+'itlt pr:***rir* *l:tf
*:nvir*:uttr*si.tal ct;r}[$i-
''}"h'* il*ru,rg* t":rf.É*.11' wit.h f*xnpa:utrYa$t} rnrr h* qr-rlt*'ltrelnr*ulrrcsn"
{1nns., n.g., n:risàarr*"
,:,sT:*:,ein€í,i ;l? *leio,iji*q3 {**rp*r'adurr:* wlmtt rnrJiitti*n Vs1x3'n n ;*ig*ifi*n:lxî. rc:t\*
ix tk*:
*l,rra$ € heiat *rnnng:i3lî Alr'ú{*ris"
'tr"g*.rr"ea:13, tl;Sfwmt ffi*:; *{ íztxwl'*tit:*n n:at*riit}*qì fiit$} tÍ5É{*'flti;::ll'y lt* r:h't't'si'tt*S !r:

f lr* fi^: l'l fln'ing t l:re* à:n* ;;rd. r'tx1.'*g*"s'rtxx',,

!. FliÍ,r'.s:r*; . I:izbvt:tuw $fij:ite rìal$ c.nstsist '*f *i::;ll,l-'rilau:c1q:r p;tt?!*à*ll q:!'fl$;qn:*nl,s *f

?*$r. {Ìi:fis?f-y fhrrà ca* h* prur*el lanri* ix gír'p ii$i "Vs,*'te 217k* tJK fl*'na:**} Zt:lst
?. #rngÈraf*r. {-l*llil$ar i:rsailnfierrrs a.rr; sà*,E*r! flt'tlp{}n-esll sinti:lrixls tiusÈ ilt* ttsr't-
nB?y frn tk* {t*wtzcrflcxtxrrst*d fl*,xilrl.u: *n ri,gíri fo*rircls"
"E'fur1l
{*n' h*lv*'o'*n. a[;*cp
'bi-r gE:;11fie*
*:r *irrnp'*d in p:lncc fu: u*hiel'el d*sir,rtiger:x:*fri*ai *.lltilpc,s- ilc?l,u]ng'
*xn*lati*xr lz't:*iilt*"xrlrtxt'rài*É.,i: tvt h*tv d*nsiryt,. l'{-1"#-ln*:ili r;lil;:};tt:ily' ancl r'*l;lti';**y
sàr*r:g(!r- W"r,'*tztVtfr*x xx* ryta\y'mr,*lhan'* xzzr;Í *x,pitn'.]cet p*15'-
#.rr4t{ì:f1}1;'ul}s'*.1;*i,ror
s'r"::' tr* tl*' fx tll
:,1
"

mx1*rin1:* fi';:lrel*qtr zrtt* 1st*É*.ti" +:ú sNffi.Y*:s crl. reÈ*q.l a.s Swrvtlr:rs. *s,xlztpli:* nr*
Vr*t:àig t 1:* +'r-Ì r
&i a1:rztnta*r- Lr s i U {' t, ;:n *-! r' * nn eu ! iÈ*'
j
i: ;,

"

t4
 Hlfer:ri,#: thsrrrul r,runductíritl x h*t& &ril*iiy qtlvh*dfit{lt}

ls-4 I$-3 ls-t lfr"l Ltl Itl

l,{+:rnc'*nuutelf prtl dcni"

fihe.rs, frr*nr, ***. ffi
llv*c*w.cd pil*d*rx
Sbs*$, and f*renrs ffi
Hvlnteicd
rry:r*:iflu:d purtk,rx ffi
llvnr{s&tsd
rnultituycr insurl#isnil ffi ffi
frvwuulad
P*:*d*r,;, li$crs,
,&amx, ctr-

ffu$dÈrr {ib*ffi"
*nd f*.*nw

{}paui{i*r.l 6xrw*l*rs
nnd :llhenr

til,'r li1-d lù*1 Í$"2 I*-t t's

l,ìff*dír't thrjnnal rùnr],1ú*ivity *ury (W/nrK ]
fiSilRE 1.4$ Hanger of th*rnr*l condu{tivÍties CIf thermal insulaturs and
prsdilrts sf therffial cmndu{*ivity and hutk d*nsity.

t
?ì1$"{:
tr'lincrtl r.sc*l

C*lll*!*s: ffi ?OIJîC

'''rlf[*l- fibrcqis
Fihere;l*ss {r*silr

llhrx*lir: E
t!
l5**{: i {ellulnc
Frsl;xrex*anc Ì:ll"c

[ìxp*nr]utl
T-l"c

l-lr*r
H
u "4itiloc
ff*11*l*r *t*sr 6
*.fi1 {}I}^9 il.{"{x {}.il$ *"tfi
liÈ#,:.tiva' rlatrrn*l exndut:titi,ry *r* iWlnrK)

rrfiaJfiH Effur:tivu thermat, {'lndurttvìÈy fanges fCIr typicai fibrous and

1..3*
{èf.h[ar insutati*fts. Approxiin*te n]ftxÌftlum-$se telfiperetilres aFÈ List*d tÉ
the rÍgld r:f fFr,e insulatÌp*s'
lrurccl Adeptad fl*rn lJnrdtrcofr t$ Ap.ptí.nt llrwlotr Sesign, l, t. Guy*r; ad'. t'Îr$ra$'-llitl, f0'&0

t6
 I
I

8I
'el*'13'llild{?

Júas,qta pilfi';I-l{Uttt*'J "dt*;*s J{4 Jryfip

i}Ì{l ,fS il)l1;l'}li Jó1n* *qli{"} a;n1u;aultu';01 'tt13
i?3nF,?l 41s1ì? r.tills/t\ lf*I3Ul'13.itll Iutx,*$py 's!;a*4;'lrltll u{}!10[llglEI J{| sn!n;l
Èlll
*tqrì*p yu2nt:t, irfr*;r4i ;l{rill}n"rd u 'ósî? r[]t,\t $1{:r:ltt"tt?it i}.!{}Ll! +lfi{l*;}11 f'ttú| Il{:!lr?[fi#{tl
ilql ;aql ,iHlrqlssrrd t1t{l PL(ìl 'J,}'14 ltz'ftf$r ;lq.l ttt "l}exlui:asuit "1ql .}(i '4\*14 {Iil

ut lir] * #tii&{.xtll,
Ht\!Ag:!; HL$l,tL f"t'{, "!.vv
X :$r lfl'* * "Y tsJ fiiifltqrtql u6l7
{.il/.,\À
*r1l;r',rit1E #tlJ.'x
{}fiíl * Soil)t +' n\r.}
* }o{}?i I sl u*l}*p$qlI '34:! l;1iÚJ}s.Ív'"1;ltt"t11

)*{iFr * H -tll't1'1 E
*.rF
sr ;eìlilu!: lt+Ji{3 .?qi 4s al{ijp Fl{}l{:J$ilrs3} i}r! L
"fìr*ulltll:l ${}l}tfll}!;lr! i$ *1-Îi}}*iu '{7;';1US * '{1rl'Jtl
sJ\81 'g}}Í1171ll'tlù}.$i, {}rùlg ît\Ltt't3fiq
uar{l pqs tXt{rrîl le"il:} :}CIy}ip }* úì11u,{ aq} }}alCI$ tEutls
st{t $*l[ts}*q u'}Uq?lFru $41[jll
!ilÀL,, ìqll,{l JJi{ J0 tr5t}*JÍsil rq? 'xr;li3unqr'#ut ?tt*lrlltlop '::,.]"t]r'ì í]uE *{3t u'';}ffrtqffq
lri.rnlr,:adtaral J;lr{f lq ]e 1!:t11 x}s*fffft;:l' lîF[::f iiil] Jfi ptl]J] àq.1.
"JCIsp ;ql n1 a'tn1r:;dltli} tllllttllÍP{if
.{1u* "11r1*:1,f,re *.}}t t?}l?gt ,{trt,ltpnpuol [u&$;]r{J.
'fft3 ttt*'tg
*n-ij p*jortr11nu um *r.ltq': e:;r:lu$-Butt-lrtlfc pí,lJltLl d1n* 3::111 **lt {},t\ 1g'1

'g1"; aldret*t3 "to* -llrsp a:e*n; sn6

J# 1.1e,r,,, arys*du;** $* u*FllFF 5ss"!3 7,f,'\ l:&ffiî.i
l,lits l:'Lr!:}}Dl '{fl Bà. $9[ [m]"- fi$rlz#l:í'tll f,'/B

rl l* 1d

il.{r',ll11}t?ru I

rlí:illsi;ls *'É,ljl 1 -ótlt^rff :ft;,\f$il'ltr';{

'p:*r1r{rî* fi! f}**l Bfilt4"1lrlts +,ltln'rLxddu *u

a;*ts rSqrtriiu:.3gr r;! gqj. .SotlFl i tfinqil 3tl g!I,\x în$milr; awi$ aralx*;drecr3 *qg ?*uai'i

* $ ,tttl&l t * * n *.i.1.
X I}IJ vlft
lte"[r'jtg l] ]lt -
ls! xlll-t 3tl*i6 p;rg1*;ttts
)
uqÌ l$ "r{Jop ;rq} J{r rFFS.Èrls J$ll$trii fr{l pu* x*fi aqi B$sÀLxstl dn*p a-tqul*tltn*tr *t1tr
I

$*t* 'ot2t f="*

Jlo{}"Ìil ffif) fríìfi:n{}r$ilI rly #,'ill

:rùsli-lE l lrlr),!m lemilfi q? pary gilut1x

aql !i1 ilA\flt{$ s*:}tt*itÌ}5*.Í ss;ilil JFIFtl í}qX u} Fa;u*íq"lr:;r *4q1fi1#r$ *1'lX liÍÎ;}Ht?fslsni sfiaqf.

