ro Principles | of Teaching 2 A MODULAR APPROACH Lydia N. Agno©) 2010 C & E Publishing, Ine ‘and Lydia N. Agno All rights reserved, No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means—clectronie, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise—without the prior written permission of the publisher. Cataloguing-in-Publication Data a LB Agno, Lydia Navarro. 1025.3 Prindples of teaching 2 : @ modulor approach /Lysia N. Agno. — A34” Quezon City: C & E Pub., 2010 2010 wil 8323p. 3 HL; 25 0m. ISBN: 978-971-584-972-2 _ 4s Teaching 1. Tite Cover Design: Roberto A. Bautista Layont: Marivie Alegria-Bareellano Michael M. Maximo Giese @&- 2: The Reflective and Caring Teather cnmennneenennnnnnnienn PART I: THE COMPETENT TEACHERS Professional Development of Teachers. Objectives nnn An Overview. ee Professional Development Professional Behaviors of Teachers ..0 rnin ’ Peer Coaching: A Professional Development Model... Domains of Knowledge of Professional Teachers Professional Teachers are Clear Teachers... Characteristics of Competent Teachers. Insights of Good Teachers... Prineiples/Guidelines Guidelines in Developing Teachers’ Competencie: Professional Standards for Teachers Key Ideas in Summary vero Cheek, Extend, Explore, Do. pean Objectives... AM OVErVIEW seven Reflective and Caring Teachers... Reflective Teachers “Teachers as Reflective Practitioners. Creating a Caring Classroom, iposetiealgit 2a Reflective Action ..csineieneennene 23 Reflective Action Builds on Withitness.... ean Developing Reflective Abilities. = Reflection and the Constructivist Approach to Teaching.. 26 Development of Reflection ..ren0cinnsne Soe 26 Star Teachers,Benefits of Reflection on Teaching Frinciples/Guidelines.. Principles of Caring Teachers Guidelines in Creating a Supporting, Caring Environment Guidelines in Ensuring Sueress in Classroom Management. Guidelines in Ensuring Equity in the Classroom... Guidelines in Preventing Problems in the Five Areas of ‘Teachers’ Concerns Guidelines for Developing Wit Key Ideas in Summary... Cheek, Extend, Explore, Do... PART Il: LEARNING THEORIES SUPPORTING INSTRUCTION , Objectives. ‘An Overview. Learning Theories ac Guidelines to Instruction ‘Operant Conditioning... Social Learning Theory Cognitive Development Theory .. Constructivism, Socio-cultural Theory. ‘Schema Theory .... Attribution Theory... ‘Multiple Intelligences... Moral Development Theory.. Prineiples/Guidelines... Basic Principles of Conditioning Behavior. Behaviorists’ Core Beliefs: Guidelines for Implementatio: Principles of: Learning. Cognitivist Guiding Prineiples to Gain and Hold Learning Basic Constructivist Principles.. Principles of Learning... Guidelines in Constructing Moral Dilemmas Goidelines in Valuing Processes. Key Ideas in Summary.. Cheek, Extend, Explore, Do Hesbbagagasttas PART Ill: THE THINKING PROCESSES @- 4: Neaahing 6 Thiniiexctmenseemninent Objectives 3 37 “An Overview. ‘Teaching Thinking Skills = ‘ . What is Thinking?.. What are Thinking Skills? Levels of Thinking Four Types of Knowledge. Categories of Thinking.. (Critical Think Creative Thinking, Metacognition. Higher Order Thinking Developing Higher Level Thinking Skills ‘Teaching Skills Activities Prineiples/Guidelines....ccc.onn Guidelines for Good Thinking Guidelines in Teaching Critical Thinking, : or ine OF Principles for Developing Creativity Guidelines for Nurturing Creativity... ‘Guidelines in Developing Metacognitive Key Ideas in Summary x (Check, Extend, Explore, Do.. PART IV: INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHES & le 5: Inductive instructional Approaches wninennnnnnnnnenS Objectives sn 85 dn Oren. 83 Indactive Instructional : a6 ‘Concept Development Modal “86 Concept Attainment Model 88 Inquiry Model . fe 88 Problem-solving Model. 89) ‘Tips to Teach Inductively.. 90 Prineiples/Guidelines... a Guidelines in Teaching Inductively. Guidelines in Helping Students Become Better Problem Solver Guidelines in Using the Inquiry Model. vil&« 7: Problem-based Leaming Instructional Approaches neem Key Ideas in Summary. Check, Extend, Explore, Do Deductive Instructional Approaches mvnnnennsennnnnn Objectives An Overview... : Deductive Instructional Models... Deductive Reasoning Model Advance Organizer Model Presentation Teaching Model Backward Design Model Loot annie Teacher Talk. Lecture-Diseussion Model Inductive and Deductive Approaches. Prineiples/Guidelines. Principles in Presenting Information... juidelines-in Presenting Information Guidelines in Planning for Instruction (Re-backward Design Model) Guidelines in Preparing Advanee Organizers. General Guidelines for Teacher Talk. idelines in Direct Teaching (Re-i indtive Teaching) Key Ideas in Summary. - Cheek, Extend, Explore, Do... Objectives An Overview Problem-based Learning Models. = ' Problem-based Learning (PIL) Model. Problem-solving Model. Problem-centered Approach... Case-based Problem Solving . Project-based Problem Solving. Inguiry Learning Model . Suchman Inuiry Model . Prineiples/Cuideline: Guidelines in Problem Solving Guidelines in Tailoring Problem based Leseons Guidelines in Developing Problem-solving Attitude Guidelines in Using Case-based Problem Solving... Guidelines for Guiding Students in Project-centered Learning. 137 Key Ideas in Summan 138 Check, Eetend, Explore, Do eer @ le 8: Cooperative Learning Instructional Approachos emwnvenemnnncnnarnnen 15S Objectives . : An Overview’... ‘Cooperative Learning i Purposes of Cooperative Learning, “Attributes of Cooperative Learning... Outcomes of Cooperative Learning, ‘What Cooperative Learning is Not.. Six Major Phases in Cooperative Learning Cooperativé Learning Models Formal Cooperative Learning Models. Group Investigation.. Jigsaw TL... " Student ‘Teams Achiovement Divisions (STAD). Informal Cooperative Learning Models. Sigscw 1 . Think-Pair-Share occ Role Playing . Elements of Coopevative Learning... Features of Cooperative Learning. Qualities of Good Leaders of Cooperative Learning. Principles/Guidelines..... Guidelines for Using Cooperative Learning Teams. Guidelines in Conducting Cooperative Learning Lessons. Guidelines in Implementing STAD ... Guidelines in Encouraging Project-centered Learning = Guidelines in Teaching and Evaluating the Collaborative Process Key Ideas in Summary. Check, Extend, Explore, Do... @: 9: Valuing Processes and Moral Development Models Objectives... — ‘An Overview. ‘Teaching Values. Nature of Value...Significance of Valuing... - : ty EL) Values Development Models. . ‘Values Analysis Model Rational Analysis Modcl.. Inferential Value Reasoning Model... Issues, Values, and Consequences Analysis ‘Values Clarification Model or 183 ‘Teaching Moral Education... ‘Moral Discussion Modal. ‘Moral Reasoning Model Moral Education ‘The Morally Mature Person Prineiples/Guidelines. Guidelines in Teaching Values... Guidelines for the Approaches to Values Education .. Guidelines for Clarification of Values. Guiding Principles in Kohlberg's Stages of Development Guidelines for Presenting and Discussing Moral Dilemmas... Guidelines for Using Moral Dilemmas Key Ideas in Summary. eck, Extend, Explore, Do. . “3 191 ‘Tri-question Approach... Principles/Guidelines.. Guidelines in Brainstorming Sessions... Guidelines in Conducting Classroom Demonstration Principles that Apply to Teachers’ Demonstration ‘of New Academie Skills Guidelines for Profitable Discussion Guidelines in Condueting Presentation. Guidelines for Supervised Practice (Role Playing) conn Guidelines in Conducting Simulation Guidelines in Planning, for Simulation . Key Ideas in Summary. Check, Extend, Explore, Do. PART V: ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION TOOLS Purposes of Assessment... Significance of Assessmemt.. ‘Assessment as an Instructional Process Authentic Assessment. Instruments for Authentic Assessment Performance Assessment .. Portfolio Assessment. Significance of Portfolio Assessment .. Portfolios as Authentic Assessment Tools... Scoring Rubries Versus Checklists.. Checklists . Scoring Rubrics. Prineiples/Guidelines...... " Principles Guiding the Assessment Program. Principles of Assessment... Guidelines for the Development of Good Authentic Assessment Guidelines in Designing and Scoring Performance and Authentic Assessment Guidelines for Using Portfolios for Assessment. Key Ideas in Summary. Check, Extend, Explore, xien Integrated Multidsciplinary PART VI: INTEGRATED THEMATIC TEACHING Curriculum Integration and Thematic Teachingue.:annmnnmnmann Curriculum Integration und Thematic Teaching, Integrated Curriculum. “Theories Supporting Curriculum Integration. Levels of Curriculum Integration... Thematic ‘Teaching, ‘Thematic Uni Principles/Guidelines. Principles in Providing Instruction Across the Curriculum Guiding Principles in Integrating Big Ideas and Strategies. Guidelines in Developing a Unit of Instruction ... Guidelines in Implementing Unit Plans... Guidelines in Developing Multidisciplinary Units of Instruction . Guidelines in Developing Integrated Interdisciplinary Thematic Units... Benefits of Unit Planning... Key Ideas in Summary... Check, Extend, Explore, Do .. and Integrated Intordiseiplinary Thematic Units... ssn DOF Objectives... 2 269 ‘An Overview. Guidelines in Preparing Thematic Unite An Integrated Multidisciplinary Thematic Unit Analysis of the Integrated Multidiseiplinary Thematic Unit. ‘An Integrated Interdisciplinary Thematic Unit ‘Analysis of the Integrated Interdisciplinary Thematic Unit Reading 4: Philippines, The Homeland ofthe Filipinos ‘The Philippine Archipelago ... Reading B: The Fight for Freedom . ‘The Founding of the Katipunan. “The Teachings of the Katipunan... The Songe ofthe Katiouneros pei PREFACE Principles of Teaching 2: A Modular Approach, a sequel to Principles of Teaching 1: A Modular Approach, presents a repertoite of instructional models,-raultiple skills, values clarification, alternative strategies, and authentic assessment tools anchored on specific learning theories and principles of teaching that greatly impact instruction As a basic book for education, Principles of Teaching 2 provides rich source materials for research particularly in planning instruction, and xuidelines in developing competent, reflective, and caring teachers. More importantly, it stresses the significance of teaching for thinking to facilitate the development of critical thinking, creative thinking, and metacognitive or higher level thinking skills. Highlighted are the instructional approaches grouped ir. four categories: (0) inductive and deductive teaching models; (2) problem-based Iearning models; (3) cooperative learning models; and (4) valuing processes and moral development models. These approaches are enhanced by alternative strategies, graphic onganizers, and authentic assessment tools, Also presented are two integrative and interactive models of instruction, namely, the Integrated Multidisciptinary Thernatie Unit (MTU) and the Integrated Interdiseiptinary Thematic Unit (ITU). ‘THE AUTHOR,Objectives Alter the study of Module 1, you should be able to: 1 2 xo ~o 10, identify the variows forms of professional developmen! thot teacher could engage in: describe the experiences of teachers toward the pursuit of professional development; give typical exomples of professional behaviors of teachers ond explain how each one contributes 1o teaching effectiveness, dizcute the significance of peer coaching in @ givan schoo!) give examples for each of the seven categories of the domuins of knowledge for teachers; prove that professiona! teachers are clear teachers) analyze the characters of competent teachers and explain how each ene relates to their professional development; prepare a data retrievel chart to show the insights of gaad teachers: explain the guidelines n developing teachers’ competencies: end cite exomples of teachers who work toward their professional development ‘An Overviow he road roward effective leaching is © continuing educative Pee ees ly on acho dl tel commitmen! and dedication to service in their afiort fo produce productive and good cilizenry. Due to their slfort in develeping professional obiliies and skis, they manoge to equip thernisalves with managenent, organizational, and teaching skills—she very foundations toward the development of eHeciwve classroom teachers The road fo professional development of teachers is discussed ir Module 14. Principles of Teaching 2: A Modular Approach PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT ‘There are a number of ways through which professional development could be an ‘enduring pursuit of teachers. For Kellough and Carjuzaa (2008), professional development could be done through reflection and self-development, mentoring, in-service workshop ‘and graduate studies, participation in professional organizations, communication with other teachers, and summer and off-teaching work experiences, 1. Reflection and self-development. The most competent professional is someone proactive, one who takes charge and initiates his/her own continuing professional development. One useful way of continuing to reflect, sel(-assess, and grow professionally is by maintaining a professional journel and a professional ‘career portfolio. 2. Mentoring. Mentoring and facilitating the learning of another teacher ean aid in professional development. The mentor observes and coaches the teacher to help him/her improve his/her teaching skills. 3. Inservice workshops and graduate studies. In-service workshops are usually designed for specifie purposes such as to train teachers on new teaching skills, update their knowledge in content, and introduce them to new teaching ‘materials or programs, University gracuate stuly is another way of continuing professional development, 4. Participation in professional organizations. There are many professional loeal, national, and international organizations that teachers can join for professional advancement. 5. Communication with other teachers. Visiting teachers in other schools; attending in-service workshops, and graduate seminars and programs; and participating in teacher study groups are valuable experiences. 6. Summerand off-teaching work experiences. These are government-sponsored programs that are available to teachers during summer. Armstrong (1980) pointed out that a professional teacher's preparation does not end with the awarding ofan academic degree. Bear in mind that professional development is a continuous process. Professional Behaviors of Teachers Identifying truly professional teachers was the focus of Danielson’s (1960) study. His study revealed, among, others, that true professional teachers practice the followin s. Reflect on their teaching. They thoughtfully consider what was taught and ‘howe well It wars tamalit. 2. Maintain accurate records. They keep written records to document student learning. Professional Development of Teachers 5 3g. Communicate with families, They stay in written or vorbal contact with their students’ families to support student progress. 4. Contribute to the school. They support functions of the school 5. Grow as professionals. They take courses and workshops, and consult with others. 