Electricity and Magnetism

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

1. Credits: 3 Credits
2. Prerequisites: Basic Mathematical Analytics, High School Physics
3. Evaluation & Grading
Quizzes: 30%
Mid-term Test: 30%
Final Exam: 40%
Absent ≥ 20%: not allowed to take the final exam.
4. Objectives of module:
- Know and understand basic physical processes and phenomena.
- Solve basic physics problem by applying both theoretical and experimental techniques.
- Understand and acquire skills needed to use physical laws governing real process and to solve
them in the engineering environment.
5. Synopsis of module:

Chapter 1: Electric field ….....................……………………………………………………… 4

• Properties of electric charges
• Insulators and conductors
• Coulomb’s law
• Electric field. Electric field lines
• Electric field of a continuous charge distribution
• Motion of charged particles in a uniform electric field
• Electric flux. Gauss’ law
• Conductors in electrostatic equilibrium
• Insulator with uniform charge density

Chapter 2: Electric energy and capacitance …………………………………………………… 21

• Potential difference and electric potential
• Potential differences in a uniform electric field
• Electric potential and potential energy due to point charges
• Electric potential due to continuous charge distributions
• Electric potential due to a charged conductor
• Capacitance.
• Combinations of capacitors

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Electricity and Magnetism

• Energy stored in a charged capacitor

• Capacitors with dielectrics

Chapter 3: Current and resistance, direct current circuits ……………………………………… 32

• Electric current
• A model for electrical conduction
• Resistance and Ohm’s law
• Electrical energy and power
• Electromotive force
• Kirchhoff ’s rules
• Resistors in series and in parallel
• RC circuits

Chapter 4: Magnetism ………………………………………………………………………… 41

• Magnetic field
• Magnetic force acting on a current-carrying conductor
• Torque on a current loop in a uniform magnetic field
• Motion of a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field
• Hall effect
• Biot–Savart law
• Ampere’s law
• Magnetic field of a solenoid
• Magnetic flux. Gauss’s law in magnetism
• Displacement current and the general form of Ampère’s law
• Magnetism in matter
• The magnetic field of the Earth

Chapter 5: Electromagnetic induction ………………………………………………………… 58

• Faraday’s law of induction
• Motional EMF
• Lenz’s law
• Induced EMF and electric field
• Self-inductance
• RL circuits
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Electricity and Magnetism

• Energy in a magnetic field

• Mutual inductance

Chapter 6: Alternating-current circuits ………………………………………………………… 67

• AC sources and phasors
• Resistors in an AC circuit
• Inductors in an AC circuit
• Capacitors in an AC circuit
• RLC series circuit
• Power in an AC circuit
• Resonance in a series RLC circuit
• Transformer and power transmission

Chapter 7: Electromagnetic waves …………………………………………………………… 74

• Maxwell’s equations and Hertz’s discoveries
• Plane electromagnetic waves
• Energy carried by electromagnetic waves
• Momentum and radiation pressure
• Production of electromagnetic waves by an antenna
• Spectrum of electromagnetic waves

Appendix …….......................................……………………………………………………… 86

6. References:
[1] Halliday D., Resnick R. and Merrill, J. (1988). Fundamentals of Physics. Extended third edition.
John Willey and Sons, Inc.
[2] Alonso M. and Finn E.J. (1992). Physics. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company
[3] Hecht, E. (2000). Physics. Calculus. Second Edition. Brooks/Cole.
[4] Faughn/Serway (2006). Serway’s College Physics. Thomson Brooks/Cole.

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 Electricity and Magnetism

Chapter 1: ELECTRIC FIELD

1.1 Properties of electric charges

Every object contains a vast amount of electric charge. Object which contains equal amounts of the two
kinds of charge is call electrically neutral. One with an imbalance is electrically charged. The net
charge of an object is the difference between the amount of positive charge and negative charge of the
object.
Experiment
- Rub one end of a glass rod with silk → electrons are transferred to silk → the glass rod contains a
positive net charge.
- Rub one end of a plastic rod with fur → electrons are transferred to the plastic rod → the plastic rod
contains a negative net charge.

Fig. 1.1: Charges with the same electrical sign repel each other

Fig. 1.2: Charges with opposite electrical signs attract each other

Electric charge is conserved. The net charge of any isolated system cannot change.
Electric charge is quantized. Elementary charge is e = 1.602 x 10-19C.
The charge of an electron is -e. The charge of a proton is +e.
Electric current:
dq
i= [A] (1.1)
dt

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 Electricity and Magnetism

1.2 Insulators and conductors

Conductors: materials through which charge can move rather freely (metal, tap water …).
Insulators (nonconductor): materials through which charge cannot move freely (plastic, glass …).
Superconductors: materials that are perfect conductors.
Semiconductors: intermediate between conductors and insulators.

Experiment (Fig. 1.3): Put a plastic rod with negative net

charge near a neutral copper rod. Conduction electrons on
the copper rod are repelled to the far end of the copper rod
by the negative charge on the plastic rod. Then the negative
charge on the plastic rod attracts the remaining positive
charge on the near end of the copper rod.
Fig. 1.3

1.3 Coulomb’s law

The electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between two charged particles (point charges) which
are at rest and in vacuum
| q1q 2 |
|F| = [N] (1.2)
4πε o r 2

10 −9
Where εo = = 8.85 x 10-12 [C2/Nm2] is the permittivity constant.
36π

Fig. 1.4 Fig. 1.5 Fig. 1.6

The force acting on any one charge due to a

collection of other charges is the vector sum of the
forces due to each individual charge (Fig. 1.7):
r r
F= ∑ Fi (1.3)
i
Fig. 1.7

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 Electricity and Magnetism

Experiment (Fig. 1.8)

a) An aluminum ball with zero net charge assumes a vertical position at the end of a thread or string.
b) A negatively charged ball is brought close to the neutral ball which becomes polarized.
c) The positive pole of the aluminum ball is attracted to the negatively charged ball up to contact.
d) After contact the aluminum ball becomes negatively charged by charge transfer through the point
of contact and is repelled by the negatively charged ball.
e) The aluminum ball will stop at equilibrium in a position deviated from vertical at an angle
determined by the charges of the balls.

Fig. 1.8

Properties
- A shell of uniform charge attracts or repels a charged particle that is outside the shell as if all the
shell’s charge were concentrated at its center.
- If a charged particle is located inside a shell of uniform charge, there is no net electrostatic force on
the particle from the shell.

1.4 Electric field. Electric field lines

1) Electric field is defined as the electric force per unit charge. The direction of the field is taken to be the
direction of the force it would exert on a positive test charge. The electric field is radially outward from
a positive charge and radially in toward a negative point charge.
2) To find the electric field at point P near a charged object: Place a positive charge qo (called test charge)
r
at P. Measure the electrostatic force F that acts on the test charge. The electric field at point P due to
the charged object is
r
r F
E= [V/m, N/C] (1.4)
qo

3) Field line diagrams: A convenient way to visualize the electric field due to any charge distribution is to
draw a field line diagram. At any point the field line has the same direction as the electric field vector.
Electric field lines diverge from positive charges and converge into negative charges. Rules for
constructing filed lines
a) Field lines begin at positive charge and end at negative charge

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 Electricity and Magnetism

b) The number of field lines shown diverging from or converging into a point is proportional to the
magnitude of the charge.
c) Field lines are spherically symmetric near a point charge
d) If the system has a net charge, the field lines are spherically symmetric at great distances
e) Field lines never cross each other.

Fig. 1.9: Electric field lines of a point charge

Fig. 1.10: Electric field lines of two point charges

4) The electric field of a point charge

|q|
E= [N/C] (1.5)
4πε o r 2
5) The electric field of an electric dipole: an electric dipole consists of two charges + q and –q, of equal
magnitude but opposite sign, that are separated by a distance d (Fig. 1.11).
q q q q qd p
E = E+ - E - = - = - ≈ = (1.6)
4πεo r+2 4πεo r−2 4πεo (z − d / 2) 2
4πεo (z + d / 2) 2
2πεo z 3
2πε o z 3
Where p = qd is the dipole moment [Cm] (1.7)

Fig. 1.12: The vector p points from the negative

Fig. 1.11 charge to the positive charge

r
If we place an electric dipole in an electric field E , it will experience a torque
r r r
τ = pxE (1.8)
r r
which tends to align p with the electric field E

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 Electricity and Magnetism

1.5 Electric field of a continuous charge distribution

1) The electric field of a charged ring (Fig. 1.13)
λ: linear charge density [C/m] ⇒ dq = λds
λds λds
dE = = (1.9)
2
4πε o L 4πε o (z 2 + r 2 )
2 πr 2πr
λzds λz 2πrλz
E=
∫ dE cos(θ) = ∫ 2
(
0 4πε o z + r )
2 3/ 2
=
(
4πε o z 2 + r )
2 3/ 2
∫ ds =
0 (
4πε o z 2 + r 2)3/ 2

qz
E= (1.10)
( 2
4πε o z + r )
2 3/ 2

q = 2πrλ: total charge of the ring.

q
if z >> r then E = : from a large distance, the ring looks like a point charge.
4πεo z 2
if z = 0 then E = 0.

Fig. 1.13: A ring of uniform positive charge Fig. 1.14: A disk of uniform positive charge
2) The electric field of a charged disk (Fig. 1.14)
σ: surface charge density [C/m2]
dq = σdA = σ2πrdr: the charge on the ring with radius r (1.11)
zσ2πrdr
dE = (1.12)
(
4πε o z + r2
)
2 3/ 2

σ  
R
zσrdr z
⇒ E=
∫ dE = ∫
(
0 2ε o z + r
2
)
2 3/ 2
=
2ε o 
1−
z2 + R 2



(1.13)

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 Electricity and Magnetism

σ
As R → ∞ : E → : electric field produced by an infinite sheet of uniform charge
2εo

1.6 Motion of charged particles in a uniform electric field

1) Point charge in an electric field:

The electrostatic force acting on a point charge q
r r
F = qE [N] (1.14)
Fig. 1.15

2) Fig. 1.16 describes the essential features of an ink-jet printer. Drops

are shot out from generator G and receive a (negative) charge in a
charging unit C. An input signal from a computer controls the charge
given to each drop and thus the effect of field E on the drop and the
position on the paper at which the drop lands. About 100 tiny drops
are needed to form a single character.
Let m be the mass of the drop. The acceleration of the drop along the
vertical axis is
Fig. 1.16
qEt 2
ay = qE/m ⇒ y =
2m

The speed of the drop along the horizontal axis vx = constant ⇒ x = vxt

qEL2
Let L be the length of the deflecting plate, the vertical deflection of the drop is y =
2mv 2x

3) A dipole in an electric field: Fig. 1.17 shows an electric dipole in a

uniform external electric field E. Two centers of equal but opposite
charge are separated by distance d. The line between them represents
rigid connection. The magnitude of the net torque
τ = -Eqsin(θ)d = -pEsin(θ) [Nm] (1.15)
(by convention, τ < 0 because it tends to rotate the dipole in the
clockwise direction). The torque acting on a dipole tends to rotate it Fig. 1.17
into the direction of the field E.