'tti3$tl
.,r\tx rru r.*rll x i't * t- * ^yvi-g * il
.{ptruruxi:ttlde .a:* s}ffiq$ 1eiar{r $.4Èi ri{ì.}s f;frrtlul$t$}l l*ttt"li'î{} aql,
-ffi
'H tlii\t 17 'dlnlt1mt
0,{t l,'l "frr.4 rumg
-xn.rdahr a,Q {4 ì{}óí]ÀltÍ gepu.l *up,r,r ,ft3.t1lrzqru,*r:r l*u$ai.l} fi{3 ft}Btu!}:;* il}sx^tfil#s
 PHYSICAL MEANING
OF THE DIMENSIONLESS GROUPS

Inertial forces
R ='d Viscous forces
v

d
)" Conductive resistance
Nu=od= Convective resistance
L 1

d,

p
pr=Fco = q =L
CinematicviscositY
lia Thermal diffusivitY
Cv p

20
 USTNG THE DIMENSIONLESS CORRELATIONS
in convective heat transfer

From Kreith - Manglik - Bohn. Principles of Heat Transfer 7th Edition Mc Graw-Hili.

&, ? -4, fi * r're [,at fi,wn *t .€x per"[xn * nfi a&, &mtm
Hernp*s* *1art ip ex $rries ,nf ?*nÍx wit]t *ir flarwi*,g *er'É.r fl 25-xnrl:r,-{:tl3 pip*'
fhn: lt*tlt
urr,trw;iÈi*$ rawgìrxg fmrm
trulr,:*.fur u#ef.5si,rrfit hirs becfrì m*anuinú{l *x;:rrirne,ntxlBs'at
{1. $5 to
j*& m#*,'Tlri5 ruergn *f r.*lerciÈie* cnx'rasBer:*t1* È* F{*y:n'r*?,fs ffnNlber;s bnx*t2 xw

( th* diarxr*{:*r #pfJ}g*rcrr,,gAn$ fw;mil}$ {:n S{J.*iJ{J: Sincm t}"tn ",,'izl#ei*y $d*ri'tktx *r*y
u*rris.i:*,t in ll**.s1: msis, ifun restrBl,r+ ar$ ,**r"r,eà*sÈwl ln Fig.'$"tJ{x} h3' plrfting
t$ri* hesst'

'7 {1

I ;{{l fl
tJ:
t.3{l Y
t-l ì{ I l\J Y
,e: 4.
{'Jt
.* 4.
,s1 *!

J 'àré-
',J_
3r{i
..3l"*.-. .*È*'*
(1@.

t t3.': l3-$ t25 lÉ,1 r;$ 1*

f,r,-," 1,i:l*r+:!81' lnil s**]
fu)

l,*;:'r
I
t):È

,fa

rA r'iit
r.fil
f
.{ v
L'
tf,.{J

EÍ ti{l
i

tt *{J
t
''#J
k .,..--'a*'
I 'ifi

TI
I
I ftù :r.h.} 5{'x-} '*IKW '.:i.E;{l Íl'pi:t:x l{r.r:*.fi :{l,lllxi :rt,n{:i} ll"l,:t.11í11

Iàei+nrrld:l st'l.llsrrh.o;t {,1.. l}.i'1,4i

f.?i't

,,l..É 'biqa"?attnn nf ffiilc5Ètt rn&ffib*y rvlt*t Écyr:nf"d: rrumh*r f*r rrcss-ifín'u"'nf

:r:fial-lHÉ

fri$ Dt#r fr Fipe *r eL*í\ftrylinrjxr {a} dtm**:iú:{Él"?trslt, {b} dlm*n:jnnt*sc il$Irt'

22
iir Fig. 4.1{} ie ih* <Jimensin:llEess rgr-tanfiry'É }lu#Fr$"] and th': $bscisr* i* Rep"
Am irùpr*tinn *iitha rr.sul{s sh,:rvs Éhut;rli*f Èh* ciat* f,r>llcu'a singl* !ìne r**rir:n*bly
woli- an* ilms {h*y *nn i:* c$ff$}ilted *rlpiric;rlly,
It s!:*lrfuJ b* n,nte,r"i that rhe i:xp*:rin:*nîill diltx i* Figs.'*"S nllcl4"É{'B c'r:terdii}er-
(,}"I nn*{ ,l*l} ill l?ig.4'1t} *nd trenveen
alfit I'snges 11l'R"*yn*ld:t trrur:b*ru; br:lrve'en
v*l,s*u*t hrJ#;urd 5lJ${l{} in l?ig. 4.S" [.**trup*l*ti*t: ,:rt" Éh* r*rre];rt.i,;rtr *qu;dirtr
in
I;ig. 4. 't{,} tnt,*m R.eynr:lúx **urih*r rxng* nrnch ab*le ?{.!fl *r 3fi{.} wex*ld l*xd tfl seri-
o,,-* *rrou. fior *:xr:up[*o far :eir {fr : il.?1) È"?o',1'itrg $vsr îr *ylinder aÉ R"*i-1
: \t}r**{},
Èlrc cr:rwlnflsn1eqLtittir:u in Fig. 4.ifi w*ulel pr*dict

fttc6; = Fr*'3 x t].fi3 :e R*$a : g.7 x{:}'3 H fi's2' x 2{J,t}**s'a : 3$

th* cxp*rinrenl*l d.ilt* in Fig. 4,* gir.e $n;y * $5, * siabsgalltial ctil'fbrcnr;':.
w!'silLr
lVh** u* sj;rta *re avxilxbl* ir ;r raazg* qlne*u*leted in a *Ì*riigll. s**ac exttran:{}!i*ti'r*
ntay be nc{:f$silìy, but as Éfu* ertrave exarrpl* sh*wn, axtmptilatic'n of dsÉa *'cll
b,r'y*nct th* rapg* *:fl tlre elir:rr***ir:n}**s pnrautet*rn c*v*n:el itr *xp*lim*trt$ l;hÚtL[El hcl
unli*iori if pgsslbl*. lf there is, xn *;:p*e'tulrily tr* **t:ditr::l appr*E;trittt* *xperiru':trts*
t}:* resnlr:i clextrapi:!nligfi mltsl lrp tr:eerteri tvillt *ilttîi*rt.

4.- 3 - # WrimúBîx *f 5t m'à LmrÉtzS

'["i:rq ffimns:h*h?* r*,eu]t *rf Fig. 4"1{-} c,;ln b* eepfair:':d by ttr* prin*iyr?e nf xinrihrr:iry.
A*c*rc{ing tn f|is principt,*. r:Í'íen callq'tl t:lzt" avuSú 161v, t?z* [:u*thavi*r úà tvvc]:;y:rÉems
r.vill b* :riinilnr i{ llt* riztirss,:f th*ir 1!nerrr rÍir**ttsi*t1s, t*re*'*, r**1trr:iti'es, alzei s* {'i;rrh
*r* lil* :;;un*. Ucldtsr ,;*rndiiiE:rns rrlt 3br**d c,:*ve*ti** iu ge*zrr*tri*:a?1y sirt'lilxr sysl*rl:*,
t1* v*f**ity fields lorill be finri.[;lc; plt.vit{*d thr: rutit"r c-.'fl isxeÍtia? f*r*es l.fl vist#lts {L'rr**
is thr: sac.r1* ii:r h*gh fÌr"àids.
"fi:x ld-eyne-licl* nr:.nlb.er is tir* r*ii,: $i'gla,*:i* ftrrct::1, tvntl **n-
x*q**z*17{"w# rixps{:t sirnilar tl*t;*' ,;:r>ruLili*t:s itt }br**d *aw",'*cti*tt f?.ra'n girutr uall-t* nf
tl.r* R*ynolds 51n:h*r" I'ke Fran{.tln*n:bu:r isth* rati* eiFtrv* zn*le*ularlrnfiilpùrt FroF-
*r1i*s, th* k)*+:tazztir: visc*nily r:3"tf5.,, rvlrirh at{**Is lhe'velú{i,.]r diltril:rlti*r:r';rne{
r,v*rds- it
Èh* flr,:rmal rJíi&slv]{,v klEittn,'*,$zi*h ztffxtts the É**l1tct-il3ffir* preiiile" ln cthr:r
is ;r dis*r,*sirszzlexsgr*up th*it wì:*t*sthe t*ntp*t'tltnie di*tri[:'u$ir:n ts the'*'*lú{iîy distri-
biifi*rr. En*n**,in gri:r:rctrica![y sinrilar systrl"rrts Ítnviug i?t* *nn:,: Fr"nrrd{f antS lìeyn*lti*
'Fh* Nusx*ìt trr-nezb*r i* *ep*l fe:
r7rra:rl-.l*rs, tàtc t*ri:1ie:r.al*rc d,istiibrtit*zzs willi:e tirnilaa:.
Éfue raÈi* eif itrre tcn:rperirna* gradier:È s {?uid+a-surfh,::e lnt*r1*,:rs t*r * l'*fer'.rs:cc tct'n-
arl
p,:rirturre gr.a$ier:rt, 1,1',* thcr*lìrr* *xp*r;t Éltai, itr syst*n:zs hxvitrg sin'lilar g*r;lm*tde* an*l
iiurilirr teirS:*r;lt1re fir*[<1s, llrr: rlrsur*rit:u] u;llues *f th* Ì'lux**[t nrznltr*rs vri]l lr*: *t;uirl'
'Fhis plxdictlc.rn is !:{}m* eiuÈ l:ry lJic *rp*rinzr:::t;ll t'*sttlt* in lìig, .i.l*,
*ie:relsjcur.tnl snahrses h*u* !:**1 pe rfnp'li**l i:{}r ?rdLltìl*lr.lrlls Èi*3É lraclgfhr Í;}sîl]n'!Ííi
'f;rl-rl* 4,1 sua:lrzaiiz*s t[* ::rust impc,t'iiu:l ditrle*si611l.q:s5 gftiuF].c ttst:ti azz tl*sigl:,
xEed