6, Show professionalism. They act as advocates for students and farnilivs. i Peer Coaching: A Professional Development Model “The teacheras a reflective prectitioner has become one of the most consistent themes of teacher development. For Dewey (1933) and Schén (1987), reflective thinking is not just post-active in nature, but proactive and interactive as well. When reflection is done, teachers ean appreciate that the nature of their work engages them in a recursive eyele of reflective thinking that involves planning, acting, and reflecting (Lasley H, Matezynski, & Rowley, 2002) Likewise, Lasiey Il et al. advocate peor coaching, a professional development model representative of the observation and assessment category of professional development Virtually, this is a relationship between two or more teachers committed to providing technical and psychological help for the improvement of instruetion and the development of student learning, Presented below are the three phases of the cycle ofrefleetive practice for peer coaching, 1. Planning. Planning the focus of the observation, sclecting the observation methodology, and negotiating the role of the participants 2. Acting. Observing the teaching and learning episodes and making the record of evidence Reflecting. Interpreting the observation record, making meaning, planning for new action, and identifying new foci When teachers engage in peer coaching, they gain confidenee in what they are doing and become more open to suggestions and critiques. Furthermore, they engagein reflective thinking, which is an indieator of professional behavior of teachers. Domains of Knowledge of Professional Teachers A survey of the experiences of practicing teachers reveals, among others, that there are several domains of knowledge on which they could anchor the learning activities they usually provide in the classroom. [n this connection, Schuman (1987) managed toonganize ‘the important domains of knowledge of teachers into seven categories. 1. Content kenowedige ar knowledge of the particular eubjects: ‘as Mathematics, English, and History ta he tanghe, erishGr Principles of Teaching 2: & Modular Approach: 2, Pedagogical content knowledge, that is, the special amalgem of content and pedagogy that is uniquely the province of teachers—their own special form of professional understanding, 3. Knowledge of learners and their characte 4. General pedaxoxical knowledge with special reference to the brood principles and strategies of classroom management and organization that appear to transcend subject matter 5. Knowledge of educational contexts ranging from the workings of the group or classroom to the governance and finaneing of school districts to the character of communities and cultures 6 Curriculum knowledge witha particular grasp of the materials and programs that serve as the fails of the trade for teachers 7. Knowledge of educational ends, purpose, and values.and their philosophical and historieal grounds Apparently, teachers who are equipped with the knowledge domains of teachers coupled with the needed management skills, organization skills in teaching, stady skills, and social skills are on the road toward effective teaching, which is the product of professional development, Professional Teachers are Clear Teachers Clear teachers are the product of professional development. They teach for inseruetional clarity, which refers to the teachers’ ability to promote instruction that hhelps students come to a clear understanding of the lesson. Clarity is something students achieve and not something the teacher does. The magic focus of clarity is not on helping students understand what teachers have taught. Cruickshank, Jenkins, and Metealf 999) enumerated the ten specific behaviors that characterize clear teachers, ‘The lesson is planned and implemented in an organized manner. Students are informed of the lesson objectives in advance. ‘The lesson is conducted step by step. ‘The teacher draws the students’ attention to new or important points by writing these points on the board, repeating them at appropriate points in the lessen, and incorporating deliberate pauses, thereby allowing time for processing and reflection. 5. The teacher presents and works on examples that explain and support the concept orideas being taught. 6. The teacherexplains unfamiliar words hefore using them in the lesson and points out similarities and differences between ideas. age frofestionel Developmen’ of Toxchers 7 7. The teacher asks the students Jots of questions and gives application exercises to find out if they were able to understand the lesson. 8. ‘The teacher carefully monitors the stucients’ work to gauge comprehension. 9. The teacher encourages and allows time for the students to ack questions 40. When the students do not understand the lesson, the teacher repeats main points, presents additional examples or explanations, or elaborates until the students achieve clarity of the lesson. Great services are rendered by clear teachers to their students. Their services prepare students in doing multifaceted tasks essential to learning, Their endless efforts yield more competency and make instruction easy and eomprehensible. Characteristics of Competent Teachers Kellough (2003) prepared an annotated list of the characteristics of a competent classroom teacher. These characteristies should give teachers an idea of what they should strive to be. r° The teacher is knowledgeable about the subject matter. 2. The teacher is an educational broker. He/She knows how to discover information about the instruetion content. 3. The teacher is an active member of a professional organization. 4. ‘The teacher understands the processes of learning. He/She ensures that students understand the lesson objectives and classroom procedures. 5. The teacher uses effective modeling behavior. His/Mer behavior should be consistent with what is expected by his/her students. 6 The teacher is open to change. He/She is willing to take risks and be held accountable for his/her actions. ‘The teacher is non-prejudicial toward sex, sexual orientation, ethnicity, and religion, 8. ‘The teacher organizes the classroom and plans lessons carefully. 9. ‘The teacher is a capable communicator. He/She selects words carefully, plans questions, and has expressive voice inflections. 30? The teacher functions effectively as a decision maker. 11, The teacher is perpetually learning to further develop a repertoire of teaching. strategies. 12.° The teacher demonstrates concern for the safety and health of his/her students, 19. The teacher demonstrates optimism for the learning of every student. 44." The teacher demonstrates confidence in each student's ability to learn. ~ t elex of Teoching 2: A Moduler Approce =——TT 5. The teacher is skillful and fair in the implementation of strategies for the ‘Maxim (1995) posits that good teachers use every approach at their disposal to bring a young childs world to life. They understand why social studies and other learning areasare Jmportant. They help children reach their fullest potential by using techniques, activities, and strategies tat will develop knowledge, creativity, and sensitivity. Good teachers must be aware of appropriate ways in helping students construct knowledge and communicate what they learn, assessment of student learning, 16. The teacher is skillful in working with parents, guardians, colleagues, and administrators, 17. The teacher demonstrates @ continuing interest in professional responsibilities, challenges, and opportunities. 18. The teacher exhibits 4 wide range of interests. 19. The teacher shares a healthy sense of humor. SPeehpeareparyrsrarsrarererarestatntpeerarnrereivyct 20. The teacher is competent. He/She can be relied on in fulfilling professional) i responsibilities and commitments: ‘The foregoing competencies, if developed by classroom teachers, will help them. manage the classroom efficiently; plan, implement, and evaluate learning effectively; and work with students and colleagues joyfully. : Geer eevee de wis eg, whatto teach atwhat Insights of Good Teachers he day, what topics to include, and what methods of instruction to Good teachers engage in a continuing pursuit for professional development. They are dedicated to the work assigned to them, competent and clear, and have the following sights as expounded by Gunter, Estes, and Schwab (2003). Good teachers are in charge of their classrooms. 2. Good teachers create a conducive environment for learning. 3. Good teachers manage human relations effectively. bridges to other imildecta: Wir balling ridges, a natural 4. Good teachers engage students in the process of earning by their ow ee ee I 5. Good teachers teach up. eae ee | 6. Good teachers are good learners. plies Retyroce fagts and comments. 7. Good teachers develop instructional chjectives with learners 5 pee ee sae 8. Good teachers are able to find out why a plan is not working. a es te ae apse bs 9. Good teachers strive to make thetr tezching interesting 5 : sa ol oislnrcioara Semerey es 10, Good teachers give learners access to information and opportunities for 7g, REHM GH DEGREE: PeotiaC {Ene Sir shating. cooverdting, and application. for each other. 41. Good teachers teach for the kinds of knowledge, knowledge content, and knowledge on how to learn © ig ae materials. Teachers need to be resourceful in utilising & ‘used ‘magazines, old maps, books, pictures, posters, games, and other ‘The insights of good teachers provide teachers in general with guidelines in attaining ae a ial ee eu 10, Teach content. Sketch or outline the most important content of the information to be taught. ¢ qoFee 10. Principles of Teaching 2: A Modvlor Approee! Teach concepts. A concept is an idea, Content is specific to a time ‘period or place, but concept transcends time and space. ue 19, ‘Teach skills. Once a skill is aequifed, it can be used many times in different situations. 13, Teach values. Integrating trust, cooperation, respect, and dignity can be modeled and talked about in the classtoom. 14, Givestudents freedom. Give the students a certain amount of free time. 15: Differentiate instruction. Remember that students have different, gifts, telents, interests, and maturity levels. 16. Create a sense of place. Do not overlook the value of displays, bulletin boards, interest centers, game tables, and reading corners. Promote success. Children need to experience values. Reward excellence. Donot letthe fine workofstudents go unnoticed. 5 ae 8, 3 Professional Standards for Teachers ‘The National Hoard for Professional TeachingStandards (1990) presented. five propositions of accomplished teaching as fundamental requirements for professional toachors to demonstrat Teachers are committed to students in their learnings. ‘Teachers who are committed to their students use withitness to perceive their students’ needs and are willing to reflect alone and collegially to meet those needs. 2. Teachers know the subjects they teach and how to teach them to students. Teachers who are determined to be sure that they. know the subject they teach and how best to teach them are willing to use reflective action steps in doing research toexamine and reexamine the problems that arise in their classrooms. 3. Teachers are responsible for managing and monitoring student learning. Teachers who want to grow in their management capabilities are willing to ask colleagues for feedback on management problems and issues, and consider eontingencies before they arise to prevent management problems from occurring. 4. Teachers thinksystematically about their practice and learn from experience. ‘Teachers are members of learning communities 9 8 a 5 & Fa 8 _Frofestione! Development of Teachers 11 KEY IDEAS IN SUMMARY Good teachers are competent and effective; they help enhance teaching and learning in the dassroom, Professional development can be attained through refleetion and self development, mentoring, in-service workshops and graduate studies, participation in professional organizations, communication with other teachers, and summer and off-teaching work experiences. ‘The development of professional teachers is a continuous process. ‘True professional teachers reflect on their thinking, maintain aceurate records, and show professionalism. Reflective thinkin; as well not just post-active in nature, but proactive and interactive Peer coaching is a professional development model representative of the observation and assessment eatexory of professional development. Pedagogical content knowledge refers to the special amalgam of content and pedagogy that is uniquely the province of teachers—their own special form of professional understanding. Instructional clarity refere to the teachers’ ability to promote instruction that helps students come to a clear understanding of the lesson CHECK, EXTEND, EXPLORE, DO @ r+ covmionesc Berson L 2 3. “a 5 6. z 8 °. What is professional development? Of what significance is professional development to teachers? Give examples. How could professional development be undertaken by teachers? Cite examples. Whatare the professional behaviors expeeted from teachers? ‘What are the phases of the cycle of reflective process for peer coaching? Explain, each phase, ‘What happens when teachers engage in peer coaching? Whatare the domains of knowledge of professional teachers? Give examples. ‘What specific behaviors charaeterize clear teachers? Cite examples. ‘What are the characteristics of competent teachers? Kxplain each, ‘What are the insights of good teachers? What are the guidelines in developing, teachers’ competencies? Explain each guideline by eiting examples.Principles of Teaching 2: A Sven Who are the teachers that give importance to professional development? What do they do for themselves? 2. Whatare the manifestations of teachers who strive for professional development? Q orm Observe classes in an-clementary or secondary school. List the activities of a professional teacher. Share your observations in class. Activity 1.1 “Answer the question on the ladder web and explain your answers in class. What are the ways through which teachers could pursue professionel Activity 1.2 Complete the chart by listing the professional behaviors of teachers, Write an example for each 01 1 Activity 1.3 Present onthe triangle below the cycle of reflective process for peer coaching. Explain your answer in class.| j | | 20, £ 14 Principles of, ° Activity 1.4 Show an the T:Web the domains of knowledge of professional teachers. Explain your answers in class. Domains of Knowledge of Professional Teachers i j AModulor Approach smth geen — Professional Development Activity 1.5 Define what clear teachers are by completing the concept map below. CLEAR TEACHERS UU Activity 1.6 Choose ten (10) charaeteristies of competes teaching, Explain cach one. teachers that ean be applied to classroomActivity 1.7 Answer the question on the ladder web and explain your answers in class. What are the incights of good teachers according te Gunter, Estes, and Schwab? e _ Professional Development of Teathers 17% é1 of Teaching 2: A Medvier Approoch_ Activity 1.8 Write down the five (g) professional standards for teachers. applied to fastructio: | 5, —_—— — | [ ovjectwos | Alior the study of Module 2, you should be able to: | 2. identify the commonalities of rellective ond caring teachers; — 3, discuss the significance of the reflective action of teochers in the {lassroom: ee 4. explain how reflective action builds on withitness: A 5. list the procedure on how 1o develop reflective abilities during the ccondvet of the lesson | 6 explain how the constructivist theory supports rellective action in the feaching-learring process; -——— 7. discuss thraugh speciic cases the three parspectives supporting the teachers’ growth through reflection; Activity 1.9 8. use the strategies for the development of reflection; 9. identify stor leachert ond discuss their functions; Identify five (5) key ideas in curmmary which apply to your daily activities. Explain 10. exploin the beneli's of reflection an teaching: and each one in class 11. discuss the presented principles/quidelines by ci wane 1g specific examples. SS —_— | | An overview | forking toward becorning @ reflective and caring teacher Is net eaxy calle for continuing efforts, pursuit of expectations petiently, and corsideration of othets at all times, portculorly in the classroom. A number of educators conducted studies abou! fallectiva ond caring teachers, and they come out wih common characteristics, which are discussed here in Module 2. Significant opies such as the characteristics of reflective practtioners; the significance of reflective actions, intutions, ond straiogies on rellection; and the making of star teachers are also presented. The principles and ouidelines that have reference to raflective end caring == —__— feochors ore discussed ot the end of ths moduleotte 07°26 rrincipes of Tooching 2: A Medulor Approsch 7 ma ® Yeachers as Reflective Practitioners REFLECTIVE AND CARING TEACHERS ‘A teacher who assesses how well he/she has taught a class and who consis individual differences in planning instruction is on the road to becoming a refleetive and caring teacher. we For Cruickshank, Jenkins, and Metealt (1099), reflective te: practitionets. They are deliberate, open-minded, responsible, sineere, and havea spirit of inquiry. Reflective practitioners should roatinely and purposely deliberate or reflect on teaching. Reflection helps teachers make rational decisions about teaching and earning, making them assume responsibility for the results of their choices in the classroom. Reflective Teachers Borich (2004), in the process of his investigation, found out that reflective and ¢ teachers consider how to meet the individual differences of students when planning, and 2 implementing instruction. For Borich, reflective teachers— -aring Reflective practitioners sire open-minded. They gragiously accept criticisms and SS THEW eR A VI PTO I and the schoo! eulture. toke the time to ask questions about the appropriateness and success of their teaching efforts; take the necessary time to adapt their lessons to the learners’ needs, histories, Reflective practitioners take responsibility (Dewey, 1983). ‘They consider and accept the consequences of their decisions and the changes in teaching style, Jearning environment, and school culture. 