If we choose the potential energy to be zero when θ = 90o then the potential energy U at any angle θ is
θ
rr
U= −
∫ τdθ = -pEcos(θ) = − pE [J] (1.16)
90 o

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 Electricity and Magnetism

4) Water molecule (Fig. 1.18)

In a water molecule, the two hydrogen atoms and the oxygen atom do not
lie on a straight line but form an angle of about 105o. Moreover the 10
electrons of the molecule tend to remain closer to the oxygen nucleus than
to the hydrogen nuclei. This makes the oxygen side of the molecule slightly
more negative than the hydrogen side and creates an electric dipole
moment p that points along the symmetry axis of the molecule. If the water
molecule is placed in an external electric field, it is rotated into the
direction of the electric field. Fig. 1.18

Example: A neutral water molecule H2O in its vapor state has an electric dipole moment of magnitude
6.2x10-30 Cm. How far apart are the molecule’s centers of positive and negative charge? If the molecule
is placed in an electric field of 1.5x104 N/C, what maximum torque can the field exert on it? How much
work much an external agent do to rotate this molecule by 180o in this field, starting from its fully
aligned position?
Since there are 10 electrons and 10 protons in a neutral water molecule, the magnitude of its dipole
moment is
p = qd = 10ed ⇒ d = 3.9x10-12 [m] = 3.9 [pm]
The torque on a dipole is maximum when the angle between E and p is 90o.
τmax = pEsin(90o) = 9.3x10-26 [Nm]
The work done by an external agent
-pEcos(180o) - [ -pEcos(0o) ] = 1.9x10-25 [J]

1.7 Electric flux. Gauss’ law

1) Flux of an electric field
The electric flux through an area is defined as the electric field multiplied by the area of the surface
projected in a plane perpendicular to the field (Fig.1.19).
r r
dΦ = E.dA = E.dA.cos(θ) [Nm2/C] (1.17)
It is often simpler to find the flux through one surface of an object than through another. In the case of
the cone (Fig.1.20) the flux through the base (Area = R2) is the same as the flux through the lateral
surface, but it is much easier to calculate the flux through the base.
= E Alateralcos( ) = E ( R2)

Fig. 1.19 Fig. 1.20 Fig. 1.21

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 Electricity and Magnetism

2) Gauss’ law
The total of the electric flux out of a closed surface is equal to the charge enclosed divided by the
permittivity
Q
Φ= (1.18)
εo

Fig. 1.22

Example 1: A cylindrical Gaussian surface, closed by end

caps, is immersed in a uniform electric field. The cylinder axis
is parallel to the field direction (Fig. 1.23)
r r r r r r r r
∫ ∫a
Φ = E.dA = E.dA + E.dA + E.dA = 0
∫b ∫c
(a: left cap, b: right cap, c: cylinder lateral surface)

Fig. 1.23

Example 2: A spherical Gaussian surface (of radius r) centered on a

point charge q (Fig. 1.24)
q
E= [N/C] (1.19)
4πεo r 2

r r q 4π r 2 q q
Φ = ∫ E.dA = ∫ 4πε 2
dA =
4πεo r 2
=
εo
[Nm2/C] (1.20)
or

Fig. 1.24

1.8 Conductors in electrostatic equilibrium

1) The net electric charge of an isolated conductor is located entirely on the outer surface of the
conductor. Because the mutual repulsion of like charges from Coulomb's law demands that the charges
are as far apart as possible, hence on the outer surface of the conductor. Using Gauss’ law and this fact,
we deduce that the electric field inside the conductor is zero. Any net electric field inside the
conductor would cause charge to move since it is abundant and mobile.

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 Electricity and Magnetism

2) The external electric field near the surface of a charged conductor is perpendicular to the surface.
Because if there were a field component parallel to the surface, it would cause mobile charge to move
along the surface. This violates the assumption of equilibrium. Using Gauss’ law and the fact that the
electric field inside the conductor is zero, we deduce the external electric field
σ
E= (1.21)
εo
where σ is the surface charge density.

1.9 Insulator with uniform charge density

1) Infinite non-conducting line of charge: the electric field at any point due to an infinite line of charge
with uniform linear charge density λ is perpendicular to the line of charge and has magnitude
λ
E= (1.22)
2πε o r
where r is the perpendicular distance from the line of charge to the point.
2) Infinite non-conducting sheet of charge: the electric field due to an infinite non-conducting sheet with
uniform surface charge density σ is perpendicular to the plane of the sheet and has magnitude
σ
E= (1.23)
2ε o
3) Non-conducting sphere: The electric field of a non-conducting sphere with radius R, with uniform
volume charge density and total charge q, is directed radially and has magnitude
 q
 for r ≥ R
2
 4πεo r
E= (1.24)
 qr for r ≤ R
 4πε R 3
 o

where r is the distance from the center of the sphere to the point at which E is measured. Observe that
the charge behaves, for external points, as if it were all located at the center of the sphere.

Problems
Electrostatic Force
1.1 What is the magnitude and direction of the electrostatic force acting on each charge in Fig. P1.1? The
charges are q1 = 10e, q2 = -20e, where e = 1.602 x 10-19 C is the elementary charge, and r = 1mm

Fig. P1.1 Fig. P1.2

-19
1.2 In Fig. P1.2, q1 = 10e, q2 = -20e, q3 = -10e, where e = 1.602 x 10 C, r = 0.1mm. What is the
magnitude and direction of the electrostatic force acting on each charge?

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 Electricity and Magnetism

1.3 In Fig. P1.3, q1 = 10e, q2 = -20e, q3 = -10e, q4 = 20e, where e = 1.602 x 10-19 C, r = 0.1mm. What is the
magnitude and direction electrostatic force acting on each charge? What is the electric field at the
center of the square?

Fig. P1.3 Fig. P1.4 Fig. P1.5

1.4 In Fig. P1.4, two tiny conducting balls of identical mass m and identical charge q hang from non-
conducting threads of length L. Assume that θ is so small that tan(θ) ≈ sin(θ).
a) Find the equilibrium separation x of the balls.
b) Explain what happens to the balls if one of them is discharged.
1.5 In crystals of the salt cesium chloride, cesium ions Cs+ form the eight corners of a cube and a chlorine
ion Cl- is at the cube’s center (Fig. P1.5). The edge length of the cube is r = 0.40 nm. The Cs+ ions are
each deficient by one electron (and thus each has a charge of +e).
a) What is the magnitude of the net electrostatic force exerted on the Cl- ion by the eight Cs+ ions at the
corners of the cube?
b) If one of the Cs+ ions is missing, the crystal is said to have a defect. What is the magnitude of the net
electrostatic force exerted on the Cl- ion by the seven remaining Cs+ ions?
1.6 A proton and two electrons form three corners of an equilateral triangle with sides of length 3x10-6 m.
What is the magnitude of the net electrostatic force at each corner?
1.7 Two equally charged particles are held 3.2x10-3m apart and then released from rest. The initial
acceleration of the first particle is 7m/s2 and that of the second is 9m/s2. The mass of the first particle is
6.3x10-7kg. Find the mass of the second particle and the magnitude of the charge of each particle.
1.8 The magnitude of the electrostatic force between the two identical ions that are separated by a distance
of 5x10-10 m is 3.7x10-9 N. What is the charge of each ion? How many electrons are missing from each
ion.

Electric Field
1.9 What is the electric field due to the plastic rod with uniformly distributed charge Q at point P in Fig.
P1.9?
1.10 A thin glass is bent into a semi-circle of radius a as shown in Fig. P1.10. A charge +q is uniformly
distributed along one half of the glass, and a charge -q is uniformly distributed along the other half of
the ring. Use Coulomb’s law to determine the magnitude and direction of the electric field strength at
the point P.

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 Electricity and Magnetism

Fig. P1.9 Fig. P1.10 Fig. P1.11

1.11 Find the electric field of a dipole at B, C, D in Fig. P1.11
1.12 Find the electric field a distance z above the midpoint of a straight line segment of length 2L which
carries a uniform linear charge density λ.
1.13 Find the electric field a distance z above one end of a straight line segment of length L, which carries a
uniform linear charge density λ.
1.14 An electric dipole consists of two charges q and -q separated by a distance d = 10-9m. The electric
charges are placed along the y-axis as shown in Fig. P1.14. Suppose a constant external electric field
r r r
E = 3a x + 3a y N/C is applied.
a) What is the magnitude and direction of the dipole moment?
b) What is the magnitude and direction of the torque on the dipole?
c) Do the electric field of the charges q and -q contribute to the torque on the dipole? Briefly explain
your answer.

Fig. P1.14 Fig. P1.15 Fig. P1.16

1.15 The electric field at point P (x,y) of an electric dipole is Ex = x and Ey = -y where Ex and Ey are the
r
components of the electric field vector E in x and y axis respectively (Fig. P1.15). Find and draw the
electric field lines (the curves of electric force). Hint: dx / Ex = dy / Ey
r
1.16 In fig. P1.16, a uniform, upward electric field E of magnitude E = 2,000 N/C has been set up between
two horizontal plates by charging the lower plate positively and the upper plate negatively. The plate
has length L = 30 cm and separation d = 3 cm. An electron is then shot between the plates from the left
r
edge of the lower plate. The initial velocity vo of the electron makes an angle α = 45° with the lower
plate and has magnitude 6 x 106 m/s. Will the electron strike one of the plates? If so which plate and
how far horizontally from the left edge will the electron strike?
r r r
1.17 An electric dipole with dipole moment p = (3a x + 4a y ) x1.24 x10 -30 [Cm] is in an electric field
r r
E = 4000a x [N/C].

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 Electricity and Magnetism

a) What is the potential energy of the electric dipole?

b) What is the torque acting on it?
c) If an external agent turns the dipole until its electric dipole moment is
r r r
p = (-4a x + 3a y ) x1.24 x10 -30 [Cm]. How much work is done by the agent.

1.18 Two protons move toward each other at velocity v = 2×106 m/s. How close together do they get?

Gauss’ Law
1.19 Find the electric field at all points due to a long, solid cylinder of radius R and uniform volume charge
density ρ.
1.20 A solid non-conducting sphere of radius R has a uniform charge distribution of volume density ρs
[Cm-3]. Determine an expression for the electric field inside and outside the sphere as a function of the
distance from the center of the sphere.
1.21 Consider an uncharged metal shell of inner radius a and outer radius b. If a charge +Q is placed within
the center of the shell, draw a diagram of the electric field around the charge +Q and within the
shell. Using Gauss' law, determine the strength of the electric field inside, within and outside the shell.
1.22 Consider a metal shell of inner radius a and outer radius b. What is the charge distribution on the inner
surface and outer surface of the shell
a) if negative charge is added to the outer surface of the shell from an external source.
b) if electrons are extracted from outer surface of the shell.
Determine the strength of the electric field inside, within and outside the shell.
1.23 Find the electric field of a long, non-conducting, solid cylinder of radius 4 cm which has a non-uniform
volume charge density ρ = Ar2 where A = 2.5µC/m5 and r is the radial distance from the cylinder axis.
1.24 A charge distribution that is spherically symmetric but not uniform radially produces an electric field
of magnitude E = Kr4, directed radially outward from the center of the sphere. Here r is the radial
distance from that center and K is a constant. What is the volume density ρ of the charge distribution?
1.25 Use Gauss' law to find the electric field everywhere due to a uniformly charged insulator shell (Fig.
P1.25). The shell has a total charge Q, which is uniformly distributed throughout its volume.

Fig. P1.25 Fig. P1.26

1.26 In Fig. P1.26, a solid sphere of radius a = 2 cm is concentric with a spherical conducting shell of inner
radius b = 1.5a and outer radius c = 1.7a. Initially the net charge of the conducting shell is zero.
Determine the electric field and the electric potential as function of the distance from the center of the
sphere. Determine the charge distribution on the conducting shell.