atlantbi^z:.in*lh* Nus.;*.lt nLrn:!:+r witk lht ?in.-::cl[i nutt'lhe r far pl*lfin.u tr1r* il;rf:,t is riirnpl;' ù rrt;tlt*r s]f
*n1r,,,rrnisr}ce. .,Xx nr..rnf irrct:{l prílvitfinl'y - a.tty r:*r'nìrin;:ti*a *í iiirtunrir,,nlt:ss pit.ratr:rt*r:
ix :;alisl'lrcftrÍy '

*r*r v,,íth lh* xid *f rnp*rii:r*ntal n:.suiln" *1Ll't*,sgh sr:mtiittlt:t thc eliar*ctrristie gralpii *r* ruggc:;i*ri
l*9 ilre rrrr; u lls tst' :tztttl'y ti* :;;l tt I i*n *.
I

24
I
HYDRAULIC DIAMETER

The Dittus-Boelter formula (or similar correlations) may be used also for geometries other than the
cylindrical one, provided that in the formulas is used the so called "hydraulic diameter" defined as
follows:
44,
Dn=
1
being A, the the wet perimeter, i.e. the perimeter actually swept by the fluid.
cross section area and P,u
SucÈ a parameter derives from flowdynamics, and is introduced to reduce to a circular duct the non-
circular geometries (or passages crossed by a stream). It is a sort of "equivalent" diameter, where the
term "equivalent" doeJ not iefer to the cross sectional area, but to the flowdynamic resistances (or
pressure drops) encountered by the stream throughout the duct.
In the following, Da is calculated for some practical cases:

Rectangular ducts. Annular gap

a Dz

b
Ao 4ab 2ab
D,, =4
Ao _ 47r(Dz2 - Dr2) I4
= D^z_ D.t
=4
Dh
I 2(a+b) (a+b) 1 n(Dr+ D,)

Heat exchangers (as far as the secondar)'-flow1 is concerned)

oo O o
o OO O o
o oo oo o
o oo oo ooo o
o oo oo
U
o oo oo oo
oo oo o oo oo
oo o
Square mesh Triangular mesh
p p

d
d

n'-4. ld2,d2 D'*/t -

n cos3Oo I ^377 d2
n' ---
!!" :l' lnd 4 4 =4' 4 Dn=
4Ao '26 4
=4
Dh
1,, 4.: nd
Pn !na
4 6

1
In the heat exchanger (HX) nomenclature , the prin'tary streaftx is the sheam in contact with the internal side of the pipe
(internal stream), whireas the seconclary stream is that in contact with the external side (external stream)'
26
I
t- ?.S
TA&ilI {firnitinued]
6e*metrg [srrtlatî*s fqtlafion S*strictÍar*s

r Pìarke,l 'bed*heat trangfes ts ar *om E-*gF * :,re ne#frf'e * o,os4 E*ffrra'* 40 <l Repn { 3*0n

qrtind*rti*e patking
r*s[ai nn*ent rvall^, gas

fr6eé 0.a$ RÈ{5rru} + *.saq n*$,frr'$s 40c;Res*{1fiC0

t- rpheretihe p*ckìng

Tuhe br"rnd[* in crosr-fr^ow {ae* Figs. },3L fi;s Pf-'r-38{P{./Frul**'zr * f{Sd5r}o S*ff
and 7"12)
t- r ltÍ t!

fr.4 ú 10 a Re5 "{ 1oú. i*-tise

I
{-r.s
r1,9 Q,4 s 1* "{ fleg "i 10t}, *taggered
*,27 0.63 0 1*n04fl*6<1x1"05"
Ìn-line 5/5s x *"r
c.35 |1"6* 0.4 10n0 "{ fles "i g n tO',
rtaggend 5/51 "t:3
s,46 0,6s ù 1000.,f te6{Èx 1.0*,
staggered 5/5g;r Z

*,9É1 0,84 ú Res:;,g x 165, in-[*ne

u.vtL ú,84 fi Reo ii" é X 1{r, :tuggered
Fr:r t
E-us * 6,6î9 g**'É$ Re6}r Ix !*5, staggered
Pr x ù.7

fl[s x' ú'*13? RePEe*Pt*'r* 4.8 H 1Ù5 d: fie9 *: ? u 1.06

Ftovr sver ltaggercd tube hundle,
> Sp/S x 2, 5$S n 3.'4
ga* or [*qu{d {Pr CI,$}

Liquid rnet*ts S-s * +.n: "i" r),Èl8{fi*pF$ffis Z.xl*4*:Sep48Xt04,

:taggered

t.

L
28
l_
 NATURAL CONVECTION
I solid wall at a different
Natural convection occurs when a fluid at a given temperature adheres to a
any fluid mover'
temperature and keeps moving with respect to it without intervention of
To àetermine the fluìd motioriis the buòyance force, i.e. the upward force acting on any object
I according to the Archimedes's
immersed in a fluid. irr".ognitude of the buoyancy force can be stated
principle: it is equal to the *èigttt of thefluid displaced by the body' In formula:
t
Furoron", = gVuay Plt ia

In a gravitational fietd the body has his own weight:

F*0, = gVtoay Puay

So the net force acting on a body immersed in a fluid will be :

f = Fnat - Fuo,*n", = g Vnay (P*n, - P 7u,n)

the rising of the fluid along the

What actually happens when a fluid is in contact e.g. with a hot wall, is
gets lighter and ke9n1
wall (indeeaine luio at the at wall surface, by assuming lhe wall temperature,
circulation in the vicinity
rising along the wa[j; then other fluid takes iis place, gi"ing rise to a natural
be colder than the fluid, a
of the wall, with heat transfer effects towards the bulk fluid. Should the wall
similar circulation occurs but with reversed direction of the fluid motion'
that of the
It is intuitive at this point that to provoke the motion is the difference in the fluid density:
can then be re-
fluid in contact with wall (p; and that far away from it (p-). The previous equation
written as follows:
F = Frror*otl * Fundisrurbett = g V (p - p*)
fuid

To express the term to (p - p*) as a function of temperature, it is convenient to introduce the

volumetric expansion coefficient p. It accounts for the relative fluctuation in volume
(per unit mas) of
a given substÀce due to a tempeiature fluctuation, while the
pressure is kept constant:
f
I
p=!(*\
- v\ar =-L(+\
{
), p\dr )o
I In finite terms:
p --_l grl (at p:const)
p l--t

Asaresult: p*-p=pg(T-T*) (atp:const)

{

I
Finally F = Fnnnrrrnll - Fundisn,rbe,l = I P (T -T*)
flrid

For a perfeet gas (pv:RT), it is easy to show that B reads:

I
1
I p
T

I
t_

30
t
 CORRELATIONS FOR NATURAL CONVECTION

From : Cengel- Cimbala-Turner: Fundamentals of Thermal-Fluid Sciences, Mc Graw-Hill ,

5th ed'

.l,lu

uFiler
úf Iate
a ,lrot ate
:

qU
Rep lae e

l.a ú$ a,
et* w$ten
alt
l-l:- gi-a
Grla

$phere ftqc * l{tlt 2,+ tgf'-^ffi,

{Fr a t1"7')

32
 iù0"t, it,'e

{/""u
-'
- ltll,{ 1,,',,1- l.} * { }3.i{ $'lnr\s{-l}t{l 1 96,1 nr:lt2-\{} "- 15 }"* - fi F{} W

Slext we d*f*rr*ine thq, t*tef h*at lrans{erred {rcs: the bxtrl,','i*ich is siniply
itr* .honÉ* ir: lfre -en-*rg3, *t \tts. blet'l fix ià ca*l,: fr*m 3úú*C,ìo U^frfl
,