2 a and expericnees, and analyze and critia success of their lessons and experiences jad analyze and critique the f ul Reflective teachers are sincere as they elosely investigate their teaching (Dewey, Te se ech etnies keeas el Sta 3532). ‘Their refeetion Is purpesefl and exiting heease thes them beter, Ghveady know to help adapt subject matter content to the world of the students; ee a spirit of inquiry characterizes reflective teachers. They are interested in the 4. encouragethe learnersto usetheir own experiencestoconstructunderstandings subtletiesof the art and science of teaching, They want to learn all they ean about that make sense to them and for which they can take ownership; and bridge the gap between teaching and learning by actively engaging studes their lessons and encouragingthem to gradually accept greater respensil nts in! ilities teaching from both thoory and practice. Similarly, Lasley I, Matezynski, and Rowley (2002), in their study, formulated three for their own learning. | phases of the Cycle of Reflective Practice. wning, monitoring, and conducting In a similar investigation with regard to plan Eby and Martin (2001) ies which altogether involve reflective action Identifying and — | Selecting the interactive acti { posit that refleetive teachers— eee eames 1. plan for variations in student response, constantly monitor students’ reactions ranaung the focus’ | problem: framing | of the portiolio; 1 qo classroom events, and readily respond when students show confusion or ofthe observation; | the question; | determining the aa + Planning | ‘Uectingthe | |andplanning | desined outoome 2. monitor students during, group activities and individual seatwork, and 1ook for eee a emeie [te methodot | amd audience; and Tignes that students need clarification about the tasks or teacher's expectations: aaa ee eerie, | inguiy, including | making a portfolio data collec forrmat and prowess | and consider the quality of developing student relationships and note how students imteract with ideas from their peors and others in various settims. teaching and learning episode; and making the record of evidence = 9 and analysis, decision = Gawain ‘Implementing the Observing the ‘dee planned practices; collecting and managing artifacts; and making and entering personal | reflections recording the observations, completing the interviews, etoe, So Bd rene BS enetniaten Processing the portfolio as it develops; making, decisions to change or redirect format or process; and sharing the gained insights Interpreting th observations recorded; making data; interpreting the results; identifying conclusions; and exploring, implications for practices meaning and planning, for new action; and identifying new fot Pear coaching is used to deseribe a relationship between two or more teachers committed toproviding technical and psychological help for the improvement of instruction and advancement of student learning. Action research engages teachers in the process of inquiring into their own practice in | search of answers to personally significant questions, reflection of their Teacher portiolio is designed to support individual teachers in th professorial practice over a period of time. CZ Creating a Caring Classroom Reflective teachers help create learning community where teachers eare for students: and students care for each other in an atmosphere of participation and trust. Educators, over the years, developed programs anchored on constructivist, child-centered principles that aim at building threat-free learning communities. Following this trend, Khon (1096) suggests the following principles for the creation of a caring classroom, 1. Act in ways that are socially just. This refers to the creation of elassrooms: where teachers stand up for social justice and work to change the inequities that exist in the edueational system, Develop authentic relationships free of power and control ‘This principle guides teachers in caring, child-centered classrooms. This refers to the creation of a learning community wherein teachers care for students and students care for each other. 3. Allow students to construct moral meaning Provide opportunities for students to develop moral reasoning when making decisions. Limit structures and procedures. Lessen the structures and procedures imposed on students. Although structures and procedures should protect students, they should also provide for flexibility, be developmentally appropriate, * Let students give opinions and have them solve problems together. Acaring teacher guides students in solving problems collectively. _The Reflective and Coring Teachers $33" Reflec Good teachers become more effective by reflecting on teaching. ‘They cngage {in reflective action—a process in which they reflect on what they want to happen in a classroom and then take steps to fulfillit. Thus, while they are performing the action, they are also likely to be evaluating it, leading to more reflection and, thereby, pointing to a now direction and a new action. Eby, Herrell, and Hicks @001) designed @ graphic model of reflective action in teaching that teachers can use during their teaching-Jearning, process as summarized on the ladder web below. already know. warning signals. Teachers reflect after the teaching events. B. Teachers do research and invite feedback 9. Teachers reflect again using feedback, research, ond croctivity, 10. Teachers creaie 6 new action pion| ree eae tan nee 0 2d} Principles of Tooching 2: A Modular Approach Z achers begin to plan. "The planned lessons are based on stated or preseribed contont standards, 2, Touchers consider what students already know. It is important thai seer center nhat the karners already knov to determine what fs needed a belearned pe g. Teachers have expectations. ‘The tcachers have expectations of how a lesson’ sony claseroom aetiity wil be recived by the stadents Unforeseen problems occur. When unforeseen problems occur, reflective teachersare abet rethink ther kesson plans immediatly 5. Nor-reflective teachers ignore warning signals. ‘Teachers continue t Meech thet lessons as planets without adapting thera to ft the needs of thei Sdenta Thus, they leck withitness. 6. Refiective teachers use withitness. Withitness isa form of refletton-n-action {Salas poo), The teachers pereeive cues from students, ponder what they meat, ret talk ot bud or eontinwe with the demonstration-—all athe same ie ee er ee Wana atin, OR lc cgne oppurtunity wo becteate, to identify aid solve problems oro devise and tabc aacieorprossb, | 6. Teachers do research and invite feedback. Research is done to learn} more about teaching dilemmas, and purposefully talk with colleagues and invite! feedbacks 1 9. Teachers reflect again using feedback, research, and creativity. The teachers formulate a unique, creative idea of how to reteach the less’ } Teachore create a mew action plan. ‘The texchers imagine the scene in the Jetatns spain and write new seri. This new plan will benefit from the tathtoy move accurate awareness of the students existing knowledge, sills pe teste 1 Reflective Action Builds on Withitness Withitness (being with if) is a skill that teachers need to develop and employ in the? performance of their day-to-day tasks in the classroom. ‘Teachers who Seem to have “eyes in the back of their head” express withitness through teacher perception and behavior: than through words. Eye contact, facial expressions, proximity, gestures, and action, such, as stopping an activity, demonstrate teachers’ withitness to students (Eby & Martin, 2000), In like manner, Kounin (1977) expounded that the characteristic which distinguishes good) classroom managers from poor ones is withitness. To Kounin, teachers with withitness, know what is going on inthe classroom at ll times; know whoare working and who are not and know how to carry out instruction while monitoring student behavior. Reflectiveness starts with withitness. Itis the first and foremost type of perceptiveuess since perceptive teachers (With it teachers) constantly observe conditions and gather information to make good judgments about what is happening ina dasstoorn and what can and should he done to Hidress it. In sim, withitness continually raises the quality and level of reflective thinking because it helps teachers observe more accurately and collect complete information about classroom conditions (Eby, Hervell, Jordan, 2006). Developing Reflective Abilities ‘There are some ways to develop the reflective abilitios of teachers that when employed effectively aching-learning processes such as dialogue journals, discussions, action researches, and on-eampus laboratory experiences. Presented as follows are the suggestions of C-uickshank, Jenkins, and Metcalf (1909): 11 enhance the 1. Dialogue journals. Writing a classroom experience enables teachers to repl tnd erat cieoin een rey ganing # mew pepsin toa experiences. Dialogue journals go a step further by providing teachers wi inkatriniwedateatems 2 Discussions, Talking about classroom experiences nced to be purposeful, not random. Itean help teichers engage in higher level thinking and even in attitude change, To be truly reflective, the discussion should be geared toward critical self-reflection and should involve the following: A. Describing what has been done by elaborating on one specific lesson or classroom event b, Informing oneseli and others of what the classroom event is and what principles or theories the event or teaching behavior lustrated © Confronting the krowledge of teaching, learning, and social theories that were identified in the previous step by asking these questions: Why did you choose the particular teaching strategy? What caused you to draw from the chosen theory? What interests and objectives did your elassroom practice serve? 4. Reconstructing the classroom event or lesson by asking, how things might have been done differently 3. Action researches. ‘These refer to the process of conducting elassroora research to answer questions or solve problems about teaching and learning. Classroom teachers engage in action researeh to help them have better understanding of their teaching and solve problems related to learning, In action research, teachers identify a classroom-related question, plan classroom-based methods of gathering information related to the question, and collect information about the phenomenon under study. Ry reflecting on the information gained, teachers increase their understanding of the event and are able to suggest a course of action, 4. On-campus laboratory experiences. These refer to the contrived teaching, experiences carried out on campus often with a small group of peers, rather than in an actual classroom setting,é * 26 Principles of Teaching 2: A Modulor Approech ra. Reflection and the Constructivist Approach to Teaching “The constructivist theory supports reflective action to instruction. ‘This theory holde that individuals conetruct meaning and understanding through their prioe Ienowledge and apply this knowledge to current situations (Resnick, 1987). The Constructivist approach to teaching Involves teachers and students constructing treaning out of iuformation they have been exposed to through sctive participation| tind interaction (Doyle, 1990). “The constructivist approsch to reflection provides| Jnsight on how teachers make decisions and why they make stich decisions. Likewise, it provides a framework on how teachers ean construct thelr dassrooms. Teachers stag he constructivist framework provide students with the opportunity to investigate Concepts, and create an environment in which students can actively javestigate new Content, Burden and Byrd (2003) further suggest that teachers provide activities that srl encourage students to acively seek knowledge and understanding by using prior we teatge ae them comprehend nee material. Vitaly, the development of how insights requires relating new investigationsto previous understandings. Teachers employ 4 constructivist perspective i who reflect on their own practice Development of Reflection | i ‘Teachers are advised to use several strategies in the development of reflection to enhance the teaching; learning processes in the classroom. The following are the strategies) suggested by a number of educators in Burden and Byrd (2003): 4 1. Reflective teaching. Thisis a procedure that provides «person with repeated! opportunities to teach and analyze lessons Microteaching. This involves teachers giving a brief lesson to peers in an} tffor to exhibit specific teaching behaviors auch as acnverbal cues and probing ‘questions : Inquiring activities. Inquiring activites such as action research on teaching techniques, case sturies of teaching episodes, ethnographic descriptions of Classroom events, and curriculum analysis and development can be used 0 encourage continuous inquiry by teachers about the relationship between new, {nowledge and knowiedge derived from theories and research. stimalate reflection. Portfolio development. Teachers collect and organize materials and artifacts, such as lesson plans, examples of students’ works, photographs from classroom: ‘and videotapes of lessons, with self-eritiqe. 5. Reflective writing, ‘This provides teachers with a way to challenge and support] enable them to monitor themselves, and st tach student’ reflective thinking. Journal writing is the most eommon way to| Cruickshank, Jenkins, and Metcalf (1999), in their investigation, present alist of benefits ' of reflection on teaching. 6 Faculty modeling. Modeling of reflection by teachers can also play an important role in helping teachers learn eomplex knowledge. 7 Questioning and dialogue. ‘Teachers can use questions to stimulate themselves on newly acquired concepts, discuss relationships among concepts and teaching experiences, and pose their own queries. Star Teachers Star teachers are reflective teachers who actively employ reflective actions during the teaching-learning process. However, star teachers should also have the capability to do the following: Be persistent. Star teachers believe that problem solving is fundamental to good teaching, and one significant problem becomes challenge in meeting the individual necds of learners. 