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 Electricity and Magnetism

a) Case 1: the sphere is non conducting and has a net uniform charge q1 = +5 fC.
b) Case 2: the sphere is conducting and has a net charge q1 = +5 fC.

Additional Problems
1.27 A neutral water molecule (H2O) in its vapor state has an electric dipole moment of magnitude 6.2x10-30
Cm.
a) How far apart are the molecule’s centers of positive and negative charge?
b) If the molecule is placed in an electric field of 1.5x104 N/C, what maximum torque can the field
exert on it?
c) How much work must an external agent do to rotate this molecule by 180o in this field, starting
from its fully aligned position, for which θ = 0°?
1.28 In Fig. P1.28, a small non conducting ball of mass m = 1 mg and charge q = 20 nC (distributed
uniformly through it volume) hangs from a non-conducting thread that makes an angle θ = 30° with an
infinite vertical, uniformly charged non conducting sheet (shown in cross section). Find the surface
density of the sheet.
1.29 In Fig. P1.29, two small charged beads are on a plastic ring of radius R = 50 cm. Bead 1 of charge 1 µC
is fixed in place at the left side. Bead 2 of charge 6 µC can be moved along the ring. Find the angle θ
such that the electric field at the center of the ring has magnitude E = 2x105 N/C.

Fig. P1.28 Fig. P1.29 Fig. P1.30

1.30 In Fig. P1.30, a non-conducting sphere of mass m and charge +q is hung by an insulating thread of
length L from the higher of two large horizontal plates. Find the period of the pendulum if a uniform
electric field E is set up between the plates by charging the top plate negatively and the lower plate
positively and vice versa.
1.31 An inkjet printer has deflecting plates of length L = 15 mm oriented horizontally, producing an electric
field which can be assumed to be uniform and directed downward with magnitude E = 1.8 x 106 N/C.
An ink drop of mass m = 2.5 x 10-10 kg and charge q = – 3.6 × 10-13 C enters the region, initially
moving horizontally with velocity 20 m/s. Assume the gravitational force on the drop can be neglected.
a) How many excess electrons is the ink drop carrying?
b) Draw a diagram showing how the drop is deflected. Mark the positively and negatively charged
deflecting plates.
c) Calculate the deflection of the drop when it has reached the far edge of the plates.
1.32 In Fig. P1.32, a small circular hole of radius R = 1.8 cm has been cut in the middle of an infinite, flat,
nonconducting surface that has uniform charge density σ = 4.5 pC/m2. A z axis, with its origin at the
hole's center, is perpendicular to the surface. In unit-vector notation, what is the electric field at point P
at z = 2.56 cm?

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 Electricity and Magnetism

Fig.P1.32 Fig.P1.33
1.33 A slab of charge extends infinitely in two dimensions and has thickness d in the third dimension, as
shown in Fig.P1.33. The slab carries a uniform volume charge density ρ. Find expressions for the
electric field strength (a) inside and (b) outside the slab, as functions of the distance x from the center
plane.
1.34 Two long, charged, thin-walled, concentric cylindrical shells have radii of 3 and 6 cm. The charge per
unit length is 5 x 10-6 C/m on the inner shell and -7 x 10-6 C/m on the outer shell. What are the
magnitude E and direction (radially inward or outward) of the electric field at radial distances r1 = 4 cm
and r2 = 8 cm?
1.35 A point charge q lies at the center of a spherical conducting shell carrying a net charge 3q/2. Sketch the
field lines both inside and outside the shell, using 8 field lines to represent a charge of magnitude q.
1.36 A long, non-conducting, solid cylinder of radius 4.0 cm has a non-uniform volume charge density ρ
that is a function of radial distance r from the cylinder axis: ρ = Ar2. For A = 2.5 µC/m5, what is the
magnitude of the electric field at (a) r = 3.0 cm and (b) r = 5.0 cm?
1.37 A charge distribution that is spherically symmetric but not uniform radially produces an electric field of
magnitude E = Kr4, directed radially outward from the center of the sphere. Here r is the radial distance
from that center, and K is a constant. What is the volume density ρ of the charge distribution?
1.38 A proton moving to the right at 3.8x105 m/s enters a region where a 56 kN/C electric field points to the
left. (a) How far will the proton get before its speed reaches zero? (b) Describe its subsequent motion.
1.39 A dipole with dipole moment 1.5 nCm is oriented at 30° to a 4.0 MN/C electric field. (a) What is the
magnitude of the torque acting on the dipole? (b) How much work is required to rotate the dipole until
it’s antiparallel to the field?
1.40 The electric field at the surface of a uniformly charged sphere of radius 5.0 cm is 90 kN/C. What would
be the field strength 10 cm from the surface?
1.41 Positive charge is spread uniformly over the surface of a spherical balloon 70 cm in radius, resulting in
an electric field of 26 kN/C at the balloon’s surface. Find the field strength (a) 50 cm from the
balloon’s center and (b) 190 cm from the center. (c) What is the net charge on the balloon?
1.42 A solid sphere 2.0 cm in radius carries a uniform volume charge density. The electric field 1.0 cm from
the sphere’s center has magnitude 39 kN/C. (a) At what other distance does the field have this
magnitude? (b) What is the net charge on the sphere?
1.43 A point charge 2Q is at the center of a spherical shell of radius R carrying charge Q spread uniformly
over its surface. What is the electric field at (a) r = R/2 and (b) r = 2R? (c) How would your answers
change if the charge on the shell were doubled?

17
 Electricity and Magnetism

1.44 A spherical shell of radius 15 cm carries 4.8µC, distributed uniformly over its surface. At the center of
the shell is a point charge. (a) If the electric field at the surface of the sphere is 750 kN/C and points
outward, what is the charge of the point charge? (b) What is the field just inside the shell?
1.45 How should the charge density within a solid sphere vary with distance from the center in order that the
magnitude of the electric field in the sphere be constant?
1.46 An infinitely long rod of radius R carries a uniform volume charge density ρ. Find E.
1.47 A 250-nC point charge is placed at the center of an uncharged spherical conducting shell 20 cm in
radius. (a) What is the surface charge density on the outer surface of the shell? (b) What is the electric
field strength at the shell’s outer surface?
1.48 A particle of charge Q is fixed at the origin of an xy coordinate system. At t = 0 a particle (m = 0.8 g, q
= 4 µC) is located on the x axis at x = 20 cm, moving with a speed of 50 m/s in the positive y direction.
For what value of Q will the moving particle execute circular motion? (Neglect the gravitational force
on the particle.)
1.49 Three charged particles form a triangle: particle 1 with charge Q1 = 80 nC is at xy coordinates (0, 3
mm), particle 2 with charge Q2 is at (0, 3 mm), and particle 3 with charge q = 18 nC is at (4 mm, 0). In
unit-vector notation, what is the electrostatic force acting on particle 3 due to the other two particles if
Q2 is equal to (a) 80 nC and (b) -80 nC?
1.50 A “semi-infinite” nonconducting rod (that is, infinite in one direction only) has uniform linear charge
density λ. Find the magnitude and the direction of the electric field at point P (Fig.P1.50). (Hint:
Separately find the component of parallel to the rod and the component perpendicular to the rod.)

Fig.P1.50 Fig.P1.51 Fig.P1.52

1.51 Fig.P1.51 shows, in cross section, two solid spheres with uniformly distributed charge throughout their
volumes. Each has radius R. Point P lies on a line connecting the centers of the spheres, at radial
distance R/2 from the center of sphere 1. If the net electric field at point P is zero, what is the ratio q2/q1
of the total charges?
1.52 Fig.P1.52 shows a long, nonconducting, massless rod of length L, pivoted at its center and balanced
with a block of weight W at a distance x from the left end. At the left and right ends of the rod are
attached small conducting spheres with positive charges q and 2q, respectively. A distance h directly
beneath each of these spheres is a fixed sphere with positive charge Q. Find the distance x when the rod
is horizontal and balanced. What value should h have so that the rod exerts no vertical force on the
bearing when the rod is horizontal and balanced?
1.53 How far apart must two protons be if the magnitude of the electrostatic force acting on either one due
to the other is equal to the magnitude of the gravitational force on a proton at Earth’s surface?
1.54 Find an expression for the oscillation frequency of an electric dipole of dipole moment and rotational
inertia I for small amplitudes of oscillation about its equilibrium position in a uniform electric field of
magnitude E.

18
 Electricity and Magnetism

1.55 A charge of 6 µC is to be split into two parts that are then separated by 3 mm.What is the maximum
possible magnitude of the electrostatic force between those two parts?
1.56 Two point charges of 30 nC and -40 nC are held fixed on an x axis, at the origin and at x = 72 cm,
respectively. A particle with a charge of 42 µC is released from rest at x = 28 cm. If the initial
acceleration of the particle has a magnitude of 100 km/s2, what is the particle’s mass?
1.57 Find an expression for the oscillation frequency of an electric dipole of dipole moment and rotational
inertia I for small amplitudes of oscillation about its equilibrium position in a uniform electric field of
magnitude E.
1.58 Fig.P1.58 is a section of a conducting rod of radius R1 = 1.3 mm and length L = 11 m inside a thin-
walled coaxial conducting cylindrical shell of radius R2 = 10R1 and the same length L.The net charge
on the rod is Q1= 3.4 x 10-12 C; that on the shell is Q2 = -2Q1.What are the magnitude E and direction
(radially inward or outward) of the electric field at radial distance r = 2R2? What are E and the direction
at r = 5R1? What is the charge on the interior and exterior surface of the shell?

Fig.P1.58 Fig.P1.59 Fig.P1.60

1.59 In Fig. P1.59, short sections of two very long parallel lines of charge are shown, fixed in place,
separated by L= 8 cm. The uniform linear charge densities are 6 µC/m for line 1 and -2 µC/m for line
2. Where along the x axis shown is the net electric field from the two lines zero?
1.60 Fig.P1.60 shows a cross section through a very large nonconducting slab of thickness d = 10 mm and
uniform volume charge density ρ = 5.8 fC/m3. The origin of an x axis is at the slab’s center.What is the
magnitude of the slab’s electric field at an x coordinate of (a) 0, (b) 2 mm, (c) 4 mm, and (d) 20 mm?
1.61 Two large metal plates of area 1 m2 face each other, 5 cm apart, with equal charge magnitudes q but
opposite signs. The field magnitude E between them (neglect fringing) is 55 N/C. Find q.
1.62 An electric dipole consists of two opposite charges, each of magnitude 2 nC and distance 100 µm. A
uniform electric field of magnitude 300 N/C makes an angle of 300 with the dipole moment of the
dipole.
a) Calculate the torque exerted by the electric field and sketch qualitatively three vectors: the electric
field, the dipole moment and the torque;
b) Calculate the potential energy of the dipole.
1.63 In Fig. P1.63, a non-conducting spherical shell of inner radius a = 2 cm and outer radius b = 2.4 cm has
(within its thickness) a positive volume charge density ρ = A/r, where A is a constant and r is the
distance from the center of the shell. In addition, a small ball of charge q = 45 fC is located at that
center. What value should A have if the electric field in the shell (a ≤ r ≤ b) is to be uniform?