- p\t * F ;i *'I}1 * Sti55 lplnrrt j,-n{1t25 mlt' * *5.f} li-q

,

sy f

* t*t;..t'f *'1", } q Ui5"t} kg}{,A#t} Jikg'"i:X--ì{-}{"} * z{}tl}r(: * '1. IS"},{X'J{"} I

tr .:
{}...,-,
!.Lil!t

lri this calculn?icn, i,,e fitgurfir:d ihiil the errti're b"*lf i* rrt !Úúoc, which is
'"at1l rrnbab]y b*,*t s hÈgher
rrst rrec*ssaril,g lt*e,Th* inn*r rcEt*rt sf th* baRl
t*.mperoiur* t'h*n itl :urfa**. tllitfu t"ki* ar:untpàir:1, ths tinrB of *r"clsng is
det+t'nrined t,: be
(.t # 3"tr:.'í"tir,til J f-...-
.\ r ;: . "-l-... ..".,.-..-.*.-.-...,.'.-- t &l s *
-- *r- Ih 16 lttilt
f-,, 6l{} 'rls

34
 I
I

t
CHAPTER 15
f
{

I HEAT EXCHANGERS
I
i

{
t

f
ì

I
t

I
 2
i'

$
,'#
HEAT EXCHANGERS TYPOLOGIES

1. LIQUID.TO-LIQUID HEAT.EXCHANGERS

DOUBLE -TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS

SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS

Th* nrcsl cùt?rnrr)1 typ* r:f lre*t cxahiin$cr in inelnsfrial appli*atiillts is tll* slrcll-and-ftthr:
he;tt r:.Er:1arigcr, Tfres* c.ri*lrangcr:s hokl r:iore thitn &5 peruent oi' ihr: lriltrkct shale.
Shcli-ir:rr!-tul;c l.leat ex*li:ruge rs typica!ly prt-iviclc a sUrfiic* arclt cletlsity rilnging fr't]tn
j{i tc 5fi0 rn:lnr:3 ancl ilr* *.*sily cle*necl. Tlir: dcsìgrr ueicles ancl stitttcl;tl"cls titrs avtililbi*
f xlnr th* Tuhrular Exch:urgrx'h{arruf neturr:rs Ass*eiati*u {TEMA).
A siiilplr *xchnngt:r-
rvhich invrlir,*x *nc: xl't*!l itnrJ *tr* i:ass. is shtrvlt in FigLrr* 5,1S.

t
t

r)

SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS

 A
4" 4

PLATE HEAT EXCHANGERS

Tlterc {re t.wo tylttls of'plillc hoilt exchiltlsel',$' One is tlw Ssfute<u?d-fruftw <tt gtt:ike'lcd
(levÈlopecl in the 1930s fr:r the f'ar:cl ittctttstries becaus*
!,{.ùte lrc{ú e"u4ltiiger,which tvas
srf c.usy cleanilg aml quality control {smnll {rnrpc.ratnre dilferencss}. Thc cf}rer is
the
wclctcit or trra:r*cl platc hr:al cxchangcr. lvltich *sually all*ws higher prcssurcs iutcl
lempefiltut"os, bcing lvidely rtsec{ as * contpaet lie*t exchanger. Hclwcv*r. since tltis
*"*Àopg", canngt be openeel, lpplications *re liuriteel to negligible for"rling citses" Th$
weights r:rf the brazrel gilatc heat cxchangers aru ;rhout 25 perr:cnl r:rl'fh* shell*ancl-tutre
hc.at cxc:hangcrs lirr the sanr* h*nr dnîy. Tltc i:r*z.ctl plate heal *xchitnger srnsists
nf' a nuryrbcr r:f thirr reclrtttgutar rrctitl plittes' Ths ilow arratlgelnctt is pir.:tilr*cl llt
Figure 5.22.

-,.-S*'

Tigrlrt5,22 Fl0rvtlìlglirrniuasìlrgli:lrasscrru|tsrll{ìtsìlfritfigerttr:trtlirrtrplrtchcÎtcxch?ltgtl'

tI

gu arn; I ione
praStr

l
 ,$illoulD-cAs HEAT ExcHANGERS

FINNED-TI.IBE HEAT EXCHANGERS

bc{'ween gascs antl

Finneil-tutm lteat cxi:hattgr:rs ltttve itecn usec* .for h':;rt cxchnngc
cÚsllicir:nt ott
liq'icìs for: rnany yciil.ii. tr a gas-t,:r-liquid cxclrnnger. th.' he.at tlaltsf'er
thilt: thàt ott tho gas sicl*'
the liqlid sicle is generllly cne oreler of triagtiituile higher
f'cx il tlrinitnuln-sir's] hcill
Hence, l* hilyr: [:rirlnn*ecl tirennal ctnductatrces r:tr hnth sides
*xchalrger, lÌrrs are uscrl on lh* girs slcle ltl ittorctt$* the sut"fitccr
ittca. Figttre 5'34 sh*i'vs
ttiree inrp*r.hrnt linnecl-tu5c hent exclunger ccnstrucÍion typc$.
Figr:re 5.34(tt) shr:rvs
plat* finncrl-tubc {Ie0ftlctry'
circular finnccl+ilb* g*orti*try. Figlrre 5.34tb) sholvs tlTc
Tltuse *xchatlgcrs ilre wiclcly
and Flgure 5.3;l(c) nli,nun the platc-fÌn ilaf-tuh* $$firnfitty.
sntue exnnr;'iles are
used in tlr* air cunrliLioning, rcl't'igcratr-rro ittttt *ttlomoliv{j inclrrstry.
cooli ng tuwcrs, lJvitporíltor$, cttttclsttsefl;, atttl i'atliai*rs'
siclc, 'fh* highcst
Finned-tilbc c.xch4pg*rs can r,vithstnncl high plù$.$ttrc otr tlre tubc
attd rna{el'ial
fetilp*ratrug is 11g*in linriteel i:y lho l.ype ert'Lrc*clÌrrg, niittcrials cm1:lr:ry*cl,
plitte-lit: exclr*ngers'
thiclness. Finnecl{ultr: c.tcltntlg*rs rrs**lly ale le*s cotllpact Íh;rx
at'* irvnilabl*
Finn*d-frit:* i:xclasgers rvith n surface area cf*nsity {Jf atNrul 3.3$ilrn2l[r3

(*) ( tr)

(c,)

pl;rte linnect-Lube
Ii"igur.* 5.34Finnerl-tubr hr}ilt e.{.chùt}ger* ia} uir(ular linllecl-Éutr* rype- {b}
typ*. nncl {c) f*uv*red plirt*-fìtl itr;rt-tubrl typ*

thrcluglt tltt:
c*rnur*rciàll)r. Ofi lhe lin sicle, {l:{3 clesir*d *nrfitrtc :lt'eil f;llJ h(} ar:lticvecl
proplrr fip *gn*ity ;itxt fitr geerr::r:lry. Typir:al fin densiti*s f<rr g lirf* I'ilts
v;tly Jirirr: 25{}
vi}iy {tfim 0'08 t<l 0'25 urt*'
r* 80{} lins per r:ret*r {6 tq: l0 fins fcr: i*r,!r). fir: llli*knegs{:"s;
A tintlcd-irlhr: *xcltiltrg*r with 40ll
a*ii li* ll*w l*nglli$ víllry fltr;: ?5 fo ?5*lnrn. 1:laicr
lins per *i*ter h*s ,n ourlo*" alcii ti;:u:;ity *f :tlrotit. 720 nliluir [1?].
 0 'io
,*''É 8

t-
/
k dr-
.A;
__z*---G
h tt" r \, FINS
l-
? rì1) A\ Í*i
4
h. .,
PIate
t $.-,hA..{t-t)
t

arlas.
ariar _{

ì,^, ú\f:K

I \^ ' o'' tr,

Fig. 5 - Rappresentazione del contatto reale fra aletta e tubo'

Louvered fins

-{^
-lzî\lz-
{.2î{--
=L l-
-{At-
-.1,/î:l-

TrWI
|.77
L^l a
llat
; 0
::ffiL=
*{.:zJz-
^k+4-
-\{\u/-
L --.lr+-*--
-'L:C^ fl

ffij
R FIGURA IO
lluove alenature per bdtterie lato aria, corngate' lntaglÍate
ff[ u È con intaRllo c louvr

.t
Fig.'1.
L a) - ùleua liscia
b) - atèua cornrgdta
î) - aleila (sLIT o L.tvc')
il -- alena "r\Í'/f,lft* a sbat:o paruttett
0 ateftd
J) -qlc,ta i\:,{iiiTí,'iÍ"ii'l,"d"i!,!,íiil"ttourcn'
L

L
 10

\
\
3. GAS.TO-GAS HEAT EXCHANGERS

COMPACT HEAT EXCHANGERS

1,ffi
&,
tffi,WÌY
ar
r'
I
t

( 'î-r
I

*Ì
Í
I

GAS-TO.GAS FIXED BED - HEAT EXCHANGE.RS

t
 fuoc^" G'e @oM+"
h:- t

HEAT EXCHANGER'S FTINDAMENTAL EQUATION

2out
T

dTr

r__î_
t 1in lout dTz

dx

2in x
Hypotheses lJ,^/'
c Steady-state regime
t Heat exchanger adiabatic with respect to the external environment
o Gravirnetric and kinetíc terms negligible
o Isobaric streams
o Only sensible heat transfer