2. Protect learners and learning, Star teachers are highly committed to motivating and engaging students in meaningful learning activities to help them, love learning 3. Put ideasinto practice. Star tcachers can clearly articulate their beliefs about good teaching and act in congruent ways in their daily classroom practice 4. Approach “at risk” students. Star teachers believe that all children can learn, and that itis the classroom teacher who is ultimately accountable for responding, to the learning needs of diverse learners, Be professional. Star teachers understand that teaching involves focusing on ‘what is best for the student, not on satisfying their emotional needs. Consider teacher fallibility. Star teachers recognize that students cannot learn in an environment where mistakes are not accepted as part of the human condition and of the learning process. Benefits of Reflection on Teaching ‘Teachers benefit greatly when they employ reflective actions as they conduct lessons in the classrooms. By and large, reflective thinking will improve their classroom life, oulate their personal and professional growth. 1. Reflection enhances one’s learning about teaching. 1t plays a central role in learning fram schoel/experiences. 2. Reflection inereases one's ability to analyze and understand claseroom events, It makes teachers more thoughtful and wise and enables thern to examine and analyze classroom events rather than simply observe them.| % | | ae 20 28) Frinuiptes oft vaching 2: A Moduler Approceh as Reflection enhances teachers’ classroom lives hy helping establish on inviting, predictable, and thoughtful environment. This is because reflective teachers tre more capable of applying what they have learned from course work to their lasaroom practic ‘Teachers who use reflective skills become self-monetat teaching, they can assese their needs and monitor thei and satisfaction Reflection enhances personal aud professional transformation reflect on the factors that affect their teaching behavior, they can of unfounded beliefs about teaching and learning. They are then able to develop] hew or revised beliefs, which are more likely to lead to effective teaching ant student learning. by reflecting on their teaching performanc As teachers! rid themselves} Principles of Caring Teachers (Eby & Martin, 2001) 1. Caring teachers use withitness. The most effective, caring / exehers monitor the ever-changing climate of the classroom by paying attention to students" verbal and rionverbal responses. 2. Caring teachers notice the behavior of all students. They » respond quickly to unexpected events, Guidelines in Creating a Supporting, Caring : Environment (Burden & Byrd, 2003) Celebrate diversity. Students do not want to be criticized because they have soifie characteristics thatare different from others. Through actions, teachers should recognize that each student contributes to tthe rich variety of ideas and actions in the classroom: Teachers should appretiate and value the diversity that is reflected in students in the ‘lassroom, 2. Have high expectations for students and believe that all students can succeed. Students need their teachers to have high ‘hopes for them. ASC RERE Ar aRatne RE eEReRch ache REaEEr oti ‘Ihe Reflective and Caring Teachers “29 3. Encourage students. Eneouraging words ancl suggestions will help students feel that thoy are being supported in their efforts. Respond to all students enthusiastically. When students sce | that their teachersare welcomingandenthusiastictoeach ofthem, they feel more comfortable in the classroom and are willing to participate fally. Be concerned about the students. When students know that their. teachers care and look out for them, they feel valued and are more Tikely to participate actively in the elassroom. - “S Guidelines in Ensuring Suce in Classroom Management (Marzano, 2005) 4. Articulate and enforce a set of classroom rules and regulations. ‘2 Use strategies that reinforce appropriate behavior and provide consequences for inappropriate ones. : 3. “Tnstittite a school-wide approach to discipline, 4 Develop a balanee of dominance and cooperation with students. ‘E> SEaUeloh sk Svtatonent of the hoods Of diftwrent types of stadetits xd Jearn how to face these needs, 6. Use withitness to heighten the awareness of the students’ actions in class. 7 Maintain a healthy emotional objectivity with the students. Guidelines in Ensuring Equity in the Classroom ‘(Kellough, 2003) 1. During whole-class instruction, insist that students raise their hands ‘and be called on before they speak. 2, Encourage students to demonstrate an appreciation for one another by applanding all individual and group presentations. g- Have and maintain high, although not necessarily identieal, expectations for all students.The Reflective ane! Cering Teachers 31.“ ° ® e 4. _Insist on politeness in the classroom. Insist that. students be allowed to finish speaking without being imerrupted by other 6. Keep astopwatch in hand to unobérusively control the wait time given for each student Use a setting chart attached to a clipboard, and next to each student's Concentrate on doing what is most important. Know when during the day you and your students work best. i Plan. ‘Share mutual work and responsibilities with colleagues, Avoid procrastinating and finish what has been started. s eee nl ensaiacemmaenel 7: make a tally for each interaction Z ; name, make a tally or a ae Guidelines for Developing Withitness ee sesceeak iasas i {Kellough & Kellough, 2003) in the Five Areas of Teachers’ Concerns ; ‘Avoid spending too much time with one student i z : ling too. much time with one student or group; lo (Cruickshank, Jenkins, & Metealf, 1999) than go seconds may be approsching too much time. oer ‘Avoid turning your back to all ora portion of the students, such as; ineiinice cchgeadanecmi Seve a Sa, Be-cooperative. ; f two or more errant behaviors re accurring strmultaneondly in ees st different locations, attend to the most serious first, while givi cee erious first, while giving the $) Ra professional in relationships : Caters a nonverbal gesture showing your mwareness, such ar eyo > contact, and displeasure, such as a frown. 7 Involve all students, not just one student or a group. Avoid concentrating on only those who appear most interested or 5 responsive, sometimes referred to as the “chosen few.” 5: Keep students alert by calling out their names randomly, asking, questions and calling on an answer, circulating from group to group 4. Know of and wee interpersonal skills now of and be able to meet rensonable expectations others have of you. Control 1. Appeal to students to have reasonable expectations that meet yours. Recognize and reward work and behavior that meet your ee : eis, ad requ i diring toa stvite, and frequently checking on the progres of ES bones ys ree ea aad eae 3 individva stadents. ; eee oes c_ & Maintain constant visual surveillance of the entire class, even when i ‘talking to or working with an individual or small group and when 5 a. Have good affiliation skills. : ‘meeting. a classroom visitor at the door. 2 2 Beable tocstablish a syste of mutual support : 7. Move around the room. Be observant of potential misbehavior and |g Involweparente and-caregivers in the students’ education. ae} § quickly redirect student attention before the misbehavior occurs or J z gets out of contro. | Student Success: t ‘8. ‘Try during the whole-class instruction to estat : ‘ 3 class mn lish eye contac! 5 3. Beable tocreate and maintain the learner's interest. e{ ¢ Wik aoc sider ahs case eyeryanieate. ines initially ed 2g) Be thoughtful and skillful in planning and facilitating learning and =) impossible to do, but it is not; it isa skill that can be developed with 3 assessment. : f Practice, 3. Have the qualities and abilities of an effective teacher.26 BZ Poncipies KEY IDEAS IN SUMMARY 3. ‘a way of thinking about educational matters, It involves the abilit 1. Reflection \e responsibility for those choices. to make rational choices:nd asst 2. Reflection helps teachers replicate effective classroom practices and continual] use effective teacher behaviors. 3 Reflection helps teachers deliberate among the competeney views of teaching, helps teachers be informed about events within a context, 4. Reflection ean help teachers reorganize or reconst . effect, can help transform practice. 5. Reflection increases one’s ability to analyze and understand classroom events, 6. Reflective and caring teachersmonitor the ever-changing climate of the classroor by paying attention to the students’ verbal and nonverbal responses. 7. Effective teachers have a high degree of withitness, the ability to be aware ‘what is happening in the dlassroom and to communicate that awareness to students through their actions. A reflective and caring teacher uses withitness as a tool to keenly obser students’ problems and behavior, | ©. Reflection starts with withitness. 10. Withitness is an essential foundation for becoming a reflective teacher. 41. ‘The constructivist approach to reflection provides insight on how teachers ml i decisions and why they make these decisions. 12. Teachers who reflect on their own practice employ 2 constructivist perspective) “5 f 1g. ‘Teachers with withitness know what is going on in the classroom at all tim they know who are working and who are not. 14. Reflective practitioners are deliberate, open-minded, responsible, sinecre, havea spirit of inquiry. 1 ‘Good teachers become more effective by reflecting on teaching, j ‘As reflective practitioners, teachers should be willing to analyze their own trait ‘and behaviors in relation to the events that take place in the classroom. } BERR FEISS ettENo, tLe, v0 Qo creer tw scson 4 What ie reflection? 2, What happens when one reflects in teaching? experiences. This, 15. 16. How does a reflective teacher improve his/her teaching effort? prepare his/her lessons? adjust to the student's experiences? construct understanding? enhance the teaching-learning process? prevent his/her students from getting bored? monitor group and individual activities? strengthen student-teacher relationships? FEeNspep ge What are the characteristics of a reflective practitioner? Explain each. What are the three phases of the cycle of reflective practice? Explain each phase, What are the principles for the creation of a caring classroom? Explain How is the graphic model of reflective action in teaching summarized? Explain, ‘What is withitness? Does reflective action build on withitness? Prove your point. Of what significance is withitness to teaching and learning? How can teachers develop their reflective abilities? Does the constructivist theory support reflective aetion? Prove your point: How does a teacher grow through reflection? What stratexies can teachers use to develop reflection? Give examples for each one. What ace the benefits of reflecting on teaching? Explain each one. What are some principles/guidelines related to 2 reflective and earing teacher? Extend ‘Choose two key ideas and explain each. reflection constructivism reflective and caring teacher reflective practitioners withitnesss Explore Observe. classi your schocl. Identify the characteritic/trat of the teacher Based on your obsorvation, tell the clase if he/she is @ reflective teacher. Prove your point.= : The Reflective and Caring Teachers 35. Activity 2.3 Explain at least four (q) guidelines in ensuring sucess in elassroom management. @ > v0 Activity 2.1 Design a concept map to explain the principles for a earing classroom. Explain e principle by citing examples. 1. Caring teachers use withitness, TO 2. Caring teachers notice the behavior of all students. Activity 2.2 Answer the question on the ladder web and explain your answers in class. Activity 2.4 What are the gui a supparting and caring environment?oh es 36 bei 19 2: A Modular Approach oP%, Activity 2.5 ‘Choose ten (10) points from the guidelinesin preventing problems in the five (5) re: of teachers’ concerns and discuss ways in promoting teachers’ growth into becomit reflective and caring teachers.Alter the study of Module 3, you should be able to: 1. explain the significance of lecrning theories when applied to instruction; 2. discuss how learning theories are used by teachers for predicting > purposes; F 3. identify the leorning theorists that support instructional models in basic | education; ‘ 4 discuss tho differences ix looming theories, the assumptions underlying || their differences, ond the ways these assumptions shape instructional [1 planning; and 5. Faolize that teachers become better instructional planners and more pf. cffective leochers when hey con classify their beliefs about learning, | | An overview 0: the years, a number of psychologisis have developed [leorning theories aimed 10 guide educators today in curriculum ‘development and to design 0 repertoire of approochos to instruction, Instructional models (leaching models) supported by learning theories provide direction in the conduct of the leaching. learning process in the classroom. Theories cre sources of information obout learning and are useful mechanisms in designing, implementing, ard evaluating instruction. Likewise, learning theories | help teachers explain and predict human behavior The learning theories presented hore in Module 3 will hela teachers cmote learning tasks oparopriale and benelical to the learners. |— +} LEARNING THEORIES AS GUIDELINES TO INSTRUCTION 40 Prince Effective teaching is the product of systematic planning of instruction by eurri makers and teachers. Id ensure effective teaching, educators today equip themselv with the knowledge and skills in choosing appropriate approaches to instruction that a ‘anchored on the following learning theories that will guide teachers in the conduet of t teaching-learning processes in the classroom. Operant Conditioning For BF. Skinner (1953), a behavioral theorist, learning is a behavioral change. F developed a learning theory popularly known as Skinner's operant conditioning. ‘Thi theory refers to learning facilitated through reinforcement and is based on a pleasure-pai view of human behavior (Cruickshanik, Jenkins, & Metcalf, 1999). By and large, student tend to doa given task again if they are rewarded or ifthe task itself is rewarding Ont ‘other hand, they will not perform the task or repeat the behavior if they are not reward Operant conditioning as a behaviorist theory emphasizes the importance observable, external events in learning and the role of reinforcement in influencing tho: events. Behaviorists, in their studies, attempted to determine how external instructions manipulations affect change in student behavior. The role of the teachers is to conti the environment through stimuli in the form of eues and reinforcements for appropri behavior (Kauchak & Eggen, Social Learning Theory Albert Bandura (1986), the leading proponent of the social learning theory, explain that human learning is done by selectively observing and instilling into memory ti behavior of others. This theory holds that most of what humans learn come through ti observation of others (Arends, 2004). For Bandura, learning through observation invol three steps: attention, retention, and production. 1. The learner has to pay attention to eritical aspects of what is to be learned. 2. The learner has to retain or remember the behavior. 3, The learner must be able to reproduce the processes that help learners retain ai produce the observed behavior. Social learning is also called observational learning, which maintains that studer can learn a lot by observing others. Bandura explained that for observational learni to be effective, Icarners must attend to someone's behavior, retain what they obse much more tHan the addition of new facts and ideas to an existing store of information. = Children's thoughts change qualitatively, thereby making children of different ages possess different views ofthe world (Muij & Reynolds, 2005). Piaget further stated thatas children grow and mature, they go through four stages of cognitive development which occur in 2 continuing process from birth to postadolescence. Mental development begins with the first stage and, without skipping a stage, progresses developmentally through each seveceeding, stage (Kellough, 2003). Piaget (1967). in his early researches, established the framework for his analysis of thinking processes. The framework eonsists of four broad periods or stages of cognitive development, Presented in the table below are the stages and ‘Qualitative changes in the reasoning processes (Piaget, 1970) ‘Stage 1: Sensorimotor Period Pre-cymbolic and pre-verbal intelligen: involves the development of action schemes. 