19
Electricity and Magnetism

Fig. P1.63

20
 Electricity and Magnetism

Chapter 2: ELECTRIC ENERGY AND CAPACITANCE

2.1 Potential difference and electric potential

1) Electric potential energy, electric potential difference and electric potential
Consider the system constituted by the charges Q and q in Fig. 2.1. The electric field E due to the
charge Q
Q
E= [Vm-1], [NC-1] (2.1)
4πε o r 2

The electrostatic force F acting on the charge q

qQ
F = qE = [N] (2.2)
4πε o r 2

When the charge q is released from point A, it moves away from Q, along the electric field line. The
loss in potential energy of the system as the charge q moves from A to B is the work done by the
electric force
r uur qQdr
dW = F.dr = Fdr =
4πε o r 2

qQ  1 1 
rB
qQdr
⇒ W = ∫ 4πε r
rA o
2
=  - 
4πε o  rA rB 
[J] (2.3)

The work done by the electrostatic force is path independent. It depends only on the initial point A and
the final point B and is the same for all paths between A and B.

Fig. 2.1
The change in the potential energy of the system
∆U = UB - UA = -W (2.4)
where UA and UB are the potential energy of the system when the charge q is at A and B, respectively.
When q moves from A to B, W > 0, ∆U < 0: the electric force F does work and the system loses
energy. If we set the potential energy of the system U = 0 at infinity, i.e. r = ∞ (the reference point of
zero potential at infinity) then it follows from (2.3) that
qQ
UA = [J] (2.5)
4πε o rA

The electric potential (the potential energy per unit charge) at point A is defined as

21
 Electricity and Magnetism

UA Q
VA = = [J/C], [V] (2.6)
q 4πε o rA

The electric potential difference between A and B is the difference in potential energy per unit charge
∆U W Q 1 1
∆V = = - = -  -  = VB - VA [J/C], [V] (2.7)
q q 4πε o  rA rB 

2) Equipotential surfaces
The points on an equipotential line all have the same electric potential. Equipotential lines are always
perpendicular to the electric field. In three dimensions, the lines form equipotential surfaces. Movement
along an equipotential line (or an equipotential surface) requires no work because such movement is
always perpendicular to the electric field.
For a point charge, the equipotential lines are circles centered on the charge (Fig. 2.2.a). The dashed
lines illustrate the scaling of voltage at equal increments. The equipotential lines get further apart with
increasing r.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2.2: Dashed lines: equipotential lines. Solid lines: electric field lines.
The electrical potential of a dipole shows mirror symmetry about the center of the dipole (Fig. 2.2.b).
They are everywhere perpendicular to the electric field lines.
For parallel conducting plates like those in a capacitor, the electric field lines are perpendicular to the
plates and the equipotential lines are parallel to the plates (Fig. 2.2.c).

2.2 Potential difference in a uniform electric field

The potential difference between two points A and B in a
uniform electric field (Fig. 2.3)
V = Ed [V] (2.8)

Fig. 2.3

2.3 Electric potential and potential energy due to point charges

1) The electric potential due to a single point charge at a distance r from that point charge

22
 Electricity and Magnetism

q
V= (2.9)
4πεo r
The electric potential due to a collection of point charges
n

∑ rii
1 q
V= (2.10)
4πεo
i =1
2) The electric potential of a dipole at a distance r from the dipole can be found by superposing the
electric potential of two point charges (Fig. 2.4)
q q q (r− − r+ )
V= - = (2.11)
4πε o r+ 4πε o r− 4πε o r+ r−

Fig. 2.4 Fig. 2.5

If r >> d then r- - r+ ≈ dcos(θ) and r-r+ ≈ r2. (2.11) can be approximated by
p cos(θ)
V= (2.12)
4πεo r 2
where p = qd is the dipole moment.
The electric dipole moment for a pair of opposite charges of magnitude q is defined as the magnitude of
the charge times the distance between them and the defined direction is toward the positive charge. It is
a useful concept in atoms and molecules where the effects of charge separation are measurable, but the
distances between the charges are too small to be easily measurable. It is also a useful concept in
dielectrics and other applications in solid and liquid materials.
2.4 Electric potential due to continuous charge distributions
1 dq
V=
4πεo ∫ r
(2.13)

2.5 Electric potential due to a charged conductor

Since the electric field E = 0 for all points inside an isolated conductor, an excess charge placed on an
isolated conductor lies entirely on its surface. All points on the conductor have the same potential (even
if the conductor has an internal cavity and even if that cavity contains a net charge.
2.6 Capacitance
A capacitor consists of two isolated conductors (the plates) with charges +q and –q. Initially when the
battery is not connected, the two plates are neutral. When the battery is connected, electrons will flow

23
 Electricity and Magnetism

until the potential difference between plate A and positive terminal of the battery is zero, and the
potential difference between plate B and the negative terminal of the battery is zero. The capacitance C
[F] is defined as
q = CV (2.14)
where V is the potential difference between the plates. The direction of V relates to q as given in
Fig.2.7.

Fig. 2.6 Fig. 2.7

1) A parallel-plate capacitor (Fig. 2.8)
q
Gauss’ law ⇒ q = εoAE ⇒ E = (A: the area of the plate)
εo A

Fig. 2.8: A parallel-plate capacitor Fig. 2.9: A cylindrical capacitor

By definition
r r qd
V=
∫ Ed s = Ed =
εo A
(the integral is taken in the direction of the electric field E, see also Fig. 2.7)
q ε A
⇒ C= = o [F] (2.15)
V d
2) A cylindrical capacitor (Fig. 2.9)
q
Gauss’ law ⇒ q = εo(2πrL)E ⇒ E =
2πεo rL
2πrL: the area of the curved part of the Gaussian surface, L the length of the cylinder.
Let a and b to be the radius of the inner cylinder and the outer cylinder, respectively. By definition

24
 Electricity and Magnetism

b r r b qdr q b
V=
∫a Ed s =
∫ a 2πε o rL
= ln( )
2πεo L a
(a < b: radii)

(the integral is taken in the direction of the electric field E, see also Fig. 2.7)
q 2πεo L
⇒ C= = (2.16)
V b
ln( )
a

3) A spherical capacitor
The capacitor consists of a solid conducting sphere of radius a surrounded by a spherical shell of inner
radius b. These are the plates of the capacitor. The solid sphere has a +Q on its top surface, which
induces a charge of -Q on the inner surface of the outer shell. This in turn induces +Q charge on the
outer surface of the outer shell.
q
Gauss’ law ⇒ q = εo(4πr2)E ⇒ E = (4πr2: the area of the sphere)
2
4πεo r
By definition
b r r b qdr q 1 1
V=
∫a Ed s =
∫ a 4πεo r 2 = ( − )
4πεo a b
(a < b: radii)

(the integral is taken in the direction of the electric field E, see also Fig. 2.7)
q 4πεoab
⇒ C= = (2.17)
V b−a

4) An isolated sphere
b → ∞: (2.17) ⇒ C = 4πεoa (2.18)

2.7 Combinations of capacitors

1) Capacitors in parallel:
Ceq = ΣCi (2.19)
2) Capacitors in series:

∑ Ci
1 1
= (2.20)
Ceq

2.8 Energy stored in a charged capacitor

The work W required to bring the total capacitor charge up to q
q = CV

q q2 CV 2
dW = Vdq = dq ⇒ W = =
C 2C 2

25
 Electricity and Magnetism

this work W is stored as potential energy U in the capacitor

CV 2 q 2
U= = [J] (2.21)
2 2C
The energy density u is the potential energy per unit volume. In case of a parallel-plate capacitor

εo E 2
u= (2.22)
2

2.9 Capacitors with dielectrics

1) Dielectric
Non polar dielectric: the center of positive charges coincide with the one of negative charges ⇒ the
molecules are neutral.
Polar dielectric: the center of positive charges doesn’t coincide with the one of negative charges ⇒
each molecule is a dipole.

A) polar dielectric B) non polar dielectric

Fig. 2.10: In absence of an external electric field.
Under the effect of an external electric field, the molecules of non polar dielectric become dipoles. The
electric dipoles tend to line up with the external electric field.

A) vacuum B) dielectric
Fig. 2.11: With the same charge, the electric field in case A is stronger than in case B
2) The electric field produced by charge inside a dielectric
The electric field of a point charge inside a dielectric
q
E= (2.23)
4πk o ε o r 2

Gauss’ law with a dielectric

koεoΦ = q (2.24)

26
 Electricity and Magnetism

ko: dielectric constant

Material Dielectric constant ko Dielectric strength (kV/mm)
Air (1 atm) 1.00054 3
Polystyrene 2.6 24
Paper 3.5 16
Transformer oil 4.5
Pyrex 4.7 14
Porcelain 6.5
Problems
Electric Potential
2.1 Find the electric potential inside and outside a sphere of radius R and of constant volume charge
density ρ.
2.2 Find the electric potential inside and outside a spherical conducting shell of radius R with total charge
+Q.
2.3 A total charge of +Q is uniformly distributed along the length of a rod of length L (Fig. P2.3).
Determine the electric potential at point P, a distance a from one end of the rod as shown.

Fig. P2.3
2.4 Suppose that the electric field in Fig.P2.4 is constant. Find the potential differences between
a) A and B b) A and C c) B and C.

Fig. P2.4 Fig. P2.5 Fig. P2.6

2.5 The thin plastic rod shown in Fig. P2.5 has length L = 12cm and a nonuniform linear charge density λ
= αx where α = 28.9pC/m2. With V = 0 at infinity, find the electric potential at P1 and P2. Where d1 =
8cm, d2 = 3cm.
2.6 Three particles, charge q1 = 10µC, q2 = -20µC, q3 = 30µC, are positioned at the vertices of an isosceles
triangle as shown in Fig. P2.6. If a = 10cm and b = 6cm, how much work must an external agent do to
exchange the position of
a) q1 and q3. b) q1 and q2.
2.7 A non-conducting sphere has radius R = 2cm and uniformly distributed charge q = 3.5fC. Take the
electric potential at the sphere center to be Vo = 0. What is V at radial distance

27
 Electricity and Magnetism

a) r = 1.5 cm b) r = R.

Capacitance
2.8 You are asked to construct a capacitor having a capacitance near 1 nF and a breakdown potential in
excess of 10 kV. You think of using the sides of a tall Pyrex drinking glass as a dielectric, lining the
inside and outside curved surfaces with aluminum foil to act as the plates. The glass is 15 cm tall with
an inner radius of 3.6 cm and an outer radius of 3.8 cm. What are the capacitance and breakdown
potential of this capacitor?
2.9 A metal plate of thickness a is inserted in-between the plates which are separated by a distance d (Fig.
P2.9). Find the capacitance of the system.

Fig. P2.9 Fig. P2.10

2.10 What happens if the outer surface of the capacitor in Fig. P2.10 is connected to Earth?
Hint: The electrons from Earth neutralize the outer surface only. The inner surface still maintains a
total charge of -Q, which means that the electric field within the capacitor is unaffected. Thus, the
potential difference remains the same, and therefore, there is no loss of energy from the capacitor.
2.11 Consider a parallel plate capacitor with rectangular plates and a sheet of metal of thickness a. The
dimensions of the capacitors are given in the Fig. P2.11. Let x be the length of the metal plate that is
inserted between the capacitor plates. Let +Q and -Q be the charges on the plates of the capacitor.
a) Find the capacitance Co and the energy Uo stored in the capacitor before the metal sheet is inserted.
b) Find the capacitance C and the energy U stored in the capacitor after insertion of the metal sheet as
function of x.
c) Find the force acting on the metal sheet? Which direction does it tend to move the metal sheet?
2.12 Two long conducting wires of length L and radius a lie parallel a distance s apart (Fig. P2.12). The
upper wire carries charge Q and the lower charge -Q. Since L >> s, we may assume the wires are
effectively infinitely long for purpose of finding the electric field and potential.
a) Find the electric field E in the plane in between the wires.
b) Find the potential ϕ in the plane between the wires. Find V, the potential different between the
wires.
c) Find the capacitance C of the two wire system.
d) Find the total electrical energy stored in the system.