Let us define the thermal capacity of a stream as : C = C ptit

The energy balance is:

dQ= rhrdl|= rhlColdTt = CrdT, (0.1)

dQ = - ritz dh, = (0.2)

-4rg pzdTz = -C2dT2

By integration one gets

t

L Q=Cr(Trout-Trin) -). " Cr=7,

11
- 0
Yt1ou, -71;r)
- (0.3)
t.
Q=Cr(Tr,r-Tro,,) è Cr=
er:f*,)
t Adding equations (0.1) e (0.2) gives:

t dQ = drr - drz = -d(rz - r,) (0.4)

[à. à)
But also (K = tube transmittance ) :

L dQ=KdAgr-\) (0.s)

L
 t)^- {"}\ r , ;. 4:t.
1

!.
t4
t
MULTIPASS HEAT EXCHANGERS
w The previously stated formula is just valid for those heat exchangers where both
(r-i-tir*, in th. ,ur. ( equicur.rent ór parallel-flow) or in opposite dilection
fluids move along two parallel lines,
(countercurrent or.counterflow)'
For flow conditions other than this, it is
ìn reality such a condition o..** onty tor the tube-in-tuùà heat exchartgets.
factor F which depends on the actual configurations. As a results p will be given by :
possible to define a corrective

Q=K oJ''j!:* Pےt vr {a";i'->P'" --- -

ratios:
F can be taken from the following figures as a function of the two temperature

p
' -
_T,,or,-T,,,, 7 =!t-!t*: = !,':,,
Tr,r, -7,,,n T,,ou,-T,,,, ùrc ou

(lr,i,, , Tr,ort)tefet to the heat exchanger schemes

The shell side temperatures (Iox, , 7,,o,,) and tube side temperatures
accompanying the graPhs'

of Heat TransferTth Edition rrn" C.u*-r{i..J

L;r"r" Kreith - Manglik - Bohn. Principles

i .il a'l :<.

# -Y:-,,

\:t "\ q' "l

ù-{}
\ { \#
I
1
\ \ \
{}"s
I 1 \ I
f:
,1 t t't \
F.? .$
t- $e
t
I
i!-/
I
r,,i
f, F br Etl
\ \ 1 \
Qt I

I I 't
I
ll
I 1

tkfi i
I

1
1

L\-5,
t! 'll.l fl.z fi.3 ti"4 t]-s {}.e $'T *'8' {:l'l} t"il
in = {Yr ,,ur,-''f ,,i*!{lflo ;n * T r, in}

?,," in

îi,:,ur
f.
't'r itl

?^ oul

F:fiiJH[ fi,]4 {.nrr*rt'i*ri f.*ct*r 1p qp*rzlÉrf[r:rl* l-]4T$ fnr h**t *xchaT]**î'#+'tth

*fi* sh,ÉAL É*ss afld t'nu*'* {*rr 'fr mtJlti'Éle *f tr,lr*} tah* Pnsses.

:
 T6

HEAT EXCHANGER FLOW ARRANGEMENTS

Parallel-flow Counterflow

I
tl Crossflow Shell-and+ube

l l l-"*"* |
--w-'w
I
f -.. "'*'*-.. 1

t rx,,,,*-/ rt

I f(rrr ll.f illdl,d{,}.rhàt

-ft..nr. l).1 (.i${bol'inil41î{i4.t.rlil{h{,lb1rt{rqrt6!f rr'il'tut'

A til! 0:b {tÉ;ti;ìd.r. N$rrw r#É tsl kj fì'rd* l. ld,'.ìk óF4{ {'i itì
lilì t{$}IS lb4b @1 &} làtnib lÉSilFd

EXERCISE
t

Determinn tlre heat transfbr surfhce area reqfiíl:ed fbr a heal exchanger constructsd
f ùom * iì.{i254-xr-q'1l; tube tc,r cnol 6.93 [g1s of n 85% ethyl *lc*hol sr:lrrtion
1c,.,= 3810 JlkK Ki fi'orn 65.6"C to 39'4àC, **ing 6.3* kg/s r:f waler nva;lnble at
ìtílC. ,t*ru*e ihtt the overall coelficient of he*t transf'er based on the suter-ttr'be
*rre$ is 568 wfin3 K nnd consider ench of the lhllowing nrrangements:
t.
{a) Farall*l-llorv tube ancl shell
{b; Count*r{ìorv trtbs alrd shell
i"i Cuuxt*rll*rv exchanger with 2. shell p*$-ricr$ ri*rÌ ?2 {ttbe pas*es, ttre aleotrul i}orv-
ing through the shelt antl the wilter llorvirg throush tl,e tubos- .
(tD Cróss-flai', wifh nne tuhe p;rss and ane slrell pnss, sfuell-side fluid nrixcd

L Tire ouitet t*rnperature rf tlie wnfer for any nf the four trrmngemellts can be nbfnineti
fborn *n ovsr$l! enelgy bitl*nce, assuming {h*t {l're ltcnt loss lt: the iiîm*sph*tr:
is neg-
ligible. Writing ftrn energy balauce as
t.
tit1,tp1îTn,i1 - &,ou,) - th,,e7rrtT,,.n*, -- f,inl

nm{ subslitnting thc clst$ in this etlu*tiun, we obtÍÌin

1
{6,93}{3s10}(ó5.6 - 3t.4) = {6.3ÚX4t8?}(&.out - l0}
L
 I
18

r ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF HEAT EXCHANGERS

(-

I
{

rry ...-l I

[..
à

l AT max
4W ,i

#
ltu
I

t The energy efficiency of a heat exchanger is defined as the ratio of the actual Q to the maximum
possible h'éat transfer e.", i.e. the thermal po-"t the two streams would exchange if the heat exchanger
surface area would be infinitely large.
t o
g =-=-
g*
t
t For a HX with a heat transfer arcainfinitely large, the stream with the lowest thermal
capacity
(C*n)would reach the lowest or highest temperature occurring within the HX. Its temperature would
èoòiu. according to the broken Hné profile ìn the figure above, covering the maximum achievable
f temperature difference (ATmox). Then
TA
Q- =Crn;n LT^u*
[,
As a result:

o-
t Cnrin AItu*

The heat transfer nte Q can be assessed by any of the following formulas
L
Q=K A F LThn= Co LTo =lcu trrl
t is given by
If Q includes some latent heat, then the energy efficiency
:

I
t" ò- 0
ùrnin Lh^u*

I
t.,

I
 20

HEAT RECUPERATORS
Example: energy savings from ventilation air

Air treatment WITHOUT heat recovery

Te
Tr

Ta
m Q_ù co(T,-Tu)

t-
tt- T"
Te To
Air treatment WITH heat recoverY
Q' Te

Tg Ts

Tu

Tn
)./
6 m

a
Q'=ùCu(T,-Tu)
TE
TB

Tn

p=Q-Q'=1- Q' , T,-Tu

a O
-=l T,-To
 22
('
I
HEAT EXCHANGERS IN POWER SYSTEMS

f^
i
One of the most frequent conditions of heat T
AT
transfer in power systems, is that of the hot
flue gas heating liquid water up to supeheated
vapor. That happeris in tlie steam generators
I of vapor cycles, as well as the in the HRSG
of combined cycles.
I In both cases the temperature profile in the
(T,Q) diagram is shown in the figure aside. a

It is interesting at this point to remind that, inpase of heat transfer across a wall, the production of
ireyersibility is poportional to the temperaùdre difference AT:
(-
t
' T',1',*Q:2)'
o=ery+= T, T,

much as
Therefore to minimize the irreversibility, it is suitable to make the two profiles get closer as .

possibte,
îhis probtem is particularly important in the HRSG of the combined cycles' ln order to enhance the heat
pressure levels, as
recovering fo'nìhe fiue gas reieased by the gas turbine, it is usual to adopt more than one
showm in the follorying scheme:

4 a
6

6' 4'
HRSG
5',
3
Gas to the stack

5 3 z I

T
6

Gas line

5',

u
4t 5 Vapor lines
3

a
 1

CHAPTER 16

ADVANCED ENERGY SYSTEMS

\l
 2
r'
{

COMBINED CYCLES
r^
Conceptual scheme
t

(
(

I
(
Combustor Steam
Drum
T"
t

Com-
HRSG
pressor
f Gas
I
I
Turbine

I
lr
Superheater Evaporator

Steam
Turbine Economizer
t
t

Gas and water-vapor profile in the HR-SG

f
( silfl I
I
,dT ap:pr*sclt-pcrínt I

I
I
{
Aî pinnli:"P*int
I I
4nil F------ -t
I
-t
t
I
I % I

rbT n.uh*nntixtg
î
I

U
I

f I I
lt
I
o
SEfl _t
I
I
I lt
{ o ttr

{ff'
I I
L
H I I
T
t I

d
t{
I I

II
q
C)
g nil -_r
f H Evaporation
o
t- Superheatrng i
,I
Bfl -ì"---*--r
tll
llI
--r--*'--- v'
tl
i
tf
I Preheating

I
t:
ú É! 4l Eil EN 1fin

I
Heat transfer (o/o)
I
l
ii,

I
 4

ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF CC

Unfired Fully fired

er

1{Í.S{i Iircrl

lilm Trsh*r (ìrr 'furbírtu

5tóffi $rwl
lml'íne
0,r ste#
llurbilc

Qt
ti

î{}p Wr
\\'r
I -"sl--l
t 11 Q:
g ll1 qr

J'f
BOTTOX,Í W':
${J1'111,\t 'ú?!

t Q'r
8t

Let us define :
Efficiency of the CC
p Qr+Q,
A'

I l-Tlcc =
o" o" o" =(1-ryr) (l*rtr) We have:

A'- 0r 0' t*rt=*

L Then: l-q, =
a'
Qr+Q,
1cc =1-(1-ry') Q-ryr) A'
l-Qcc-r, =
Q+Qo
Hypothesis
t_ By combining the previous equations, we
t'h=34Yo Tz = 40To obtain th efficiency of the fully fired CC:

L 0.34) (1- 0.40) = 0.60

Tcc = (l -

L
1

t
 6
r
{
COMBINED CYCLE
1 Pressure level
t.