4 Interference begins when the infant develops relations among actions, An example is constructing the container content scheme from the“insert-in-the- mouth" scheme, (birth to 1 Ve years) Partial logical thought begins. (Forexarple: Water poured into anather container is the same water, that is, a~a.) The child reasons from one particular to another bases of perceptual cues 4 A-young child cannot assess problem- solving situations. ‘Stage 2: Pre-operational + Period (2-3 to7-8 years) ad decisions are made on the Stage 3: Concrete Operational | ¢ Period Logical ways of thinking linked toconerete objects are developed. * The child comes to understand that a given operation simultaneously and necessarily implies its inverse. '¢ The child begins to develop possibilities in problem-solving situations and ways to systematically exclucte ther. (7-8 to 19-14 years) reproduce the behavior they sav, and expericnce reinforcement or satisfaction as consequence (Craickshank, Jenkins, & Metealf, 1999). Cognitive Development Theory “The focus of Jean Piaget’s cognitive development theory is the development of natu Stage 4: Formal Operational . Period The capability of dealing logically with multifactor situations begins. © Individualscandeducemultiple possibilities and systematically exclude them. (ag years aud above) ‘© easoning proceeds trom the hypothetical logic from birthto adulthood. The basic assumption of his theory is that human intelligen situation to the concrete. ‘and biological organisms function in similar ways. For Piaget, cognitive development 2i 42. Principles of Teaching 2: A Modular Approach z Constructivism: ‘This theory emerged when educators observed that the students were learnin; in isolation and had no background skills and information. This trend resulted in the! inability of the students to apply their learned skills to real-life situations (Gredler, 1907) Constructivism is a reeent development in cognitive psychology. It focuses its attention on the central role that learners play in creating or constructing, new knowledy san olective view of learning Constructiviee, according to Kauchakand Eggen (1998), that emphasizes four key components: 1. Learners construct their own understanding rather than have it delivered ot transmitted to them. New learning depends on prior understandings. Learning is enhanced by social interaction. 4. Authentic learning tasks promote meaningful learning, Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky (1962), considered as the two original constructivists, maintained that humans learn by activity. constructing from their simultaneous) embedded experiences. Likewise, Richardson (1977) pointed out that constructivism is designed and sequenced to encourage learners to use their own experiences to activ construct meaning that makes senseto them rather than to acquire understanding through exposure to « format exclusively organized by their teachers. In the cognitive approach, students cover some of the learning activities; teacher-centered strategies like lectures are minimized; multiple ways of learning are honored; learning activities and assessments are often rooted in authentic situations; and much learning occurs in groups (Moore, 2005). This approsch to teaching recognizes learning as an active process. Socio-cultural Theory ‘This theory is based on the early works of Vygotsky (1078), @ Russian cognitive psychologist. Socio-cultural theory isa cognitive view of learning that emphasizes student participation in learning communities. 1t explains how very complex forms of learning ex be facilitated through cognitive apprenticeship, wherein learners not only’ learn alongside: an expert, but also learn why they are doing something in a certain way. Asking “why* the cognitive aspect of eognitive apprenticeship (Eggen & Kauchale, 200). To the socio cultural theorists, learners are novices under the supervision of one oF more mentors. ‘Vygotsky likewise believed that social interaction with others spur the construction of new ideas, thereby enhancing the learners’ intellectual development (Arends, 2004). Vygotsky was able to identify the optimal level of instruction for each student as the zone of proximal development (ZPD). For Vygotsky, each student's ZPD is based on’ the lovel at whieh the student can no longer solve problems on his/her own, but mast be| Theories of Learning 43 ‘supported by ateachcror amore knowledgcablepecr. For the teacher to provide instruction for each student at the optimal level (ZPD), he/she has to use refleetive actions te gaia an junderstanding of the student's needs (Eby, Herrell, & Hicks, 2001). Vygotsky also suggested scaffolding, the instructional support that teachers ean provide to enhance learning. Typical examples of scaffolding are breaking down Complex skills into subskills, asking questions, presenting examples, modeling the steps in solving problems, and providing prompts and cues (Eggen & Kauchak, 2001). Schema Theory ‘This is @ cognitive view of knowledge wherein the information people store in their memories consists of networks of organized and interconnected ideas (Piaget, 1970) ‘According to the schema theory, the organized structure and schemata (abstract bodies of information) that a learner brings to fore in learning new content determine how the earning tasks are Interpreted and what the learner understands from them (McNeil & Wiles, 1990). The theory expounds that each subset of knowledge is stored in a schema, an outline or organized network of knowledge about # single concept or subject. Young children develop schemata made up of visual or other sensory images, and as language increases, verbal Imagery replaces the sensory images (Anderson, 1689). Thus, the schema theory helps explain why some students are able to retrieve knowledge better than others. Children whose schemata are richly detailed and well organized into patterns and Ricrarchies are much more likely to be able to retrieve useful information on request than children whose schemata are vague and sparse. (Eby & Martin, 2001) Attribution Theory ‘This theory was developed by Bernard Weiner (1992), @ cognitivist theorist. His theory proposed that the major determinants of motivation are not the innate needs or experiences of individuals, but how their successes and failures are pereeived and interpreted (Arends, 2004). Likewise, the attribution theory views the students and their beliefs about success vation (MeNeil & Wiles, 1990). Accocding to Weiner (1962). ures to ability, effort, luck, and the difficulty of the as the primary sources of mi students attribute their successes or fa learning tasks. Studies revealed that students with high achievement motivation tend to associate their successes with their abilitiesand thetr failures with lack of effort. Conversely, students with low achievement motivation tend to attribute their successes to luck and their failures to lack of ability. There are ways in which teachers can change students’ perceptions of themselves and the things around them. By and large, students can be taught to attribute their successes and failures to internal causes, such aseffort, rather than to external forces, like luck. Simply put, the attribution theory emphasises the way’ individuals perceive and interpret the causes of their successes and failures (Arends, 2004). &%if Thes aching 2: A Moduler Approach _ = 4 : e _growthot moral reasoning. This theory was base on the assumption that therateof moral : ant varies, with some individuals acquiring at a relatively high level of moral yeasoning early in life. There are three levels of moral developrient aeeording to Kohlbeng “(Dynneson & Gross, 1995). Perera tase ee pees Stage1 | needs or interests of others; follows rules to avoid punishment Individuals Weiner’s attribution theary is relevant to the educational setting, It addresses the range of effects of success and failing outcomes and provides a framework for the analysi ofteacher-student interactions in the classroom, Multiple Intelligences Howard Gardner (1993), a leading psychologist, proposed the theory of mul intelligences. The team of researchers explains that people have nine distinct intellectus capacities that are used to approach problems and create products: linguistic, logical ‘mathematical, spatial, bodily kinasthetie, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic ‘and existentialist. Gardner affirmed that most people have several of these intelliger Level (Pre-conventional) ic — Adis meet own although some of the intelligences they possess may manifest morestronely than others. Stage 2 {Pt and interests but recognizes that y. Eingulstheinteigenee. Abily owe words ety, both arly and aters have dileen. needs ows rales sabe 2, Logical-mathematiecal intelligence. Ability to use numbers effectively Pree ae es the needs a Serres follows the Golden Rule and complies with 3. Spatial intelligence. Ability to perceive and graphically represent the visual Level: society's laws spatlal world 4. Bodily kinesthetic intelligence. Ability té use one's body to express ide (Conventional) and foslings “= * a se Member of soviet — Rewanies that sage 4 | society denetite when individuals com 5. Musical intelligence, Ability to dseriminate transform, and express music 04 lth Roraks and lew ad ost Pri cipled~ asa set ofmoraiprinciplos an recognizes that these moral principles may Stage s | vary from society's rules; usually chooses to obey laws that are part of the social Levels contract (Post-conventional) Universal ethical principles — Has principles that respect the worth and Stage 6. | dignity ofall humanity; may choose not to comply with laws that are in conflict with one’s own principles 6. Interpersonal intelligence. Ability to perceive the moods, intenti feolings of others 7. Imtrapersonal intelligence. Ability to act on the basis of accurate self knowledge 8. Naturalistic intelligence. Ability to appreciate the subtle distinctions nature and the outdoors 9. Existentialist Intelligence. Ability to sec humankind in relation to the picture of all existence Gardner postulated that the theory of multiple intelligences offers an alternative the theory of intelligence as indicated by the intelligence quotient (IQ) score (Fogarty, 1998). According to Kohlberg, individuals proceed from stage to stage, with cach: A lbers, ym stage to stage, with cach: stage ballding on the preceding one, He also maintained tbat a higherlevel of maral reasoning sires an increasing capability in logical reasoning and perspective theory. In like manner, Michaelis (1980) pointed out that concern for justice is evident in each stage of moral development and one's conception of justice is recognized in each stage. ‘The leading proponents of this theory wereJean Piaget and Lawrence Kolberg (961}) Pings! devcloonetal research deelt om how people reason bout matters of right and}, _ Teachers can encourage moral development by engaging sttxlents in a discussion Peg tie expounand that cikirert begin tv wadciotail that the noeda of thore must bf moral issues like capital punishment. Involving studante in the development and take into actount when malcing moral jodgments (Mariotela, 1994), Following the samo yinjgseatee Classroom rules provides an excellent opportunity for children wo form the Tine of thinking, Kobtberg 0966) organized a moral development theory related to the! yuny o tuning retired to make moral decisions that govern many people (Cruickshank | 8 Metcalf, Moral Development Theory 3AG Principles of Teaching 2: A Modular Approach Prinsipies | Guidelines Basic Principles of Conditioning Behavior (Gunter, Estes, & Schwab, 2003) i. Identify the specific goals or target behaviors that the learners should achieve. Seapesiicin deseribing these behaviors and the acceptable success rate 2. Pretest to determine how much of the target behavior the learners already = possess, Keep accurate data on their skill development, Provide precise feedback to students about their current level of performance or knowledge and their progress toward mastery. 4a. Set realistic goals for learners. Consider their age, interest in learning, and present level of knowledge. Transfer of learning is an important consideration because skills related to interest and prior knowledge are * jmore easily acquired than other skills. For instance, ifa person ean tune the motor of a lawn mower, he/she ean probably leara to tune the engine of an automobile, sae 4. Break the task down so it can be learned in small, interrelated segments. Introduce new things one at atime. Use positive reinforeement to change behavior whenever possible and feinforce a behavior immediately after it occurs. Reinforce continually when first introducing a new learning, Afterwards, tadually schedule reinforeement at periodic intervals. 7. Keep accurate records of the learners’ progress and encourage students to monitor their own advancement toward achieving their learning goals. Behaviorists’ Core Beliefs: Guidelines for Implementation (Cruickshank, Jenkins, & Metealf, 1999) 4. Try to associate academic learning with the things most students of a given age like, for example, you could associate poetry with popular contemporary ‘music such as rap. 2. Kncourage shy students to perform. 9. Be open and clear about academic objectives and standards you expect the Jearners to meet. Write those objectives and standards in behavioral terms. die Reinforce the learning hehavior you expect from students. vat penne ern e ratte Theories of teaming AT ‘5. Reeognizeand praise improvement, Do not expeet all students to learn at the same rate. 6. Enéure that students have the basic knowledge or skills that new Ieaining is built upon. 7. When presenting a new task, organize the materials to be learned in simple, sequential steps. 8. When attask is new or difficult, provide more reinforcement than when behavior is based on prior learning. Once learners-have mastered the new task, only oceasional reinforcement is needed. 9. Demonstrate or model the behavior you want students to emulate. xo. Draw the students’ attention to those who demonstrate or model desirable behaviors. Mk Ask parents to. reinforce desired behaviors at home; for example, recognize their child's perseverance or enthusiasm in carrying out an assignment. Principles of Social Learning (Arends, 2004) Use strategies to gain the students’ attention Ensure thatthe observation is not too complex. Link new skills to the students’ prior knowledge. Practice to ensure long-term retention Ensure a positive attitude on 4 new skill for students to be motivated to repreduce or use the new behavior. were Cognitivist Guiding Principles to Gain and Hold Learning (Arends, 2004) ‘Learning experiences should be as pleasant and satisfying as possible. 2. Whenever possible, lessons should take into account the interests and needs of students. 