28
 Electricity and Magnetism

Fig. P2.11 Fig. P2.12 Fig. P2.13

2
2.13 The parallel plate capacitor in Fig. P2.13 has plate area A = 100 cm and plate separation d = 1 cm. A
potential difference Vo = 50 V is applied between the plates. The battery is then disconnected. A
dielectric slab of thickness b = 0.8 cm and dielectric constant ko = 2 is placed between the plates after
the battery was removed
a) Before the dielectric slab is inserted, find the capacitance and the charge on the plate.
b) After the slab has been introduced, find
- the electric field in the gaps between the plates and the dielectric slab.
- the electric field in the dielectric slab.
- the potential difference between the plates.
- the capacitance between the plates.
2.14 Find the capacitance C of a cylindrical capacitor of length L and radii a and b (Fig. P2.14).

top view side view Fig. P2.15

Fig. P2.14

Additional problems
2.15 Four point charges are arranged in a square as shown in Fig.P2.15, with a = 5 cm, q1 = 1 µC, q2 = -2 µC
and q3 = 4 µC
a) Taking the electric potential to be zero at infinity, find the value of q4 such that the electric potential
is also zero at the centre of the square.

29
 Electricity and Magnetism

b) For this value of q4, find the work required to completely disassemble this arrangement of charges
(ending with all four charges infinitely far apart).
2.16 You come across a spherically symmetric electric field with the following form
  r 2 r
E o   a r 0≤r≤R
 R
0 R ≤ r ≤ 2R

r  r r
E ( r ) = E o  − 2  a r 2R ≤ r ≤ 3R
 R 
 2
E o  3R  ar r 3R ≤ r ≤ 4R
  r 

0 r > 4R
r
a r is the radial unit vector in the spherical coordinates.
a) For all r, what is the charge Q(r) contained within a radius r?
b) Calculate the charge density ρ(r) everywhere.
c) Are there any surface charges in this charge distribution? If so, identify their location and give the
magnitude of the surface charge density σ at each such location.
d) The charge distribution is modified in some way. The new electric field is

 2
E o  r  ar r 0≤r≤R
 R

0 R ≤ r ≤ 2R
r   r r
E ( r ) = E o  − 2 a r 2R ≤ r ≤ 3R
 R 
 2
E  3R  ar 3R ≤ r ≤
7R
 o r  r 2

0 7R
r>
 2
Compute the difference in energy between this and the old configuration. Was work done on the
system or did the system do work?
2.17 Two point charges, q1 = 1 µC and q2 = -0.8 µC, are located as shown in Fig. P2.17 with a = 10 cm.
a) Find the magnitude and direction of the electric field at point P due to charge q1.
b) Find the magnitude and direction of the net electric field at point P.
c) Find the net electric potential at point P, taking V = 0 at infinity.

30
 Electricity and Magnetism

Fig. P2.17
2.18 A nonconducting sphere has radius R = 2 cm and uniformly distributed charge q = 3.5 fC.Take the
electric potential at the sphere’s center to be zero. What is the electric potential at radial distance r1 =
1.5 cm and r2 = R.
2.19 Suppose N electrons can be placed in either of two configurations. In configuration 1, they are all
placed on the circumference of a narrow ring of radius R and are uniformly distributed so that the
distance between adjacent electrons is the same everywhere. In configuration 2, N - 1 electrons are
uniformly distributed on the ring and one electron is placed in the center of the ring.
a) What is the smallest value of N for which the second configuration is less energetic than the first?
b) For that value of N, consider any one circumference electron - call it e0. How many other
circumference electrons are closer to e0 than the central electron is?
2.20 An isolated conducting sphere whose radius R is 6 cm has a charge q = 1.25 nC.
a) How much potential energy is stored in the electric field of this charged conductor?
b) What is the energy density at the surface of the sphere?
2.21 Fig.P2.21 displays a 12 V battery and 3 uncharged capacitors of capacitances C1 = 4 µF, C2 = 6 µF, and
C3 = 3 µF.The switch is thrown to the left side until C1 is fully charged. Then the switch is thrown to
the right. Find the final charges on 3 capacitors?

Fig.P2.21

31
 Electricity and Magnetism

Chapter 3: CURRENT AND RESISTANCE, DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS

3.1 Electric current

1) The electric current in a conductor is defined by
dq
i= [A] (3.1)
dt
here dq is the amount of (positive) charge that passes in time dt through a hypothetical surface that cuts
across the conductor. By convention, the direction of electric current is taken as the direction in which
positive charge carriers would move. The SI unit of electric current is ampere (A): 1 A = 1 C/s.
r
2) The current i (a scalar) is related to the current density J (a vector) by
r uuur
i = ∫ JdA (3.2)
uuur
where dA is a vector perpendicular to a surface element of area dA and the integral is taken over any
r
surface cutting across the conductor. J has the same direction as the velocity of the moving charges if
they are positive and the opposite direction if they are negative.

3.2 A model for electrical conduction

When a conductor does not have a current through it, its conduction electrons move randomly, with no
net motion in any direction. When the conductor has a current through it, these electrons still move
randomly, but now they tend to drift with a drift speed vd in the direction opposite that of the applied
electric field that causes the current. The drift speed is tiny compared with the speeds in the random
motion. For example, in the copper conductors of house-hold wiring, electron drift speed are perhaps
10-5 or 10-4 m/s, where as the random-motion speeds are around 106 m/s.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3.1: Random motion of an electron from A to F (the electron collides with an atom at B, C, D, E)
a: without electric field.
b: in presence of an electric field E, the electron drifts rightward.
c: superposition of figure a and figure b.

32
Electricity and Magnetism

Consider a wire of length L, cross-sectional area A, number of carriers (free electrons) per unit volume
n. The total charge of the wire is
q = -(nAL)e [C] (3.3)
Since the free electrons drift along the wire with speed vd (in the direction opposite that of the current
i), the total charge q moves through any cross section of the wire in the time interval
L
t= [s] (3.4)
vd

and the current i, which is the time rate of transfer of charge across a cross section, is given by
q
i= = -neAvd [A] (3.5)
t
r
The current density J (current per unit sectional area) is given by
r v
J = -ne vd [A/m2] (3.6)
Note that the minus sign in (3.5) and (3.6) implies that the direction of the current i is opposite to that
of the drift of the free electrons in the wire.
Example: Consider a copper wire which carries a current i = 17mA Let r = 900µm be the radius of the
wire. Assume that each copper atom contributes one conduction electron to the current and that the
current density is uniform across the wire cross section. The drift speed of the conduction electrons can
be determined from (3.5)
i J
vd = - =- [m/s]
neA ne
Since each copper atom contributes one conduction electron to the current, the number n of conduction
electrons per unit volume is the same as the number of atoms per unit volume
n = number of atoms per unit volume
= (number of atoms per mole)x(number of moles per unit mass)x(mass per unit volume)
number of atoms per mole = Avogadro’s number = NA = 6.02x1023
number of moles per unit mass = inverse of the mass per mole of copper M
= 1/[63.54 g/mol] = 1/[63.54x10-3 kg/mol]
mass per unit volume = mass density of copper ρmass = 8.96 g/cm3 = 8.96x103 kg/m3
n = NAρmass/M = 6.02x1023x8.96x103/63.54x10-3 = 0.8489x1029 electrons/m3
The current density: J = 17x10-3/(πr2) [A/m2].
The charge of an electron: e = 1.602 x 10-19 [C].
J
⇒ vd = - = -4.9x10-7 m/s
ne

33
 Electricity and Magnetism

3.3 Resistance and Ohm’s law

V
Ohm’s law: R= [Ω] (3.7)
i
where V is the potential difference across the conductor, i is the current, R is the
resistance. The resistance of a conducting wire of length L, cross-sectional area
A, and resisitivity ρ is (conductivity σ = 1/ρ)
ρL
R= [Ω] (3.8)
A Fig. 3.2
1 E
= ρ= [Ωm] (3.9)
σ J
r r
Vector form: E = ρJ (3.10)

Material Resistivity [Ωm] Material Resistivity [Ωm]

Silver 1.6 x 10-8 Sea water 0.2
Copper 1.7 x 10-8 Polyethylene 2 x 1011
Gold 2.4 x 10-8 Glass 1012
Iron 1.0 x 10-7 Fused quartz 7.5 x 1017

Change of ρ with temperature: for many materials, including metals, the relation between ρ and
temperature T is approximated by
ρ = ρo[1 + α(T-To)] (3.11)
where ρo is the resistivity at temperature To, α is the temperature coefficient of resistivity for the
material. Resistivity of a metal
m
ρ= (3.12)
2
e nτ
here n is the number of free electrons per unit volume and τ is the mean time between collisions of an
electron with the atoms of the metal.

3.4 Electrical energy and power

Rate of electrical energy transfer: P = Vi [W] (3.13)
2
Resistive dissipation: P = Ri [W] (3.14)
In a resistor, electric potential energy is converted to internal thermal energy via collisions between
charge carriers and atoms.

3.5 Electromotive force (EMF)

The electromotive force of a device is the work the device does to force a unit positive charge from the
dW
negative to the positive terminal ε= [V] (3.15)
dq
34
 Electricity and Magnetism

3.6 Kirchhoff’s rules

Loop rule: The algebraic sum of the changes in potential encountered in a complete traversal of any
loop of a circuit must be zero.
Junction rule: The sum of the currents entering any junction must be equal to the sum of the currents
leaving that junction.
ε
Single loop circuits (Fig.3.3): i= [A] (3.16)
r+R

Fig. 3.3 Fig. 3.4

According to the loop rule, the potential difference caused by the battery ( ) must be compensated for
by the potential drops across the two resistors (r and R) in Fig. 3.3. Notice that the potential (V) starts
at Va and then returns again to Va after resistor R (Fig. 3.4).
Power: P = Vi (3.17)
2
PR = Ri (3.18)

3.7 Resistors in series and in parallel

Series resistances Req = ΣRi (3.19)

∑ Ri
1 1
Parallel resistances = (3.20)
R eq

3.8 RC circuits (Fig. 3.5)

1) Charging a capacitor
dq 1 dq 1 1
ε = Ri + V = R + q ⇒ + q= ε
dt C dt RC R
dx 1 dx dt t t
Let x = q - Cε ⇒ + x=0 ⇒ =- ⇒ ln(x) = - + const ⇒ x = Aexp(- )
dt RC x RC RC RC
t
⇒ q = Cε + Aexp(- )
RC

35
 Electricity and Magnetism

since q(0) = 0 ⇒ A = -Cε

t
⇒ q = Cε (1- exp(- )) (3.21)
RC
ε t
i= exp(- ) (3.22)
R RC

Fig. 3.5
2) Discharging a capacitor
dq 1 dq 1 dq dt t
0 = Ri + V = R + q ⇒ + q=0 ⇒ =- ⇒ q = A exp(- )
dt C dt RC q RC RC
since q(0) = Cε ⇒ A = Cε
t
⇒ q = Cεexp(- ) (3.23)
RC
ε t
i=- exp(- ) (3.24)
R RC
The negative sign indicates that the current flows in the opposite direction. The quantity τ = RC is
called the time constant. It dictates the rate of voltage build up on the capacitor, and the rate of current
decrease.

Problems
Electric Current
3.1 An isolated conducting sphere has a 10cm radius. One wire carries a current of 1 000 002 A into it.
Another wire carries a current of 1 000 000 A out of it. How long would it take for the sphere to
increase in potential by 1000 V?