I
i

t" 2
t

I 4

rtus C

$If
Tarr

VAF E

Tar

fico

i
stack
s
I

î
T
T
î
T 4IT

4
I
ellt
,(
B nir
TB r-+{ 5

É, B
I s

a. a s
 8

I COMBINED CYCLE
3 Pressure levels
I
I

I
( Eshaust gas
from GT
f'
I*m'-m"
ì
{

HPSH
n
HPV
t
Bo mÉ
HPE

rcY
e T c

g
t

D,U
TFE

nlt F' D0
{

Lpfi s
.q A

I,
sPr
I

I
 10

COMBINED CYCLES AND REPOWERING (cont.d)

In Fig.3 the flqe gas is relasecl hy the GT. Since the air stream is hot enougho steam can be produced
without additional fuel. The steam generator behaves as an ordinary heat exchanger. If required,
additional fuel to the boiler could produce additional power.

Existing steam
Exhaust power plant

Flue Gas

t
Additional fuel may be suPPlied
to increase power production
I
I
Gas Turbine added

f Fig. 3

I
Fig. 4 shows the most common configuration for repowering, i.e. steam generator, regenerators and
deaerator are removed or by-passed, and a typical CC design is adopted.

Gas Turbine and HRGS added

rp/Ll3

Fig.4 Components removed

 l2
!
i

INTEGRATED GASIFICATION COMBINED CYCLES

(rGCC)

gas. However it
Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel on earth, although more pollutant than oil and
of the coal gasification
is possible to match coal and environmental issues thanks to the cooperation
and gas turbines (or combined cycles) technologies.
tndeéd coal can be gasified to próduce a syngas óf relatively high LHV to use in GT.
The gasification
process is based on the following chemical reactions:

+110.6
C +YzO, -+ CO kI I mole partial combustion
C + O, -> COr+393.7 W I mole total combustion
C+ HrO -+CO+ Hr-l3l.4W lmole gasification
CO + H rO -+ CO, + H2 + 4l.2kl I mole water-gas shift

CO +3H, -+ CH u + HrO +206'4kI I mole methanetion

The conceptual scheme and the lay-out of a IGCC are shown in the figure below.
The coal is supplied to the gasifier:where it is partially oxidized under pressure
(30-80 bar). The plant
uses oxygen as-oxidant, produced puposedly in an Air Separation Unit (ASU)'
In the guuin.r the temperature may 1500'C. Ttie high temperature ensures that the ash is
""...d
convert-ed to a liquid slàg with low viscosity, so that it may easily flow out of the
gasifier' In addition
to its chemical energy iheating value), the hot raw syngas contains sensible heat which may be
tJ produce steam for the steam turbine. The use ofsyngas coolers for
recovered in heat
"*óúuìg.rr
this purpose increases efficiency.
rne ctean syngas is then fed to ih" gur turbine for production of electricity. Compared to natural gas
operation, soÀe minor modifications in combustors and operating conditions are required.
Th. gu, turbine, from the ASU, also receives nitrogen which is used for moderating the turbine inlet
temp-erature (TIT) and for reducing the production of No*.lVlost of the sensible
heat in the hot gas
electricity production,
is recovered in the HRSG which supplies the steam to a turbine for additional
Electrical efficiencies achieved in existing commercial plants ate atound 4004.

shit
Ouénch

WEter -306 Particulaie

H6at quencb or remgval
Cloàr
5!Ifil rlo rdold Slnges
Hot ratr syngas By.DrÒduct
H:S
coal féed Sulfur Steanr
Gasifìer tttri:lnE
remo!d, Ah S6prritlon Un;l

Hot Feed cdnl

oz ./aler
steaù
Eloclric

cas t(îblne HRSG G6norafor

Exhaust Flue sas
Ak tl i almi -600'C -1?0
n
t1 Stach
Sìtq hJ
By"product gfcror
Air Air
Eloclle
 I4

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF MAJOR TECHNOLOGIES FOR COZ CAPTURE

The main competing technologies for COz capture from fossil fuel usage are:

. post Combustion Capture (PCC) from the flue gas of Combustion'based plants;
. pre Combustion Capture from the Syngas in Gasification based plants; and
r Oxy Combustion - the direct combustion of fuel with Oxygen'

These three approaches are shown diagrammatically for coal based power systems
in l;igure l-1'

F$st rombugti{rn Nr

Pvs esrdirulfisrr

LOOt

*uy 4ortibusri*n
Air

CO,
LOol

Figure 1-1 Technical Options for COz Capture from Coal Power Plants

post combustion capture (PCC) at near atmospheric pressure can be applied to newly designed plants or
the most
retrofitted to existing coal plants after suitable flue gal clean up. Absorption processes are cuffently
pCC technologies can also be used in other industries besides power
advanced of the pCC technologies. The
e.g. cement, oil refining, and petrochemicals'

pre-combustÍon capture in the IGCC power application comprises gasification of the fuel with oxygen or
air under high pressùre, the use of the s?rift r"uCIion followed by COz removal using Acid
Gas Removal
(AGR) p.o"!.r*, with írydrogen rich syngas supplied to the gas turbine based power block. Pre combustion
òapture can be added to lxisiing iGCCplants uiit in ttre future IGCC plants witl almost certainly be designed
AGR processes is also practiced
with capture from the staff. The pre-coÀbustion capture of COz using
commeicially in natural gas proóessing, natural gas reforming and coal gasification plants.

to
Oxy combustion is the combustion of fuel with oxygen. In an Oxy coal power plant, flue gas is recycled
for b,oiler tube material
thetxygen fired boiler to keep the boiler temperature at the.level acceptable
integrii. The flue gas containing mostly COz is purified, dried and compressecl. The Oxy technology may
abJbe applied to existing plantJbut in most .urór u new boiler and steam turbine would probably
be
justified.

Within each of the three major capture categories there are multiple pathways using dìfferent technologies
which may find particular application ror" f*o,trably in certain climate conditions, locations, elevations
and coal fypes.
 t6

From* Energy t echnologie s per spectives", OECD-IEA 2006

{ C0, Capture and $torage: Stfftu$ ar?d Prospects

I' 486@A8@*g 6&&stAqg*e6a&&*aaE6*&&g4S*alte&&&ù&&&6ùtaa4ba8&6&*Ags6Ó36&C6&&',

StaÈus Bf CÚz CaPture and Storage

C02 ccrpture snd sloruge invalveo thres disiincf slages {Figur* 4"Î0}: (l) cupluring
CA, fronr power plunfs, industriql processes or fuel processing; (2) fransporling the
.apiured C02 by pipeline or in lankers; {3} storing CO: underground in deep
*oiin* aqui{eri, depleted oil und gús re$eryoirs or un-nrinaable cosl secms. The
iechnologies lhot ure needed hqve b*en in use {or decsdes, qlbeii n<it in
combinu{ion with the purpose of reducing CO2 emissions. Fudl"ler technofogy
clev*l*pment is needed, and th* bulk of Ìhe casls will be on lhe caplure side. The
relenlicn ospecls of underground storoge need fo be proven and the economics
and anergy efficieney of ccrpfure need io be inrproved'

CO2 separution hcrs been widely npplied in indusirial proce$sss snd {nr nalurolgas
q
prciessing, but'lhere is limited experienc* wifh its use {or power plon'ls' While
nunrber oi copture technologies could be *pplied irrdoy, their uEe for ccmrnercial-
scol* power plonts needs l* be demonstrcfed. A number *f such demsnstrafian
praiecls for cosl ond far gas-fired power planls are ìn various sicges of developm*nf
in Ausirolio, Cnnado, [urope orrd the Ur"rit*rJ $lcles'