3. The attention of learners ean be sustained by using different sensory channels and movement, 4+. Learners haye different attention spans and can only attead to'for so Tong,"Os buncipin et ruocnig 2s A modular Approwdh a 4 open: =e & Singe it iy easier to maintain ettention when learners are alert, work that ‘needs intense concentration should be scheduled duri ‘while work that may be more intrinsically interesting and/or may require {ess concentration should be done in the afternoons ve iis ‘Distractions interfere with attention, ‘Learners can absorb only so much information at any one time, ~~ Basie Constructivist Principles ~~ an (Good & Brophy, 2003) Learners construct their own unique representations of knowledge. = This knowledge is represented as networks structured aroitnd powerful ideas. = Lesirners make sense of new information by relating to:prior knowledge. Sometimes, new learning results in a restricting of existing knowledge ‘or a change in the learner's understanding of Key concept Principles of Learning - (Marzano, 2000) élligence is not fixed or static reality; it is learned, taught. ierasscpacwis students understand that intelligence is developed. through use over time rather than it being a fixed entity, they tend 10 be ‘more motivated to work in achieving it. Not all students learn and respond the same way in learning situations. Students may learn differently. Some factors could be the Situation, the students’ ethnicities, their cultural backgrounds, or their ‘socio-economic status. 3 Guidelines in Constructing Moral Dilemmas (Martorella, 1999) * : ‘The issue should be appropriate to the stadents' age and interests and should be related to the subject they are studying, ‘The issue presented should offer students only two choices for a decision. Both choices for the dilemma should be likely to attract some support within the class. If there iso difference of opinion at the onset, it will be difficult to generate dieouerion. 3 Theories of Learning (AD ‘The dilemma must involvean issue of what is ajust or fair course of aetion. Right or wrong in the case of a dilemma does not mean factually corrector incorrect. All the materials used in presenting the dilemma, whether written, oral, ‘or visual, should be succinet and clear. The focus should solely be on the dilemma and the decisions required, Guidelines in Valuing Processes : “Maxim, 1995) t Encourage students to make choices freely. Help stuclents discover and examine available alternatives when faced with | choices. £ Help: students weigh alternatives thoughtfully by reflecting on the consequences of each. Enicourage students to consider what itis they prize and cherish. Gite student op pestinleiea tapuBliely affirm their choices Encourage students to act, behave, and live in accordance with their choices. = ‘Help students examine repeated behaviors or patternsin their lives, . KEY IDEAS IN SUMMARY Lear! 1s is a behavioral change. ‘Operant conditioning is based on a pleasure-pain view of human behavior. ‘The social learning theory holds that much of what humans learn come from observing others. Social learning or observational learaing maintains that students can learn by watching others, ‘Thecognitive view oflearning posits that learnersare not passive duringlearning, because learning is an active, constructive, and purposive process depende ‘the mental activities of the students. Built-in in the structure of cognitive learning theory are the cognitive learning goals which center on the intellectual growth of individuals. Jean Piaget maintains that as children grow and mature, they pass through four stages of cognitive development which occur in a contimiing process from birth to post adolescence. coya 13, 5, 16. ” 18, 19. Constructiviem is a recent development in. central role that learners play in creating or roach, students control some of the learning activith ‘are minimized; multiple ways of learnis Jn the constructivist app: teacher-centered strategies like lectures: are honored; learning activities and asses Situations; and much learning occurs in groups. ‘The socio cultural theory is @ cognitive view of learning that empha: participation in communities of learning. Soeial interaction with others spurs the construction enhancing the learners’ intellectual development. ‘A student's zone of proximal developme: ‘student can no longer solve problems on bi teacher or a more knowledgeable peer. Scaffolding is the instructional support ‘Teachers can provide instruetional reaking complex skills into subskills, asking questions, presen ‘and providing prompts and cues. modeling the steps in solving problems, ‘The achema theory is 4 cognitive view ‘eaplestorein heir memories consist afnetworks of organized and nero ‘nts are able to retrieve knowledge better 1 ideas. This explains why somestuder othe! ‘rhe attribution theory views the st primary sources of motivation. Students attribute their successes oF f difficulty of the learning tasks. Howard Gardner postulated that the theory of multiple intelligences offers alternative to the theory of intelligence iQ. Gardner affirmed that most people have: some of the intelligences they possess Piaget claimed that children are capable of constraintand moral sacred and unchangeable. Mor ‘scaffolding in a variety of ways, includ’ judents and their beliefs about success a3 cognitive psychology. It focuses ont ‘constructing new knowledge. ssements are often rooted in authent ss st of new ideas, ther mnt is based on the level at which js/her own, but must be supported by teachers provide while students Tear oa, exampl of knowledge wherein the informat failures to ability, effort, lack, and 1 as indicated by the intelligence quot several of the nine intelligences alth jay manifest more strongly than other moral oftwo types of moral reasoni iy of ecoperation. Morality of constraint regards ru ality of cooperation. on the other hand, maintai {hat rules are flexible and that there can be exceptions to them. Lawrence Kohlberg’e moral development theory expounds the three lev ‘moral development, which include six (@) golden rule, (4) member of society, prineiples. stages: (1) egocentric, (2) individualts (5) principled, and (6) universal et ae ____ Theories of taorring 31. RR © Hid oxteno, exrroze, v0 1 fryoneew a 13, Check (Questions for Discussion) Who is B-F. Skinner? Of whet significance is his theory to learning? What do behaviorists want to determine in their studies of operant conditioning? Who is Albert Bandara? What did he hold about human learning? How does jearning through observation occur aceording to Bandura? What are the basic assumptions of Jean Piaget's cognitive development theory? What are the stages of cognitive development? How did constructivism as a theory emenge? What are the four key components of constructivism? Give examples for ea ‘What does the constructivist learning theory suggest? What does Lev Vygotsky maintain about the socio-cultural theory? Of what signifieance is Vygotsky's zone of proximal development to the learners? What is seaffolding? Give examples. Howdoes the schema theory give direction tothe Lslunelipeounear a: tothe conduet of theteaching-learn How does the attribution theory relate to the suecess or failure of the learner Is the attribution theory relevant to the educational setting? Prove your point. ois sane is the theory of multiple intelligences to instruction? Give ‘What are the nine intelligences identified by Howard Gardner? Explain each. Who ae the ending eepnet ofthe oral def nent ofthe moral development theory? What diene ‘one of them expound about the theory? ee ee Extend Cchoowe a learning thoery that could guide teachers in fac dunuiiedscee Gacceagke Choose a earning thea Chon ara thr hat tase mew esa ih OnceTheories of teaming 53. : 52. Principles of Yeoching 2: A Modular Approach : - Q vo110e Interview five teachers in your community. Ask them if they are guided by learning. inx, and evaluating instruction in class. List the Activity 3.2 Mateh the theorists under Column A with their theories under Column B. Write only the letter that corresponds to your answer. a ey ang nate atm owed * P BLP. Skinner A. Cognitive Development Theory G Po vcveen 2) Aimttandun Soil Thy rey oe nig 6. Attn Ticoy Identify the learning theory described in each of the items below. _ 4= Lev Vyaptaly ‘1D. Operant Conditioning 5 Seen Weine Mor Dolmen To ______+ 1. Posits that human learning is done by selectively observing, A ES aiceal Does it Theory and placing into memory the behavior of others 6. Howard Gardner F. Social Learning Theory 7. Lawrence Kohlberg G, Multiple Intelligences 2. Refers to learning facilitated through reinforcement and is based on a pleasure-pain view of human beliavior Le (Gabsteucticlges States that as children grow and mature, they pass through! four stages of cognitive development which occur in a) continuing process from birth to post-adolescence Activity 3.3 44. Explains howvery complex forms of earning can befaciitated Answer the questions below with the use of graphic organizers. through cognitive apprenticeship in which students learn by doing alongside an expert Involves teachers and students constructing meaning. from] their simultaneously embedded experiences. 1. What are the three steps im learning through observation according to Albert ao [same coeanon | ee (Hanging Plant Web) ibset of knowledge is stored in a scheme, ingle] 6, Expoundsthat each: tan outline or organized network of knowledge about concept or subject Views the students and their beliefs about success as the primary sources of motivation 7 . p 2. What are the stages in the reasoning process according to Jean Piaget? Students understand that the needs of others must be take into aceount when making moral judgments. Affirms that most people have several of the multiph intelligences although some of these intelligences m: ‘manifest more strongly than others 30. Deals on how individuals reason about matters of right an wrong5a Principles of Tooching 2: & Modular Approach - : What are the key components of the eclectic view of constructive? (Ladder Web) 4. What are the nine intellectual capacities that are used to approach problems an create products aceording to Howard Gardner? es Ce (Stand Web} Present the three levels of moral development including the six stages of Kohlberg's Moral Development Theory. cava Stage © Staxe 2: Stare Level 2 ered Stage 5: Level = Stage 6:Alter tho study of Medule 4, you should be able to: 1._ explain the significance of thinking skills 0 learners, particularly in basic | education; ie 2. identily the characteristics of teachers who engage their students in | thinking; fi 3. discuss the signficonce of each of the thinking skille that enhonce the | way students process and integrate information, E 4, cite exomples for each of the level: of thinkir ‘opplicotions to instruction; 5. compare the four types of knowledge os applied to instruction; 6. consider the three categories of thinking—critical thinking, creative thinking, end meiocogriion—when proviing learning experiences in the classroom; |. tnerpe! lier andr inna serves rode a lar 8. utilize the teaching skills activities in the unfolding of the unit of study; 9. discuss the princioles ond guidelines in teaching higher sinking sls in the classroom; ane 10. prepare learning ectivities that motch the dilerent levels ond calegories of thinking, |) porticdarly their § | : - | ‘An Overview | Te: for thinking covers the significance of develooing thinking skills in the teaching-learning process os expounded by educators; the utilization of Bloom's texonomy of thinking skills; the discussion of the four types of knowledge factuel, procedural, conceptual, and metacognitive; and the categories of thinking, namely, critical thinking, creative thinking, ond metacognition, that hove reference fo the learners’ understanding ond control of their cognitive processes. Module 4 gives 0 comprehensive discussion of higher ordor thinking skillz and the nead far students to be jought “how fo think” ond not merely “what fo think about”we les of Teaching 2: A Moduler Approceh TEACHING THINKING SKILLS Foremost of the teachers’ tasks in the educating process is to provide a learning ‘environment that will develop the thinking skills of the learners. For Dewey (1016), developing the learners’ ability to think is the highest goal of education. This happens when teachers explore, question, take risks, and experiment in creating varied learning} experiences for the students. But what is thinking? How does thinking enhance the teaching-learning process, particularly in basic education? How does thinking help| ations? learners in real-life What is Thinking? Presented below arestatements on why thinking is significantin the teaching-learnii processes. ‘Thinking is the ability to analyze, criticize, and reach conclusions based or sound references or judgments (Arends, 2004). 2. Thinking refers to any mental activity that helps formulate or solve a problem, make a decision, o fulfill a desire to understand. It fs searching for answers, a reaching for meaning (Ruggiero, 1988)- 3. Thinking refers to the pattern typically followed in solving problems, engaging in thinking, and processing information (Martorella, 1994). ‘The foregoing statements about thinking encapsulate the need for the development thinking skills among learners, With these in mind, teachers need to explore every avenue) of learning that utilizes thinking skills and involves mental operations such as induction, deduction, classification, and reasoning. ‘What are Thinking Skills? “The effectiveness of instruction is anchored on the thinking skills engaged in by the! Icarners in the classroom, Letteri (1985) identified seven thinking skills that will enhanc students’ processing and integration of information, Analysis — the ability to break down complex information into component} parts) Focusing — the ability to select relevant or important information Comparative analysis — the ability to select the correct item from several alternatives, compare information, and make proper choices 4. Narrowing — the cbility to identity and categorize new information throug its attributes such as physical characteristics, principles, or functions | Complex cognitive — the ability to integrate complex information into existing, cognitive structures (long-term memory) 4 6. Sharpening —theability to maintain distinctions between cognitivestructures, | (acluding old and new information) and to avoid confusion or overlapping, 7 Tolerance — the ability to monitor and modify thinking of unclear information. without getting frustrated All these thinking skills, when developed in the classroom, will equip students in “identifying, processing, organizing, and integrating gathered information for a given unit, ‘of study. Levels of Thinking tion to teacher Bloom's (1956) taxonomy of thinking skills provides dir inplanning ‘ruction by introducing the six levels of thinkin ‘such as: 1. Knowledge level. Most thinking tase at this level require students to recognize or remember facts. Activities that ask students to recat, define, recogni, andl practice arca few knowledge level thinking skills, 2. Comprehension level. At the comprelension vel, students translate, interpret, and explain given information. Comprehension thinking tasks involve interpreting the meaning ofa graph or diagram or deceding aword, 3: Application level, Atthe epplication level, students aremade to transfer known information toapplicablesituations, Studentsare given generalizaionsiand they are required to apply and explain ther. 4. Analysis level. At this level, students think of how whole elements ean be broken down nto component elements, They are required tobreak down complex information or ideas into simpler parts Synthesis level. Thinking tasks at this level require students to take some parts of previously learned information and create completely new, whole praducts, Both inductive and deductive thinking, and reasoning fall nto this category. 