Fig. P3.2 Fig. P3.3

36
 Electricity and Magnetism

3.2 A lightning of current I = 100 kA strikes the ground at point O (Fig. P3.2). The current spreads through
the ground uniformly over a hemisphere centered on the strike point. The resistivity of the ground is ρ
= 100Ωm. Find the potential difference between A and B. The radial distance OA = 60 m, OB = 61 m
OB
I ρI
Solution: J =
2πr 2
⇒ E = ρJ =
2πr 2
⇒ VAB = -
∫ Edr
OA

Electric Circuit
3.3 Consider the circuit in Fig. P3.3 with ε(t) = 12sin(120πt) V, r = 10 Ω. Find the value of R such that the
power in R is maximized?
3.4 A 9 volt battery is connected across a light bulb (R = 3 Ω). How many electrons pass through the
resistor in one minute? How many joules of energy are generated in one minute?"
3.5 A battery has an internal resistance of 0.75 Ω and an EMF of 9V. It is placed a cross a 5 Ω resistor and
a 10 µF capacitor hooked up in parallel.
a) After the capacitor has charged, what is the current through the resistor?
b) What is the charge on the capacitor?
c) If the battery is disconnected, how long will it take the capacitor to reach one-third of its initial
voltage?
3.6 The capacitor C in Fig. P3.6 is initially uncharged. At t = 0, the switch K is closed. Determine an
expression for the potential difference V and the current i of the circuit.

Fig. P3.6 Fig. P3.7 Fig. P3.8

3.7 In Fig. P3.7, ε1 = 12 V, ε2 = 24 V, r1 = 10 Ω, r2 = 5 Ω, R = 2 Ω. Determine i1, i2, i.
3.8 The circuit in Fig. P3.8 has ε = 12 V, R1 = 10 Ω, R2 = 30 Ω, r = 5 Ω. Find the currents i1, i2, i.
3.9 The circuit in Fig. P3.9 has ε1 = 12 V, ε2 = 6 V, ε3 = 9 V, r1 = 4 Ω, r2 = 3 Ω, r3 = 2 Ω. Find i1, i2, i3.
3.10 The capacitor C in Fig. P3.10 is initially uncharged. At t = 0, the switch K is closed. Determine an
expression for the potential difference V and the current i of the circuit.

Fig. P3.9 Fig. P3.10 Fig. P3.11 Fig. P3.12

37
 Electricity and Magnetism

Additional Problems
3.11 A flat conducting plate of thickness t has a semicircular structure as depicted in Fig. P3.11. Call the
inner radius a and the outer radius b. The conductivity of the metal is σ.
a) A potential difference Vo is applied along the semicircular borders: the inner radius BEC is kept at
potential Vo while the outer radius AFD is kept at potential 0. Find the potential φ everywhere on
the plate, the electric field E, the current density J and the ohmic resistance of the conductor R.
b) We now change the connections and apply the potential difference along the straight sections: AB
is kept at potential Vo and CD at 0. Find the potential φ everywhere on the plate, the electric field E,
the current density J and the ohmic resistance of the conductor R.
3.12 The circuit in Fig.P3.12 has ε = 24 V, R1 = 1 kΩ, R2 = 2 kΩ, R3 = 5 kΩ, C = 100 µF. The switch K is
initially closed. At t = 0, the switch K is open.
a) Find the charge on the capacitor at t = 0.
b) Find the current flowing through the capacitor after the switch is open.
c) Find the energy stored in the capacitor at t = 0.
d) Find the power dissipation in the resistors and the total energy dissipated at t > 0.
3.13 A power station transmits 200 MW of electric power, at a voltage V over a distance L = 300 km to the
users. The transmission lines are made of 5 cm2 cross sectional area aluminum cables.
a) Find the ohmic resistance R of the transmission line?
b) There is a total voltage drop ∆V along the two lines, thus the voltage delivered to the user is V -
∆V. Express this voltage loss ∆V in term of R and the current I, and also in terms of the power P
and the voltage V.
c) It is desirable that ∆V be at most 2% of V. Since P and R are given, this imposes a condition on the
voltage V. What is the minimum voltage V needed to keep ∆V down to 2% of V.
d) What is the power dissipated in the lines?
e) If the distance between the wires is 8 m (assume the wires are parallel), what then is the Lorentz
force acting on a 25 m segment of one of these wires?
3.14 An electrical circuit comprises a 12 V battery and two resistors in series: a 100 Ω resistor and a 60 Ω
resistor.
a) Assuming the battery is ideal, find the potential difference across the 100 Ω resistor and the total
power dissipated by the resistors.
b) If the battery has an internal resistance of 2 Ω, find the potential difference across the 100 Ω
resistor.
c) Now suppose the battery is ideal but the potential difference across the 100 Ω resistor is measured
using a voltmeter with internal resistance Rv. If the voltmeter reading is 7.2 V, find Rv.
3.15 A parallel plate capacitor has square plates of side length 40 mm, separated by 0.6 mm of ceramic with
dielectric constant ko = 130. The dielectric strength of the ceramic is 8 × 106 V/m.
a) Calculate the capacitance.
b) What is the maximum potential difference which can be applied to the capacitor.

38
 Electricity and Magnetism

c) The capacitor is discharged through a resistor R. Find an expression for the time t10 taken for the
charge on the capacitor to decrease to 10% of its initial value.
d) Find the required value of R if t10 = 1 ms.
3.16 As a car rolls along pavement, electrons move from the pavement first onto the tires and then onto the
car body.The car stores this excess charge and the associated electric potential energy as if the car body
were one plate of a capacitor and the pavement were the other plate (Fig. P3.16). When the car stops, it
discharges its excess charge and energy through the tires, just as a capacitor can discharge through a
resistor. If a conducting object comes within a few centimeters of the car before the car is discharged,
the remaining energy can be suddenly transferred to a spark between the car and the object. Suppose
the conducting object is a fuel dispenser. The spark will not ignite the fuel and cause a fire if the spark
energy is less than the critical value Ufire = 50 mJ. When the car stops at time t = 0, the car - ground
potential difference is V0 = 30 kV. The car - ground capacitance is C = 500 pF, and the resistance of
each tire is Rtire = 100 GΩ. How much time does the car take to discharge through the tires to drop
below the critical value Ufire?

Fig. P3.16
3.17 A solar cell generates a potential difference of 0.1 V when a 500 Ω resistor is connected across it, and a
potential difference of 0.15 V when a 1000 Ω resistor is substituted. What are the internal resistance
and EMF of the solar cell? The area of the cell is 5 cm2, and the rate per unit area at which it receives
energy from light is 2 mW/cm2.What is the efficiency of the cell for converting light energy to thermal
energy in the 1000 Ω external resistor?
3.18 Fig.P3.18 indicates one reason no one should stand under a tree during a lightning storm. If lightning
comes down the side of the tree, a portion can jump over to the person, especially if the current on the
tree reaches a dry region on the bark and thereafter must travel through air to reach the ground. In the
figure, part of the lightning jumps through distance d in air and then travels through the person (who
has negligible resistance relative to that of air). The rest of the current travels through air alongside the
tree, for a distance h. If d/h = 0.4 and the total current is I = 5000 A, what is the current through the
person?

Fig.P3.18: Side flash. Fig.P3.19: Wheatstone bridge

39
 Electricity and Magnetism

3.19 In Fig. P3.19, Rs is to be adjusted in value by moving the sliding contact across it until points a and b
are brought to the same potential. (One tests for this condition by momentarily connecting a sensitive
ammeter between a and b; if these points are at the same potential, the ammeter will not deflect.)
Assume that this adjustment is made, find Rx as function of Rs, R2, R1
3.20 Two batteries of EMF e = 12 V and internal resistance r = 0.3 Ω are connected in parallel across a
resistance R. For what value of R is the dissipation rate in the resistor a maximum? What is that
maximum?
3.21 Two identical batteries of EMF 12 V and internal resistance r = 0.2 Ω are to be connected to an
external resistance R, either in parallel or in series
a) If R = 2r, what is the current i in the external resistance in the parallel and series arrangements? For
which arrangement is i greater?
b) If R = r/2, what is i in the external resistance in the parallel and series arrangements? For which
arrangement is i greater now?
3.22 A 1 µF capacitor with an initial stored energy of 0.5 J is discharged through a 1 MΩ resistor.
a) What is the initial charge on the capacitor?
b) What is the current through the resistor when the discharge starts?
c) Find an expression that gives, as a function of time t, the potential difference across the capacitor,
the potential difference across the resistor, and the rate at which thermal energy is produced in the
resistor.
3.23 A 3 MΩ resistor and a 1 µF capacitor are connected in series with an ideal battery of EMF 4 V. At 1 s
after the connection is made, what is the rate at which the charge of the capacitor is increasing, energy
is being stored in the capacitor, thermal energy is appearing in the resistor, and energy is being
delivered by the battery?
3.24 The starting motor of a car is turning too slowly, and the mechanic has to decide whether to replace the
motor, the cable, or the battery. The car’s manual says that the 12 V battery should have no more than
0.02 Ω internal resistance, the motor no more than 0.2 Ω resistance, and the cable no more than 0.04 Ω
resistance. The mechanic turns on the motor and measures 11.4 V across the battery, 3 V across the
cable, and a current of 50 A.Which part is defective?
3.25 A 120 V power line is protected by a 15 A fuse. What is the maximum number of 500 W lamps that
can be simultaneously operated in parallel on this line without “blowing” the fuse because of an excess
of current?

40
 Electricity and Magnetism

Chapter 4: MAGNETISM

4.1 The magnetic field

The most familiar source of magnetic field is a bar magnet. One end of the bar magnet is called the
North pole and the other, the South pole. If we place some compasses near a bar magnet, the needles
will align themselves along the direction of the magnetic field, as shown in Fig. 4.1. The observation
can be explained as follows: A magnetic compass consists of a tiny bar magnet that can rotate freely
about a pivot point passing through the center of the magnet. When a compass is placed near a bar
magnet which produces an external magnetic field, it experiences a torque which tends to align the
north pole of the compass with the external magnetic field.

Fig. 4.1: The needles of Fig. 4.2 Like poles repel,

Fig. 4.3:The iron filings suggest the
the compasses align Opposite poles attract magnetic field line of a bar magnet
along the magnetic field

When two magnets or magnetic objects are close to each other, there is a force that attracts the poles
together. When two magnetic objects have like poles facing each other, the magnetic force pushes them
apart (Fig. 4.2). Magnets also strongly attract ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel and cobalt.
Magnetic field lines: Magnetic field lines emanate primarily from the north pole of a magnet and curve
around to the south pole.

Fig. 4.3: Magnetic field

lines of a bar magnet
Fig. 4.4: Magnetic field lines of two bar magnets

The Earth’s magnetic field behaves as if there were

a bar magnet in it (Fig. 4.5). Note that the south
pole of the magnet is located in the northern
hemisphere.