C02 can be slored in n*iurfll geol*giccl formotions ot c deptlr of more thsn

601) nrefres. There is litile +xperience in the long-lerm effecfiveness of CO2 slorcge'
Slcroge in deep soline cquifers has been dernonslroled in one conrmerciol'se*le
prcieci in Norwoy {the Sl*ipner sub-sed slorage prolect), Abeiut 1 lrÀf af CO7 per tedr
hasbeen stored since l??é. Tlris proiecf is inrpo$nnl os it proves fhat storcge in
aquifers ccn work in practice. COl stcircge in combinalion wilh enhonced oil
recovery h*s beerr dentonslr*ied ct tlre Weyburn proieci in Cunffda. Aboul ? Mt a{
CQ2 per yeor hc* been sfored since 20CI'l . ln both proiecis the behaviour of the CCI2
underground hcs e*rresponded ta whol madels had predicted, und imporfanl
r.

progress was achieved in the undersfanding und rn*nitnring of CCI2 behoviaur

t

und*rground. $o for; no le*kage ho* been dciocted'

I Piloi prolects suggest thot CO2-enhanced coal-bed methsne snd enhsnced gas
recov€ry moy be vicrble, but the experience so far is noi sufficient fo consider ihese
iwo as proven options. All opii*ns *oi enharrce fossil fuel producfion can cre*fe
rÈv*nus$ ihot rnay off-sel pcri ol *he caplure cosl. Hncouraged by lhe promising
resl,hs s* {cr, mflfiy rnoro r.lnderground storcrge demonstrniion praiecis hove beell
slcried 0r ctre Planned,
CFIAPTE.R T7

COGENTERATION
 t-

f-

t-
Cogeneration Prime movers
r
;.ai:l...
,.l l
.t+*gÈ'
2 Tl

I . ls it technically feasible?
Qr
.
.
ls it energy-saving ?
() ilr) w
Is it environtnentally friendly?
Qz

t rw Reciprocating engines
:ll-fj nlcrMbtOrs . ,
Gas Turbines
,""g*;
"':a*ro'
I T.r = 450oC
p

Ta = 350oC
\=30%
lr
n:30 %
E 30
1,5

E 30
a a 0,5

fl{
t 0 f'0

t" mry, ndens íng Steam Turbines

Back pressure Steam Turbines
'r€--t ',::AF(g-:r

I 11=35 %

Ptocess stcÍùl

t rÍ
E-'ì5=no*
960
Returo linc

I
I wîter supply

t 'I'ro,,o = 40oC

I
L-

L 1

t_
 t.
r'
I

I
Combined production of heat and power Prímary EnergY Savings.
t t?<
-r- '-qFi

I ff]'tggrlon
'L :35
= 0.85
._ Eltkr- EPTHP _,
f r-\=+-t -
0
c
i:+l

t,.Elnr;; + (tl,t,)I
Cogeneration
p""n E
ncur )
P=100 -.**
Achievable rvith current
Q=100
technology ll

35
t"

Prirnary Energt t:,K Second Conclusion

""e{|

PES

-l
0.6
0.8 \
4 \

f,-
0,8
0.5
o,tS
0,n
,z'lt
./. ,l'ìcrp Cogeneration is
o.è' t

' //, o,sl

o,2

0.1
"/// /
0
E Energy-saving !!
0,1 0.? 0,5 t 2 î0 p

t1",u, : Cogeneration plant effìciency

I
First condition Matching CHP wíth loads
t
for maximum CHP fficiencY ,,qruii- ."iìs$ryFi.

il Perl'ect matching between

lilQ dcnrarrcl-sidc with
lr./Q supply-side
L"
V--J
,,---=---t
,1"
"r1-'\\ /'.---___.r_._-.,._-i\
L-_......'-.
\. i

t I Thc lrcùcfits or achic\lb0lc $hùil tlrc hcnt 0ild portr offcrcd bv Ihc CHP
thororghlv (nnd possibll rs s@[ ns thq rro ilrndc ntrilablc)- ]{o\!rcr"'
plîot rrc ntil'7-cd

t " c
A CHp pl0ùt a(tniils ils rni{iltrilnl ctlicicnct \thcn Notking in nolìinnl @Ddilions
i at
"
@trstnnt rrts ofh@l îùd Do\îÍ !
Rggulîriilg oc{iotrs lrc oflilrítcd q\tqnl oNl ilì flilt'crsq hcal Rld po\cr nrc inlcrrclatcd'
FroDl thc dcútînd sidc. ilìstcld, llrcilnol 0rd cìcclric load profilos nrc usunll]_ ncilhcr coùstril'
L Dor itrtcrchtcd

t"

J
l_

L
 t.

t-

I Downgrade of fficiency
r in PART LOAD operatio-n
:.ì.;:,r*ill.
Sizing the CHP
,s:os$à,i
I
IL. *#
ffi"
I
_ -:l r:

: :4rW. ' : .., .

: .:1li?lliÉr::tt*"'
.:,;:.:'
1.

I
.
{
f
0_

Í.

I
I
t.
From centralized to distributed systems The SMART GRID
l.:'
,,*:l%É.
r(,ri.'n,,hr.t.rJhkrh 'wmi

:' .'i-iJ ' .@ 51,1,i(l Of,it

I
ldrn dd!:,i

'"'";'tt5
rirnùnlri

',ffi. #e
&P-
t #,,ffiù slp
(rrnra,n'I :'(ll,rnrìur

t.

Financial support to CHP The PES

t EU Dírective and ltalian Laws in the EU Directive and ltalian Norms
,esd- :eqriro
" l'he fonnula adopted in the EU Direct. for PES is as follows
t
I
(.t
PE..

t
il.tir " lltf. trl,re tor rc;,r)?rd altt!r(itiPr(du(riùn
ll Pd str e à F rel cotitttùu lì otì il.,rs " R<f 'rlut,.or rqtroir telr troúil(risn
,i1.1ù
)l e,t t wt d TLc t nìaL P t\'rr aìl;*a
-'-SidR'.
cl,"u u'Lalu
L tt" nDMllqtz0ll

1
L,

L 5

l_
 Forthcorning
Reggio
Torino Emilia
' .;;rm.
Existing - ::l*Èt-:
Stearn turbine 18 MWe
- l0l MWe
47 MWr
- 1ó2 MWt
Gas Turbine
Boiler
35 MWe - 40 MWt
,- ól Mwt RSU
.
íi) 1.
""::: Aux. Boiler .- 9.3 MWr
'(a
é) - t4l Mwr . 2.3 106 m3
=+ Vol : 22 106 rnl
+5 -.^,.,,.,--.

Forthcorning
Montova Sampierdarena (GE)
Existing
- r.iti}?w.

. tonilrirlccj :.

.1, "('rclc

. 26 MWr
. 27 MWe
. 30 MWt (Aux)

t;
't:,-
OsimO Cogeneration Combined C),cle
i:.
....1,, i'. '.;r Osímo (AN) Operation & Control diagram
,, l. ì .':{t?i:k'.-lr. .ii::,.ì; ' I,:l@*9 ,'):tffilD
' ':,i15.;,';;;;.
, ,t\j:' .;r-_,::;:y': l;krtilr(Ir\,t ì,.ú.,?.ù
tl,';l'i.",
-!..:ir..,j. uì ,';,,;
" , ,'
i t*i
l.t' ..
4 '.: r':' ri 'W.'
te
t
si ;.*
'1.&, i
s
t
3

'{
 f
{

t
li

t'
I
(

For southern regions Absorptíolî coolers

I
(
-
:::lÈffi.1 r..4#-i

I
t

f
I
t

{
I

District cooling in ltalY Perspectives of the dístrict cooling

::lsìry r:;:1,9{g!-j:
f
I . 48 MW cooling power from cogeneration plants . Promising !
- Chillers feeded with superheated water at 100+ l20oC
. The towns served : /reduced risk of black-out in the summer
- S, Donato Milanese (MetanoPoli) y'year-round use of the gas network
- Reggio Emilia (da inceneritore)
- Torino (Molinette)
- Bologna (Fiera)

f I

f
i\

{
Inu, l.o rncdiun.si:e Heat recoveryfrom a LC. engine
{
I
t
I,rLr\i:

{
l
{ H, (niN. on, r{,Mtas

iI t:
líri;:il
i
\..

t,
I

9
 I
[-
I

W Eocrgi.lcrm,ca
Ihe.nttt cîetgy
TOTEM
n*sff.È
Conclusions

Lìogcnctation is an cllòctivc stllLllion to aclticvc

V/3.m(narqic I rncrgv siì\-lngs
eùo&ioCòhilil4uù Prloúialc Dnrrgordo
f,
-ffi*Y*T:ffi Enctgypotenlìnt i.orv I'nvtrottnlctttal ittlPact

ì+
&i,Èr{if$g @ffiffi
'EncrnioPotcnliild6
. 'lllrc availablc tcchnolgics arc
\64É,qnM3
\ Ér.rqii Etonrica
Potantìol dndùóliqqc
l'lcxiblc (cogcnclaliorìr'lllgcntriltrorì)
EIacùicily
elcÀti 6cro €nc' crú tììal uIc
enototù El.Lhhvc
Sd- I S,5
I ' lrinartcial incctrlives lìrr high cl'lìcicrrc)' cogcrt platrls

s#% . Many challcrrging oppoltunttics lor pr-ol'cssittrtals ' I

Thanks for the attention... !