6. Evaluation level. At this level, students are given tasks to judge quality, credibility, worth, and productiveness., Student thinking at this level provides: evidence, logic, and values in support of conclusions. Four Types of Knowledge Cognitive objectives, according to Gunter, Estes, and Schweb (2009), specify the knowledge that students retain as a result af inctrictian ‘The for general types of Knowledge are as follows:60 Principles of Teaching 2: A Medutor Approach 1. Factual knowledge. This consists of knowing the details and elements related to specific facts and terminology of a discipline. For example: “The Philippines is an archipelago” and “Manila is the eapital of the Philippines.” _ Coneeptual knowledge. This requires a deeper understanding of content and 4 anability tofit the bitsand pieces of factual knowledge into a more cohesive whole. testing theories, and constructing ‘This process includes forming, categories, models, 3. Procedure knowledge of the reasoning process. Each diseipline of study way of thinking, 4. Metacognitive knowledge. ‘Thi: al knowledge. Ryle (1949) defines this as “knowledge how.” It is: encompasses a is refers to the knowledge students gain about their own thinking, It involves self-regulation and an understanding of bow to rethink direction and procedures to learn more effectively, This knowledge { thoes beyoud cognition to an ability to regulate, control, and moniter one’s own ny Categories of Thinking thinking, namely, erties! thinking, creative thinking, f the three categories of ‘conceptualizing, implementing, and evaluating and metacognition, guide teachers i instruction, 1. Critical Thinking Walsh ard Paul (1988) maintained that critical thinking ts not the same intelligence, rather, it is a skill that can be improved in everyone. Simply put, critica thinking ean be taught. Individuals who engage in critical thinking have the abilities and dispositions to make and assess conclusions based on evidences. They devel an attitude of open-mindedness, tolerance for ambiguity, respect for others’ opinior % and the ability to separate relevant information from irrelevant ones. (Kggen i Kauchak, 1988) Pt Lipman (1988) differen He explained that ordinary other hand, critical thinking fand consistency. With this in mind, Lipman suggested that st to change their thinking— a. from guessing to estimating; ‘ b. from preferring to evaluating; © from grouping to elassifvings tiated between ordinary thinking and critical thinkin, thinking is usually simple and lacks standards. On # is more complex and based on standards of objectivity rudents must be tau ‘eoching for Thinking 61 from associating concepts to grasping pri ipless from noting relationships to noting relationships among relationships; From supposing to hypothesizing: from offering opinions without reasons to offering opinions with reasons; and j. from making. judgments without criteria to making judgments with eriteria Varied learning experiences relevant to the unit of ces relevant to the unl of study should be prepared by toachers in all levels to address the need far the development of ential thinkin among, the students (Moore, 2003). E Attributes of Critical Thinking Ennis (1985), in his study, came out with a number of attributes of eri thinkers. He found out that critical thinkers— a tend to be open-minded; take or change a position when the evidence ealls for it; take into account the entire situation; seek information; seck precision deal in an orderly manner the parts of a complex whole: look for options; search for reasons; sock a clear statement of the issue; ‘keep the original problem in mind ppoge information; i i 1. remain relevant to the point; and m. tend to be sensitive to the feelings and knowledge level of others. Guide Questions for Critical Thinkers to Follow Johnson (2002) formulated eight questions. engaging in critical thinking, or critical thinkers to follow when What is the real issue, decision, and project being considered? What is the point of view? What reasons are offered? What assumptions are mado?2 & ° 62. Principles of Teaching 2: A Medulor Approoch Is the language clea [Are reasons based on convincing, evidences? ‘What conclusion is proposed? npl cations of these conclusions? What are the Processes Involved in Critical Thinking Michaclis and Gareia (1996) pointed out that critical thinking enhane understanding of the significance of standards and values in human affairs a jmproves the students ability in making appraisals and judgments, Listed as foll are the processes involved in developing critical thinking in the classroom: a. Defining what needs to be judged, analyzed, or evaluated b. Clarifying what eriteria or standards will be used, cc. Gathering data from reliable sources and determining their accuracy and relevance d. Using the data to determine how well the standards were met £ & Detecting bias, inconsistencies, stereotypes, and emotional appeals Distinguishing facts from opinions. and eauses from effects Making judgment after considering relevant evidence and/or sound reasons Creative Thinking For Johnson (2002), creative thinking is a habit of thought cultivated by intuition. Itenlivens the imagination and reveals new possibilities, unveiling suppressing points! of view and inspiring unexpected ideas. In like manner, Moore (2005) expounded that exeative thinking is generally thought of as putting together information to come! up with a whole new understanding, concept, or idea. Stayes of Creative Thinking Foar steps in the development of creative thought guide teachers in planning. instruction. (Moore, 2005) Stage: Preparation ‘The creative thinker collects information and, examines it, using ruling of the thinking processes. ‘The creative thinker questions and investigates untill ‘a major relationship seems to appear arnong events, objects, or ideas. The individual may spend quite some time allowing, images from the unconscious to surface. ‘The individual begins to seek out ways of verifying, and testing the idea, Stage 2: Incubation Stage 3: Illumination Stage 4: Verification Creative Thinking rclis and Garcia (1996) formulated the following processes in creative Processe: thinking: ‘Think of how goal, activity, oF topic can be pursued in new ways. Imagine new ways to use what you know. ‘Add new ideas and imagine new ways to express them. ‘Synthesize thoughts and feelings, and express them freely, Contemplate ways to improve creativity and make desired changes, imagine mod ifieations and nove! applications, and augment uses, Metacognition “Metacognition has reference to the learners’ understanding and eontrol of their cognitive processes. It is a mental process that assists learners to reflect on their thinking by internalizing, understanding, and recalling the content to be learned. Simply put, metacognition is thinking about thinking (Borich, 2004). Tt is about ‘one’s own thought processes and the monitoring of what one 1s doing, why one is doing it, and what one is doing to solvethe problem. Thus, metacognition refers to the knowledge students gain about their own thinking (Gunter, Estes, & Schwab, 2003). "Moore (2003) pointed out, among others, that metacognition induces invisible thinking skills such as self interrogation, self-checking, self-monitoring, analyzing, and mnemonics (memory aids) for classifying and recalling content. Metacognition consists of two processes that occur simultaneously: (a) monitoring progress when engaged in learning, and (b) making changes and adopting corrective strategies when problems occur during learning. Students need to be taught strategies for assessing their own understandings and how to choose effective plans of attack to study or solve problems. Another metacognitive process is the ability to predict what is likely to happen or to determine what is sensible and what is not. Benefits of Metacognition ‘The following are the benefits of metacognition to individuals who engage in thinking. According to Moore (2005), metacognition— a. enables students to gain more from instruction; b. develops the learners” abilities to predict what Is likely to happen or to tell what is sensible and what is not; ‘¢. leads students toa marked improvementin their achievement; helps students learn to think sbout their own thinking processes and apply specific learning strategies to guide themselves through different tasks; and ‘Teaching for Thinking 63”i t GA) Pinciptes of Teoching 2: Moduler Approoch KWL. Students recall what they already know about a topic (KK), determine what they want to learn (W), and later arssess what they have learned (L}. Oxle, 1986) 2, KWEQ. Students record what chey already know about a topic (K), formulate questions about what they want to learn about the topic (W), search for anewore to their questions (1), and ask questions for further study (Q). (Ogle. 1986) 3. POSSE. Predictideas (P), organize ideas (0), search for structure(S), summarize ‘main ideas (8), and evaluate understanding (E). (Englest & Marriage, 1991) PQRST. Preview (P), question (Q), read (R), state the main idea (S), and test ‘oneself by answering the questions posed earlier (1). (Kelly, 1994) 5. SRQ2R. Survey (S), read (R), question (Q), recite, and review @R), 6. SQ3R. Survey the chapter (S), ask questions about what was read (Q), read, recite , and review (3R). (Robinson, 1961) ‘in eonfidence which enables them to become independent! Helps students loarners. Metacognition involves self-regulation and an understanding of how to rethink directions and procedures to learn more effectively. Apparent, this knowledge x0es beyond cognition to an ability to regulate, control, and monitor one’s own cognitive processes (Gunter, Hstes, & Schwab, 2003). Higher Order Thinking ‘Teachers are tasked to develop higher order thinking skills in basic education. However, to be able to process information st higher levels, students must be taught bow to think, not merely what to think (Gunter, Estes, & Schwab, 2003), With this in mind, educators devised various ways in developing higher order thinking skills Resnick (1987) posited the significance of higher order thinking in the following statements (Arends, 2004): Teaching Skills Activities The following teaching skills activities, if provided by teachers in the classroom, will help learners develop metacognitive skills, particularly invisible thinking skills that lead to“thinking about thinking” (Moore, 2005). 1, Higher order thinking is non-algorithmie, that is, the path of action is not fully specified in advance, 2. Higher order thinking tends to be complex. The total path is not visible, mentally speaking, from any single vantage point. 3. Higher order thinking often yields multiple solutions, each with costs and benefits, rather than unique solutions. ing. Its goal Brainstorming. This isan excellent way of promoting fluent responses be is to produce as many responses as possible. It is crucial tha accepted and appreciated during the activity. Flexiblethinking. Flexible thinking activities help the mind consider possi ities 4. Higher order thinking involves nuanced judgment and interpretation. 2 Higher order thinking involves the application of multiple criteria which beyond the usual responses. sometimes confliet with one anothe 3: Forecasting, Instruct students to brainstorm all possible eauses and effects of 6. Higher order thinking often involves uncertainty. Not everything that bears on getting good grades. This requires the students to make inferences. about cause the task at hand is known. and effect, ‘This idea, once again, is to forecast what could be or might be. 4. Inductive thinking, In inductive thinking, students collect, organize, and 7. Higher order thinking involves self-regulation of the thinking process. Higher order thinking is not recognized in an individual when someone else “ealls the play” at every step. 8. Higher order thinking involves imposing meaning and finding structure in apparent disorder. 9. Higher order thinking takes effort. There is considerable mental work involved in the kinds of elaborations and judgment required. Developing Higher Level Thinking Skills Methods for helping students develop their higher level thinking skills and 4 comprehension of expository materials have been developed over the years, which help teachers today in the planning of instruction, particularly in basic education (Kellough, 2003), suchas the following: examine data; identify common elements; and make generalizations based on ‘common or general elements. Inference making. Inference making requires thinkers teprovide a rationale for their thoughts. These thoughts are personal beliefs about a situation based on sensible associations with past experiences. Logical thinking. Activities that require logical thinking begin with assumptions or concepts. Ideas are then generated step by step until an end, point or a solution has been made. Logic requires that students interpret information from a source. Students must examine the main idea presented and follow the supporting detsils to arrive at a conelusionTeaching 2: A Modular Approsch a - Deductive thinking. In inductive thinking, students are asked to mal generalizations based on data. On the other hand, deductive thinking requir Students to form specifies from generalizations. Most thinking activities will incomplete until students provide a rationale for their responses. Problem solving. Complex thinking processes often involve problem solvis and decision making, Problem solving involves the following steps: a. Dofining the problem b. Collecting data c. Identifying abstracts to obtain the goal d. Identifying alternatives ©. Rating alternatives £. | Choosing the best alternative Decision making, This involves: examining advantages and disadvant considering all the steps of problem solving, and evaluating the final decision i ‘elation to available alternatives and consequences. The basics in decision makin fare the abilities to observe, interpret, compare, dassify, and analyze information. Observation. This activity can help students check the accuracy of what hi been seen, heard, smelled, and £0 on, Interpretation. ‘This requires the students to use their percet caamining their assumptions when making a judgment or reaching a conchist Interpreting is an important skill to teach directly as people tend to generalize the basis of insufficient evidence in their repertoire of basie assumptions. Comparison. This requires the students to examine two or more situati objects, ideas, or events, and look for relationships, similarities, or differences. ‘Analysis. During analysis, students examine the problem to be solved, take ‘apart, identify its elements, and find relationships Prinsinios | Guidelines Guidelines for Good Thinking Oichacls & Garcia, 1996) pone aueurateeienunatreurneens (Check the meaning of unclear terms. ‘Compare findings with others. ‘Make tentative conclusions and verify them. Consider alternatives and consequences. Guidelines in Teaching Critical Thinking (Ennis, 1985), Define and clarify issues or situations. ‘Ask appropriate questions for clarifications or to challenge the idea. Judge the credibility ofthe source. ‘Solve the problem. Draw conclusions Principles for Developing Creativity (Torrance, 1983) Make the students more sensitive to their environment. ‘Encourage manipalation of objects and ideas. ‘Develop tolerance to new ideas. Resist an acceptable answer or a set of patterns. . Teach skills on haw to avoid peer sanction. Encourage individualized learning. Look for different resources when working on available ideas, Encourage the habit of working on the full implementation of ideas. Integrate knowledge in a variety of fields. Develop adventute and spirit in the classroom, Guidelines for Nurturing Creativity (Burden & Byrd, 2003) ‘Listen for ereative, unconventional responses. Reward creative responses by asking students to elaborate upon thc Sere pon those: Teaching for Thinking "67 Paes 1. Get the facts on all sides of the question. 