Fig. 4.5: Magnetic field of the Earth

41
 Electricity and Magnetism

4.2 Motion of a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field

1) The Lorentz Force

Consider a test particle with charge q moving

r r
through the magnetic field B with the velocity v .
The Lorentz force is
r v r
FB = qv x B (4.1)

Fig. 4.7: The right-hand rule

The SI unit for B is the Tesla (T): 1T = 1 N/(Am) = 104 Gauss. The implications of (4.1) include:
- The force is perpendicular to both the velocity v of the charge q and the magnetic field B.
- The magnitude of the force is F = qvBsinθ where θ is the angle < 180° between the velocity and the
magnetic field. This implies that the magnetic force acting on a stationary charge or a charge
moving parallel to the magnetic field is zero.
- The right-hand rule gives the direction of a vector resulting from the cross product of two other
vectors. To find the direction of the resulting vector sweep the fingers of the right hand from the
direction of the first vector to the direction of the second vector over the smallest possible angle
between the vectors. The direction in which the thumb points is the direction of the resulting vector.

2) A charged particle circulating in a magnetic field (Fig. 4.8)

A charge particle with mass m and charge magnitude |q| moving with
r r
velocity v perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field B will travel in a
circle of radius r

mv2 mv
| q | vB = ⇒ r= (4.2)
r |q|B
The frequency of the revolution
ω 1 v |q|B Fig. 4.8
f= = = = (4.3)
2π T 2πr 2πm

4.3 Magnetic force acting on a current-carrying conductor

Fig. 4.9

42
Electricity and Magnetism

Consider a length L of the wire in Fig. 4.10. The amount of

charge moving through the wire is q = It = IL/v. It follows
from (4.1) that
FB = qvBsin(ϕ) = ILBsin(ϕ)
where v is the drift speed, ϕ is the angle between v and B.
Thus a straight wire carrying a current I in a uniform
magnetic field experiences a sideways force
r r r Fig. 4.10: Curl fingers as if rotating I
FB = iL x B (4.4) into B. The thumb is then the direction
r r of the force FB
the direction of L is that of I, the magnitude of L is L.

Exercise: Fig.4.11 shows an arrangement used to

measure the masses of ions. An ion of mass m and
charge +q is produced essentially at rest in source
S, a chamber in which a gas discharged is taking
place. The ion is accelerated by potential
difference V and allowed to enter a magnetic field
r
B . In the field it moves in a semicircle, striking a
photographic plate at distance x from the entry
slit. Show that the ion mass m is given by
B2 q 2
m= x
8V Fig. 4.11: The mass spectrometer

Example: The Earth's magnetic

field serves to deflect most of the
solar wind, whose charged particles
would otherwise strip away the
ozone layer that protects the Earth
from harmful ultraviolet radiation.

43
 Electricity and Magnetism

4.4 Torque on a current loop in a uniform magnetic field

r
The magnetic dipole moment µ of a coil, of area A, with N turns and
carrying a current I, is a vector with magnitude
µ = NiA
r
The direction of µ is that of the normal vector to the plane of the coil and is
given by the right hand rule (grasp the coil with the fingers of the right hand in
r
the direction of the current i, the thumb point to the direction of µ (Fig. 4.12)).
r
If we place the coil in a magnetic field B , it will experience a torque
r r r
τ = µxB (4.5)
r r Fig. 4.12
which tends to align µ with the magnetic field B
τ = µBsin(φ)

4.5 The Hall effect

Fig. 4.13: a strip of copper carrying a current i is immersed in a magnetic field B. The charges
(electrons) will experience a deflecting force FB. Under the effect of the force FB, the electrons will be
pushed toward the right edge of the strip, leaving uncompensated positive charges in fixed positions at
the left edge. An electric field E is produced within the strip, pointing from left to right (due to the
current i, there is an electric field E in the conducting strip). The electric field exerts an electric force FE
on each electron, tending to push it to the left. An equilibrium is established when the electric force
cancels the magnetic force.
The Hall potential difference: V = Ed
When the electric force and the magnetic force are in balance: eE = evdB
i
Where vd is the drift speed: |vd| =
neA
A: cross-sectional area of the strip, n: number of charge per unit volume.

44
 Electricity and Magnetism

a b c
Fig. 4.13: FB = evdB, FE = eE, FB = FE ⇒ vdB = E ⇒ V = Ed = vdBd

4.6 The Biot-Savart law

1) The magnetic field set up by a current-carrying conductor can be found from the Biot-Savart Law:
r
The contribution dB to the field produced by a current element
r
id l at a point P located a distance r from the current element is
v
r µo id l x ar r
dB = (4.6)
4π r 2
r
Here a r is the unit vector that points from the element to P. The
quantity µo = 4π10-7 [Tm/A] is the permeability constant. Fig. 4.14: The right hand rule

2) Magnetic field of a long straight wire (Fig. 4.15)

v
r µo id l x ar r µ idl sin(θ)
Biot-Savart law: dB = ⇒ dB = o
4π r 2
4πr 2
R
with r = l 2 + R 2 and sin(θ) = sin(π-θ) =
l2 + R 2
∞ µ oi sin( θ) µ oi ∞ R µ i
⇒ B = 2∫
0 4πr 2
dl = ∫
2 π 0 (l + R )
2 2 3 / 2
dl = o [T]
2πR
(4.7)

Fig. 4.15

45
 Electricity and Magnetism

3) Magnetic field due to a current in a circular arc of wire (Fig. 4.16)

Arc-shaped wire with central angle Φ , radius R, center C, carrying current i

v
r µo id l x ar r µ idl
dB = ⇒ dB = o 2
4π r 2 4πR
µ o iΦ
B= [T] (4.8)
4πR
Fig. 4.16

4) Force between two parallel currents

Consider the system of two current carrying wires in Fig. 4.17. Fig. 4.18 shows the system viewed in the
direction of the currents. The magnetic field at wire b produced by the current ia in wire a
µ oi a
Ba = (4.9)
2πd
The force Fba on a length L of wire b due to the external magnetic field Ba is
r r r
Fba = i b L x Ba (4.10)
Since L and Ba are perpendicular to each other
µo Lia i b
Fba = (4.11)
2πd

Fig. 4.17 Fig. 4.18

Parallel currents attract each other. Antiparallel currents repel each other.

4.7 Ampere’s law

1) Ampere’s law:

Consider Fig. 4.19

r r
∫
Bd s = µoi (4.12)

i = i2 – i1 (4.13)
Where the direction of integration is determined by the right hand rule.
Fig. 4.19

46
 Electricity and Magnetism

2) Magnetic field outside a long straight wire with current (Fig. 4.20)
r r µ i
∫
Bd s = ∫ Bds = B ∫ ds = 2πrB = µoi ⇒ B= o
2πr
(4.14)

Fig. 4.20 Fig. 4.21

3) Magnetic field inside a long straight wire with current (Fig. 4.21)
r r µ ir
∫
Bd s = 2πrB = µo(i/πR2)πr2 = µoi(r/R)2 ⇒ B= o
2πR 2
(4.15)

4.8 The magnetic field of a solenoid

1) Solenoid

Ampere’s law (Fig. 4.22)

b r cr r dr r ar r
r r r
∫ Bd s = ∫ Bd s +
a
∫ d s + ∫ Bd s + ∫ Bd s
b
B
c d

b
= ∫ Bds = Bh = µoienc = µonhi
a
Fig. 4.22
⇒ B = µoni (4.16)
n: number of turns per unit length

2) Toroid

Ampere’s law (Fig. 4.23)

r r
∫Bd s = ∫ Bds = B ∫ ds = B2πr = µoienc = µoNi

µo Ni
⇒ B= (4.17)
2πr
N: total number of turns Fig. 4.23

In contrast to the situation for a solenoid, B is not constant over the cross section of a toroid.

47
 Electricity and Magnetism

3) Current-carrying coil as a magnetic dipole (Fig. 4.24)

Biot-Savart law

µoiR 2
⇒ B= (4.18)
(
2R +z 2
)
2 3/ 2
Fig. 4.24

4.9 Magnetic flux. Gauss’s law in magnetism

r
1) The magnetic flux ΦB through an area A in a magnetic field B is defined as
r r
∫
ΦB = B.dA [Wb] (4.19)

where the integration is taken over the area.

2) Gauss’s law in magnetism

The net magnetic flux through any (closed) Gaussian surface

is zero.
r r
∫
ΦB = B.dA = 0 (4.20)

The simplest magnetic structure that can exist is a magnetic

dipole. Magnetic monopoles do not exist. When we split a
bar magnet into tiny pieces, all of them will have both north
and south poles (Fig.4.25). Fig. 4.25

4.10 Displacement current and the general form of Ampère’s law

r
1) Maxwell’s law of induction: a changing electric flux induces a magnetic field B
r r dΦ E
∫ .d l = µoεo dt
B (4.21)

side view top view

Fig. 4.26: A circular parallel plate capacitor is being charged by a constant current

48
 Electricity and Magnetism

Example: A parallel plate capacitor with circular plates of radius R is being charged as in Fig. 4.26.
Derive an expression for the magnetic field at radius r ≤ R. Evaluate the field magnitude for r = R/5 =
11mm and dE/dt 1.5x1012 V/ms. Derive an expression for the magnetic field at radius r > R.
r r dΦ E d(Eπr 2 ) dE
∫ B.d l = ∫ B.dl = B ∫ dl = B2πr = µo ε o
dt
= µo ε o
dt
= µoεoπr2
dt
dΦ E dE r dE
r ≤ R: 2πrB = µoεo = µoεo(πr2) ⇒ B = µoεo
dt dt 2 dt
dΦ E dE R 2 dE
r > R: 2πrB = µoεo = µoεo(πR2) ⇒ B = µoεo
dt dt 2r dt
2) Ampere-Maxwell law
Ampere’s law
r r
∫ .d l = µoi
B (4.22)

Combining (4.21) and (4.22) yields Ampere-Maxwell law

r r dΦ E
∫ .d l = µoi + µoεo dt
B (4.23)

3) Displacement current

The quantity
dΦ E
id = ε o (4.24)
dt
has the dimension of a current and is called the
displacement current. Rewrite (4.23)
r r
∫ B.d l = µoi + µoid (4.25)
Fig. 4.27: i = id

The displacement current id can be viewed as the continuation of the real current i (Fig. 4.27). The
magnitude and the direction of the magnetic field produced by the displacement current id is
determined as the one of the real current i.

Example: The circular parallel plate capacitor in previous example is being charged with a current i.
Determine the magnetic field B at a radius r from the center. Assume that id is uniformly spread over
the full plate area
r r r2 µ oi d r 2 µoi d r µ o ir
∫ B.d s = µoid
R2
⇒ 2πrB =
R2
⇒ B=
2πR 2
=
2πR 2
(where the integration is taken over the circle of radius r.)

4.11 Magnetic materials

49
 Electricity and Magnetism

A bar magnet strongly attracts an iron piece, but other materials are weakly attracted and some are
actually repelled. We may use this response of material to the field of a bar magnet to broadly classify
magnetic materials. All magnetic materials are classified into three categories. These are: diamagnetic,
paramagnetic and ferromagnetic materials. The classification depends on the magnetic dipole moment
of atoms of the material and on the interactions among the atoms. When the different magnetic
materials are placed in a uniform magnetic field, the field lines are changed as shown in figure 4.28.