.:''lffi'j

f
{.

f
ll

[-

I
{-

t-
l 4
4.2 Load pofile ll

A further important parameter for assessing the profitability of a CHP installation is the number of full load
hours. The number of full load hours is the total energy use expressed in kWh divided by the installed
capacity expressed in kW. A high number of full load hours are desirable for employing CHP, whereas a low
number suggests the installation is used for only part of the year, Thus, CHP turns out to be particularly
suitable for shopping malls, offices, and housing projects only if their scale is large enough [2]' ln the
diagrams the capacity (the vertical axis) is plotted against the number of hours by which this capacity is
exceeded. The surface area in the diagram (kW times hours) is an indication for the energy demand' For
example, as it is evident from the diagram, offices are not characterized by a large number of operation

hours, so that here CHp installations can only be successfully implemented if properly dimensioned and
ìngeniouslV combined, Based on curves like these, rules of thumb can always be used for a
preliminary

estimate of the most efficient capacity, Each load duration curve is unique and major differences can be
seen also within the same sectors. Therefore, hourly energv consumption data must always be requested
or measured before assessing feasibility. ln principle, two situations can be distinguished:

r Buildings for which historical annual consumption data are available: consumption in existing
buildings has usually been established over a number of years, and users see this information on
their annual energv statement. Energy data can come from a range of sources: heat demand can
come from metered fuel use or other existing heat meters, and electricity demand from rnonthly
bills, euarter hourly electricity demand data can be obtained from the building's electricity
supplier.

a New buildings for which no energv con.sumption data are available: users of new buildings do not
have annual data at their disposal and must therefore make a rough estimate of their annual
consumption (through calculations or benchmarks, see exercíses in S4), and normally energy saving
measures are already incorporated in the new buildings. Building simulation software can provide a

valuable tool in establishing likely heat demand profiles. Electricity demands are usually easier to
determine through monitoring main utility meters.
11'
Reliable energv demand profiles have proved to best come from detailed data gathering

Energy Curves
The duration curves show the load demand characteristics of the energy consumption of the building, They show
the burden of peak demand and each range level of demand with the number of hours per yeari this information
is important in making the decision of the ability of a CHP.
 t"

100

90
-o
c BO
$
c
ú 7o
é
t .c
bLI
60
0, 50
U
xtÍ 40
ù0,
o 30
E
q) 20
c
o
À r0
0
081624 I 16 24
WeekdaY Weekend
Time of daY

,,., " 0n-site Power 6eneration

I Purchased Power
{

Sizipg ùnserf on lninintunt internol thernral cnd eiecn'ic daily loods' Sorrlce" RENAC

s,izins based orì themtal load ancl selling Éxcess elÈctrical out$ut. ln
these facilities, production
2
efficient gÈneretion and
follaws thernial demand; in this way the cHP systenr can provide therfiially
on the t[meJ, Th* farger capacitY
more/te$s el*ctrical power than the facility rec{uires {depending
per installed kW and greater
$v$teni generalÌy results in lower capital and nraintenance costs
to $ell the stlrplus
thermal fuel efficiency, The price of the fuel is relatively [ow, and it is conveniÈnt
electricity back to the grid,

100

90
€Bo
6
5ro
.3 ú0
I
!so
u
à40
o,

I
t30
t $ro
310
0
081624 I t6 24
t WeekdaY Weekend
Tìme of daY

' .. On-site Power Generation

ÈliiìitÌ,jì Purchased Power
Fower

I
t, Sizing boseri on tfterrrrnl dnÍly lood nnd solling e.vcess electt'icol orrrprrt Sorrlce.'ftfNAf'

Í
t-
(

L,

I
 yggT 'AB.reu3 uollsv * ttutpllnq 'roJ'remodpuo loatl
puo so1$otd pao7
.dirp ùrr' ou1.,rpyià'in.'l^orJun sqlirt tnctno dHJ
per,fqu,o:) .eplrìg e,'trD,d poogr :e)rnos

t-;ùìl :,::i'j:1,'J .l

trgzl?lu 0r6I sllt9I glgttlÌrltoT6 I I SgF5UI Ú

*l gr tl or 6 i 9É 3 E I I O
rt qit{ tzoz ÉI El tl qr eì tT S

sl
f ofiZ

00c
i,#
gd 00t
fiÍ
2tî

{ I
#
"t (Et
clirtì

[:
/
I 009

&ì, r
0ú!

ltlS V fil

o08

s0ulpg nq 'to{ pup lDet/ ptulc}tuof,

ù002 'Agraul uolrry - lanocl
'ap1flp arllrurd poo5 ipr-'nosi 'u'' oo't'i'*! att'n*''iuo"tlo'I pi erll lt vrtlno dHJ puo poolsa1ifo'tcl

!n0H fii,ii .n:rI;j: i

ili0{
,tÈxltltoz€ìBfllgIqlfIglcllÌtl Fn I I St t z I a
tt CI?l Itdi EISLII 9111 f: EI Zl l'i
Dl È t lggbtzro
ù

D0ì

o0r
/1 00c

0ùt I\ I I
I /I
i
0cr
00?

\ DC5

0Ol' /
/ I m9

\ f
I
F
0!9 I\/ fill
t j
001
009

,{lseaoslJÙptlpuot|]]|^15lolttlEJ.SèUlqJn}éì!l.sJ€/toulutulldetuoseluls,ilundH)}o
.pe^lo^u! sl€n} eql;o u:1.rd aq} puP adfi aqr uodn eruapuedep 1el1uessa
èCl^} àql pue Atr1r1r1ra1e 1o er;lcl €ql Aes ol p:eq
';èileq ulolJàd lllm uollnlos puoces stlì Jo lsJli aql iÈtllùqrl1
uB sl è.Jeqì 'sELtltlì .lèl.llo Suottlv uana s1 plr8 r11qnd
,1o!ìpttuolu! lelsÌlll Jo eluasqg aqt u1 'asur rnolne;d ètll ul uuill le8lel
Alerua:1xa s! ll i;qun} èlsE^r\ oì trou
ètil 'ìndlno dllf, /ll€Ll Ètll ol ano 'leaq
€rll morJ ll8noq eq ol fulrl.rpelÈ J0 lunouJB pus l'lo s;tl3l!'v{s puB peol
puE pupìilep lpàrl aql ot JèpJÙ u1 'tlooulu4e-plul Suunp sùulll leJeAes $o
^{ollo}
mCHp systems work as a supplement to installations based on renewable energies, when the sun stops
technology
shining or when the wincl stops blowing, the enengy demanel can still be met with a low-carbon
operating locallY, like mCHP-

o,Cìtìzenswho use mhro CHP ore sovrngr energy, reducing press{rre and energy fosses on the loml electrlclty
12,
network. ln tfte enc/ they are hetping baÍance the infennltte ncy af tenewab[e electticity"

Micro/mini cHP, like general cHF, provides thus the following key fuenefits:

. Supply of both heat and electricity frotn a single energy source.

r Reductlon of pollutants emlssions by lncreasing the effieiency (and therefore reducing
the losses)
of the generatlon plant.
r Economic savings generated by reducing the anrount of imported electricity ancl by selling the
surptus of electricity back to the 6rid (though this latter opreration Ìs not always possible or
convenient), Concretely this means lower energy bilts for euefgy customers'

Security of supply is greatly enhanced by reduc[ng reliance on centralised power production and by

obtaining full control of a local productiort stat[otl.

mCHF Soncept

Home heating
Water+ COz ffi
MCHP
Fuel
-*- u nit
tr

ntial sell back to the grid Horne

electîicity
Electricity from suPP l ier,

siis"Éf'!:&:Èlt'f "4

A scheme of on nCHP plant for dornesflc use.

 Smart grid Power infrastructure

fi0
." ,'. .'. ;. .'- ," ;

Two - way flow of electricity and information

.i. ili-iii.i-,.i.ì:4 Comrn u nicati ons i nf rastruct u re

A smort grjd. Sourcel Introductìonto SrnoÉ 6rirl - Depafttnent of Electrical & Computer Engitteering, Texas
Teclr Llniversity, 2012

5ctìerne of s rnCl'l$r v[rtual Fgwer Flant

Electricity
Electrilclty nnarket
Unìt L lleating
.-@-+È
mCF{F
0dÈl$ ltrt$ tfxe
whalesale G
G
rn a nket Electrlclty
Csntre ll 'tr

I It systeffi fGr
F
.'..l
[Jnlt ] N-l*atlrtg
,*_*.*'..------$
nrodulated 'e
ùJ mCli-l[>
-+
G----.-"..- rnCHF
ft.
E
F Electriciny
fieqruest* frt:,tl'r 4
rìatfl$'nól g.rrdf
Éaparlty Unit 3 Heatin6
@'F,
Prtrm€flt mCHP

can
Eiectniciti' expurterd grild on ured Ìn horne therebv neducnng dennand crrgnid, Hieat
he lloaqi irnwrerjlatelv ftr *paee heafln& *rr purt irnte'th*rma0 *{+r*'

Srllenis ofnn rnCHP vii.fualgrcrwer plflÌ?f. Soutrs,' TIre ^Role cfftficro fHP