2, Check facts from different sources 5. Summarize information in usable form. { & Provide learning activities where students can create, not confirm, new : things.a Allow some work to be open ended, messy, and ungraded 10 Sneoursee ok exploring, guessing, and playing with the material, z ee ee ome ube stadt oe ne 6 mate | checkin nid pee eee Se a 10. tdentify what students already KNOW. 7 ‘Determine how some Hstimate the time required 10. A ‘Organize materials. ee i - ‘te 7 Use strategies like outlining, meemonics. diagearamivg, and so on. eg hee at ere ee : a ; z : . © 1a. Prosi feedback. ee ay" tu. Keep concentration and motivation high. 3 = % | GE AAR ERR RR RnmN TUTE 2 ». KEY IDEAS IN SUMMARY .nd reach conclusions based on sou 4. Thinking is the ability to analyze, criticize, a1 references or judgments. a : “Thinking refers to the pattern typically followed in solving problems, engaxing: thinking, and processing information 43. ‘Thinking is initiated by questions, problems, issues, hypothe: ‘ses, of concerns. +. Thinking skills that may be used to enhance the way students roses & : integrate information are analysis, focusing, comparative analysis, m compley engnitive. sharpening, and tolerance. 5. Copnitive objectives specify the knowledge that students rerain us « ssoult instruction. @ et ert Factual knowledge consists of knowing the details and elements related to specific facts and terminologies of » discipline Procedural knowledge defines the “knowledge how"—the knowledge of the reasoning process. Conceptual knowledge requires a deeper understanding of content and an abi to fit the bits and pieces of factual knowledge into a more cohesive whole. Metadognitive knowledge refers to the knowledge students gain about their own thinking. It is used to monitor, regulate, and evaluate thinking. Individuals who engage in critical thinking have the ability and disposition to make and assess conclusions based on evidences. Critical thinkers develop anattitude of open-mindedness, toleranceforambiguity, respect for others’ opinions, and the ability to separate relevant information from irrelevant ones. Critical thinking enhances understanding of the signifieance of standards and values in human affairs and improves the students’ ability in making appraisals, and judgments. Creative thinking is the putting together of information to eome up with a whole new understand ing, concept, or idea. There are four steps in the development of creative thought: incubation, illumination, and verification. sa mental process that assists learners to reflect on their thinking 1g; understanding, and recalling the content to be learned. Metacognition is “thinking about thinking” Students need to be taught how to think, not merely what to think. Higher order thinking often yields multiplesolutions, each with cost and benefits, rather than unique solutions. Higher order thinking involves self-regulation of the thinking process. preparation, What is thinking? Why is thinking significant in the teaching-learning process? What are the thinking skills that will enhance students’ processingand integration of information? Explain each one. What aro the levole of thinking? Diceuse each louel and site toaching-lrarning activities that are appropriate for each level. What are the types of knowledge? Discuss each one.* e s 76. Pacinos of Teaching 2: A Modul Approsch n applied le questions to follow when engaging in critical thinking? What are the stages of creative thinking? Explain each stage. What is metacognition?: What are its benefits? What are the principles/guidelines that will help enhance the development of thinking skills? Discuss each one. © extena Choose one topic/seleetion of your choice. Then, list inside the box the learning, activities that will apply to the following thinking skills. 1. Analysis 2. Focusing 3. Comparative Analysis, 4. Narrowing @ Explore Interview three creative individuals in your community. What inspired them to think creatively and produce their own creations? mabe @ vo iscisitien Activity 4.1 Encirele the words inside the box that refer to thinking, mental activity solving problems processing information reaching for meaning looking for answers criticveing analyzing looking for patterns working repairing understanding 5. Complex Cognitive 6, Sharpening, 7. Tolerance Activity 4.2 ‘Write three definitions of thinking using the encircled words in Activity 4...- i f Activity 4.3 Explain on the right column of the data information chart tified by Charles Letter 1. Analysis the seven thinking skills 2. Focusing 4. Narrowing, Complex Cognitive 6. Sharpening 7. Tolerance Activity 4.4 Answer the question on the I What ore the levels of thinking? ladder web. Discuss each on the space provided. Level 2: Level 3: Level a: Level 5: Level 6: — a Activity 4.5 “Answer the core question on the semantic web. Explain your answers on the space provided, Twoching for Thinking 573. éj 2 7A Principles of Teoching 2: A Modular Approseh __ = F Teaching for Thinking 75 $ 3 naa oes Activity 4.7 _ _ Compare “ordinary thinking” and “critical thinking” using a Venn diagram sg ee = = a = ‘Ordinary Thinking " Activity 4.6 ; Write onthe hanging plant web the categories of thinking. Fxplatn each ee Categories of Thinking & oe 1 and 2 = Differences 7" Commonalities/Similarities {ih a 7 Activity 4.8 te Oo Write the guide questions tofolow when engazing inertial thinking aa 2 oo ; _ = = { eed ee 1 ES ‘ Se. wT — a =) 4 L — _ 7 = — - a s eeefeaching for Th trinciples of Teaching 2: A Modulor Approach _ eckiagiat Activity 4.11 ‘Write on the ladder web the definitions of metaeognition. Activity 4.9 List the processes involved in the development of eriticl thinking in the classroom. l bee = —i | | F —_—— — 1. i Tee Le ie a aan Activity 4.10 List the processes involved in creative thinkin. hese ee —— Activity 4.12 a = ‘write on the concept map the benefits of metecognition. ri a = -_ te pee rere ac ree Benefits of MetecognitionActivity 4.13 Activity 4.15 Answer the question inside the box. “Answer the question on the ehister map. ial ‘What does higher order thinking involve? Higher order thinking involves: i .- — — a i 4 = ee i 5 es % fe = et 7 = a 8. — — =. 2. sa ee = Activity 4.14 Choose five (5) teaching skills activities. Explain each one. Explain each method. =e SS 2 : — a t<— —— — —— ————_——— 4 = 4 — j 6ples of Teaching 2: A Medulor Approach Activity 4.16 Activity 4.18 Answer the question oa the ladder web. Choose a lesson/selection/reading, ‘Then, choose learning activities that will apply to the guidelines in developing metacognitive strategies net or inet mete RE ETE ET a ETE paola No.3 No.4 No.5 No.6 No.7 No.8 Noo No. 10 Activity 4.17 Explain the principles for developing creativity by citing examples. No.1 No.2 Ne. Ne. Ni Ne. No. 3 a 5 Nee 7 % We 10B6_ Principles of Teaching 2: A Modular Approach INDUCTIVE INSTRUCTIONAL MODELS Inductive model is a powerful strategy that uses examples in teaching well: defined content. t gives emphasis to the learners’ active involvement and the construction oftheir own understanding of specific topies. Ibis used to teach how tocategorize concepts Ghrough common characteristics. During inductive thinking, students collect, organize, And examine data; identify common elements; and make a generalization based on common or general elements. Induction starts with a specific observation of a limited set of data and ends with a generalization about a much broader context “Teach ing inductively is a popular approach to instruction. Teachers, by and large, are confident inimplementing the conduct of study when thesymtax of the lesson proceeds from ‘tic to general, Four inductive instructional models, namely, concept devetopment, .d problem solving arediscussed in this module Th spe concept attainment, inquiry, an" sncept Development Model ‘this model, also known as concept formation, was created and popularized by Hilda Taba and her associates (4971). AS a model of concept learning, it was designed to help formation, make conneetions among the gathered data, and create Likewise, it serves as the foundation for the development of the aking (Joyce, Weil, & Calhoun, 2004). students organize and test hypotheses. students’ higher level of thi Parker (1991) maintains that the concept development model enables students to systematically examine data in a way that fosters an understanding of how a label for } concept becomes just « label, engenders more complex thinking about the content, and enables students to relate their experiences with the available data. As an inductive to instruction, this model enables students to process information with accuracy In the conduct of the lesson/unit of study, the model addresses the nterpretation of data, and the application of principles to explain formation of concepts, new phenomenon Syntax for the Concept Development Model (Taba, 1971) ‘numerate and listen Group. Label/Categorize, Interpret data, Identify critical relationships. Explain relationships. Make inferences, _apply principles. 9 Prediet consequences, explain unfamiliar phenomena, and hypothesize. 1 anil /ar senna the production and hypotheses. 11, Verify production Inductive tnstructional Aperoeches BT Sequencing Activities For Gunter, Estes, and Schwab (200g), teaching, effectiveness is achieved frony the of teachers to organize content of instruction and to sequence learning activiti pment model. Gunter and hisassociates suggest these guidelines in sequencing learning activities 1. List as many items as possible that are associated with the subject As! the students to name several ideas, obj attitudes related to the subject under serutiny as possible. Group the items by similarity. Ask the students to group the determining how they are similar or related. 3. Label the groups by defining the reasons for grouy to articulate the relationships between the items. 4. Regroup or subsume industrial items or whole groups under othe: groups. Ask the students if they can find items or whole groups that they couk put somewhere els 5. Synthesize the information by summarizing the dats aad for generalizations. Ack the students if they ean make a gen qualification about the subject under scrutiny that summarizes the informatiox in the briefest terms possible : 6, Evaluate the students’ progress by assessing thelr ability ‘o gonerate a wide variety of items and to group those items flexibly. Judse thy meepts, 0 (enn ye. Ask the students student's progress in performing important meni vesses Sueb as analyzing and synthesizing. Benefits in Using Concept Development The concept development model, as an inductive a v an induetive approach to instruction, is usually chosen by teachers in unfolding lessons from specific to general. As such, a pumbe tvnetie are drawn is sing the toetrastional model a presented by une Schwab (2003): , ee 1, Extending and refining knowledge. ‘The original pucpove of the concep! development model is to extend and refine the students’ understanding, of ty ‘external world. 2. Generalizing original ideas, Once the students have practiced the mel four or five times in a group, they will be able to perform it on their own. It is + superb tool for generating original ideas. = 9: Reading and extracting meaning, Examining n ining: a orucial ooricupt dlmsipline before studying i further brings greater understanding. 4. Problem solving, By performing this strategy on sales, real estate ayents aIsa superb too! for teaching paraphernalia. In essence, the purpose of the concept development model (concept formation) is ta nable students to different | categories which apparently foster the requisite of inductive thinking skills (Lasley If, Matezynski, & Rowley, 2002) Concept Attainment Model ‘This is an inductive approach to instruction designed to help students of all ages reinforce their understanding of concepts and practice hypothesis testing. The model is based on the cognitive views of learning, which maintain that the learners’ active roles depend on their knowledge and utilization of examples to develop understanding. (Eggen iad & Kauchak, 2001) * Concept attainment is likewise the process of defining coneepts by attending to those attributes that are absolutely essential to the meaning and disregarding those that are not. It involves learning to discriminate between what is and what is not an example ofa concept. (Exgen & Kauchak, 2001) Syntax for the Concept Attainment Model (Gunter, Estes, & Si \wab 2003) 1. Select and define a concept. 6. Developa concept defini 2. Select the attributes. 7. Give additional examples, Develop positive and negative 8. Discuss the process with the elass. ‘examples, 4. Introduce the process to the students, 5. Present the examples and list the a attributes. Inquiry Model i ‘This is a modification of the s« Hlication i involves the awareness of a problem; development of hypotheses: je hypotheses, acceptance, modification, or rejection of the hypotheses; and closure (Savage & Armstrong, 1987). As 4 process, the inquiry model is involved in framing questions, gathering and processing data relevant to those questions, and drawing inferences or conclusions from the data (Ellis, 1986), The inquiry model is not just meant for asking questions; it is a process of conducting investigations, It is a systematic process for answering questions based on facts and ee te aset of ideas presented by the teacher. In the development of the lesson, the students move from a specific set of exemplars to broader conceptual bservations. As an instructional approach, it is designed to teach students how to fnvestigate questions through the systematic gathering of data. For Parker (1997), the inquiry process is the highest form of higher order thinking critical thinking. ‘The inquiry model presents an inductive approach to instruction proceeding through fp sequence of scientific phases designed to foster the use of scientific approaches in fuvestigating the problem. However, the model does not require solutions to tle problem being investixated (Moore, 2005), syntax for the Inquiry Model (Eggen & Kauchaly 2001) 1. Present a question, An inquiry investigation begins when a question isidentified. 2. Formulate hypotheses. Once « question has been clarified, the class can try to answer it. A hypothesis is a tentative answer to a question or a solution to a problern that can be verified with data 3. Gather data. Hypotheses are used to guide the data gathering process. 4. Analyze data, Students are responsible for assessing their hypotheses on the basis of the data, Discussing the data as they relate to the hypotheses may be the ‘most valuable part of the inquiry process. 5. Generalize, Content closure in the inquiry happens when students tentatively generalize if possible, about the results on the basis of the data. 6. Analyze the inquiry process. The teachers askstudents to analyze andreflect con the inquiry process. Problem-solving Model ‘This model refers to the ability to recognize, identify, define, or describe a probier determine the preferred solution; identify potential solutions; select strategi¢s; test solutions; evaluate outcomes; or revise any of these steps (Costa, 1985). It is likewise a problem-based teaching model wherein teachers help students learn to solve problems through hands-on experiences. It usually starts with a problem that students need to solve with the assistance of a leader (Eggen & Kauchak, 2001). In contrast with the inquiry model which provides, among others, learning experiences to investigate, but not necessarily finds solutions to the problem, the problem-solving model, as an approach to instruction, calls for solutions to the problem being investigated. Problem solving, according to Cruickshank, Jenkins, and Metcalf (1999), requires that the situation exists wherein a goal is to be achioved, and learners be asked to consider how they would attain the goal. Listed below are the major beliefs about problem solving: 1. A major goal of education is to help students learn how to solve all types of problems, both subject matter-related (well-structured) and people oF life related (il-structared). 2, Some problem-solving strategies tend to be subject-area specific, such as procedures for solving mathematical or scientific problems.