Fig. 4.28
1) Diamagnetic material: the diamagnetic materials are those substances which are feebly magnetized in
the direction opposite to the applied field. So, they are weakly repelled by magnets as shown in figure
4.28. Examples of diamagnetic material are bismuth, copper, water, alcohol, mercury etc. The magnetic
moment of atoms of a diamagnetic material is zero. But they acquire induced dipole moments when the
material is placed in an external magnetic field. These moments, however, are opposite in direction to
the applied field. So, the magnetization in a diamagnetic material always opposes the applied field.
They are repelled by magnets. The diamagnetic materials move from a stronger to a weaker field.
These materials are independent of temperature.
2) Paramagnetic material: the paramagnetic materials have atoms that have permanent magnetic
moments. These moments interact weakly with each other and randomly orient in different directions.
When an external magnetic field is applied to the material, its atomic moments tend to line up with the
field. The magnetic field inside it is the sum of the applied field and the induced field due to
magnetization. These are found in solid liquid and gas. A paramagnetic rod, freely suspended in a
magnetic field. The paramagnetic materials are temperature dependent and follow curie law.
3) Ferromagnetic material: the ferromagnetic materials are highly magnetized in a magnetic field. The
examples of ferromagnetic materials are iron, nickel and cobalt, and their alloys such as alnico.
Godolinium and dysprosium are ferromagnetic at low temperature, and compounds such as CrO₂ used
in a magnetic tap recording are also ferromagnetic materials though neither chromium nor oxygen is
ferromagnetic. They are highly attracted by magnets. The magnetic susceptibility is positive and very
high, and varies with applied field.

50
 Electricity and Magnetism

Fig.4.29: Ferromagnetism

Problems
Lorentz Force
4.1 A flexible wire, carrying a current i, passes between the pole faces of a magnet. Under the influence of
the magnetic field, the wire is deflected. Determine the direction of the current i in each case (Fig.
P4.1)

i=0 i≠0 Fig. P4.2

Fig. P4.1
4.2 In Fig. P4.2, a metal wire of mass m = 25mg can slide with negligible friction on 2 horizontal parallel
rails separated by distance d = 4cm. The track lies in a vertical uniform magnetic field of magnitude
50mT. At time t = 0, a source is connected to the rails, producing a constant current i = 10mA in the
wire and rails (even as the wire moves). At t = 50ms, what are the speed and the direction of motion of
the wire.
4.3 An ion of mass m and charge q is produced in source S (Fig. P4.3). The initially stationary ion is
accelerated by the electric field due to a potential difference ε. The ion leaves S and enters a separator
chamber in which a uniform magnetic field B is perpendicular to the path of the ion. The magnetic field
B causes the ion to move in a semicircle and thus strikes a detector at the bottom wall of the chamber.
Suppose that B = 80 mT, ε = 1000 V, q = +1.6022x10-19 C, x = 1.6254 m. What is the mass m of the
individual ion?

51
 Electricity and Magnetism

Fig. P4.3 Fig. P4.4

4.4 Magnetic levitation is used in high-speed trains. Conventional electromagnetic technology is used to
suspend the train over the tracks; the elimination of rolling friction allows the train to achieve very high
speeds (in excess of 400 km/h). The principle of magnetic levitation can be given as the following
problem. A straight horizontal copper rod carries a current of 50 A from west to east in a region
between the poles of large electromagnet (Fig. P4.4). In this region there is a horizontal magnetic field
toward the north-east (that is, 45o north of east) with magnitude 1.2 T. Find
a) The magnitude and direction of the force on a 1 m section of rod.
b) If the horizontal rod is in mechanical equilibrium under the action of its weight and the magnetic
force. What is the mass of the horizontal rod?
c) While keeping the rod horizontal, how should it be oriented to maximize the magnitude of the
force.
d) What is the force magnitude and the mass of the rod in case (c).

A B Fig. P4.6
Fig. P4.5
4.5 Two concentric, circular wire loops, of radii r1 = 12 cm and r2 = 10 cm, are located in an xy plane, each
carries a clockwise current of 2 A. Find the magnitude of the net magnetic dipole moment of the
system (Fig. P4.5A). Repeat for the reversed current in the outer loop (Fig. P4.5B).
4.6 Consider a rectangular coil of wire in a magnetic field as shown in Fig. P4.6. The coil has height a and
width b. The current in the coil is i.
a) Find the force acting on each side of the coil.
b) As the rectangular wire rotates, the force acting on the sides AB and CD is non-zero. Does this
effect the rotation?
c) Are the forces on sides BD and AC constant in magnitude throughout a given rotation?

52
 Electricity and Magnetism

4.7 A solid metal cube of edge length d = 1.5cm, moving in the positive y direction at velocity v = 4m/s
through a uniform magnetic field B = 0.05T in the positive z direction (Fig. P4.7).
a) Which cube face is at a lower electric potential and which is at a higher electric potential?
b) What is the potential difference between the faces of higher and lower electric potential?

Fig. P4.7 Fig. P4.8

Magnetic Field
4.8 Find the magnetic field at point O in Fig. P4.8 where OA = 15cm, OB = 20cm, θ = π/3 rad, I = 1A.
4.9 Find the magnetic field at the center O of the semicircle in Fig. P4.9 where L = 12cm, R = 10cm.

Fig. P4.9 Fig. P4.10 Fig. P4.11

4.10 A conducting rectangle MNPQ (Fig.P4.10), carrying current I2, is placed near a long wire carrying
current I1. Find the net force acting on the rectangle due to I1.
4.11 Find the magnetic field at point P in Fig. P4.11.
4.12 Two long, parallel copper wires of diameter 2.5 mm carry currents of 10 A in opposite directions. Their
central axes are 20 mm apart.
a) Find the magnetic flux per meter of wire that exists in the space between those axes.
b) What percentage of this flux lies inside the wires?
c) Repeat part a) for parallel currents.
4.13 Two wires, both of length L, are formed into a circle and a square, and each carries current i. Show that
the square produces a greater magnetic field at it center than the circle produces at it center.

53
 Electricity and Magnetism

Ampere-Maxwell Law
4.14 The magnitude of the electric field between the two circular parallel plates is E = 4x105 – 6x104t V/m
(Fig. P4.14). The plate area is 4x10-2 m2. Determine
a) the magnitude and the direction of the displacement current between the plates.
b) the magnitude and the direction of the induced magnetic field.

Fig. P4.14 Fig. P4.15

4.15 Two wires, parallel to a z axis and a distance 2r apart, carry equal currents i in opposite directions as
shown in Fig. P4.15. A circular cylinder of radius r/2 and length L has it axis on the z axis, midway
between the wires. Use Gauss’ law for magnetism to derive an expression for the net outward magnetic
flux through the half of the cylindrical surface above the x axis. (Hint: find the flux through the portion
of the xz plane that lies within the cylinder.)
4.16 A capacitor C with circular plates of radius b. The distance between the two plates is d. Initially the
capacitor is charged to a voltage Vo. At t = 0 the switch is closed and the capacitor discharges through
the resistor R (Fig. P4.16).
a) Find the charge Q as a function of time of the capacitor.
b) Find the electric field E, the magnetic field B and the displacement current id between the capacitor
plates.

Fig. P4.16 Fig. P4.17 Fig P4.18

4.17 The capacitor C in Fig. P4.17 has circular plates of radius b. The space d between the two plates is
small compared to b so that we can ignore the fringing effects. Initially C is uncharged. At t = 0 the
switch K is closed and the capacitor charges through the resistor r.
a) Find the potential difference V and the current i of the circuit.
b) Find the electric field E, the magnetic field B and the displacement current id between the capacitor
plates.

54
 Electricity and Magnetism

Additional Problems
4.18 Two square conducting loops carry currents of 5.0 A and 3.0 A as shown in Fig. P4.18. What is the
r r
value of the line integral ∫ Bds for each of the two closed paths shown?

4.19 In a Hall-effect experiment, a current of 3A sent lengthwise through a conductor of 1 cm wide, 4 cm

long, and 10 µm thick, produces a transverse (across the width) Hall potential difference of 10 µV
when a magnetic field of 1.5T is passed perpendicularly through the thickness of the conductor.
a) Find the drift velocity of the charge carriers and the number density of charge carriers.
b) Show on a diagram the polarity of the Hall potential difference.
4.20 A current I flows in a wire which changes from radius r1 to radius r2 as shown in Fig P4.20. The current
density J inside the wire is uniform J = J(z). z1 and z2 are far from the place where the wire changes
radius.
a) Find the current density J at z1 and z2 in terms of I, r1 and r2.
b) Find the magnetic field B at z1 and z2 both inside and outside of the wire in terms of I, r1 and r2.
c) Sketch the magnetic field B at z1 and z2 as functions of r.

Fig P4.20
4.21 A coaxial cable consists of a solid inner conductor of radius R1 and an outer concentric cylindrical tube
of inner radius R2 and outer radius R3. The two conductors carry equal and opposite currents Io which
however are not uniformly distributed across their cross sections, instead, their current densities J vary
linearly with distance from the center, i.e., J1 = C1r for the inner one and J2 = C2r for the outer one
(where C1 and C2 are constants). Find the magnetic field B at a distance r from the axis of the cable
a) r < R1 b) R1 < r < R2 c) R2 < r < R3 d) R3 < r
4.22 A thin, flat, infinitely long ribbon of width W carries a uniform current I. Determine the magnetic field
at a point P that is in the plane of the ribbon at a distance x from one edge. Test your result in the limit
for W→0.
4.23 Find the magnetic field at the center of a square loop, which carries a steady current I. Let R be the
distance from center to side. Find the field at the center of a regular n-sided polygon, carrying a steady
current I. Again, let R be the distance from the center to any side. Check that your formula reduces to
the field at the center of a circular loop, in the limit of large n.
4.24 An infinite fat wire, with radius a, carries a constant current I, uniformly distributed over its cross
section. A narrow gap in the wire, of width d << a, forms a parallel plate capacitor, as shown in Fig.
P4.24. Find the magnetic field in the gap, at a distance r < a from the axis.

55
 Electricity and Magnetism

Fig. P4.24
4.25 Two power lines lie parallel to each other, separated by 20 cm. They carry parallel currents, both of
magnitude 3000A.
a) Find the force per unit length on one line due to the current in the other line. Is the force attractive
or repulsive?
b) Consider a point P lying halfway between the two lines.
- What is the magnitude of the magnetic field at P due to the two currents?
- If the currents in the two lines were antiparallel, what would be the magnitude of the magnetic
field at P?
4.26 An ion of has mass 1.16x10-26 kg and charge –e. It is accelerated through a potential difference of 220V
then enters a region of uniform magnetic field of magnitude 0.8 T directed perpendicular to the initial
direction of motion of the ion.
a) Find the velocity of the ion as it enters the field.
b) Find the radius of the ion’s path in the field.
c) Draw a diagram of the ion’s motion (mark clearly the direction of the magnetic field.)
4.27 An electron travelling with velocity v = 5.106 m/s in the positive x-direction enters a region of uniform
magnetic field B = 25 mT in the positive z-direction. Describe the subsequent motion of the particle.
Illustrate your answer with a diagram showing the direction of the field and the motion of the particle,
and calculate any relevant distances. How would the motion of the particle be different if it was a
proton?
4.28 A certain material has µr = 3000. This indicates that the material is
A) a dielectric B) an insulator C) ferromagnetic D) a rare earth element E) water
4.29 Four long parallel wires each carry currents of equal magnitude. The cross-sectional diagrams in Fig.
P4.29 show the directions of the currents in three different cases (a, b and c). Consider the point at the
centre of the square. In which case is the magnetic field at this point greatest?
A) a B) b C) c D) all the same (non-zero) E) all the same (zero)

a b c
Fig. P4.29
4.30 The figure P4.30 shows a cross-section through three conductors carrying currents I1 = 4A, I2 = 6A and
I3 = 2A, in the directions shown. Four paths are marked: a, b, c and d. For which path does the line
r r
integral ∫ Bd s take the largest positive value? Assume each line integral is evaluated by traveling
anticlockwise around the loop.
A) a B) b C) c D) d E) b and d (equal)

56
 Electricity and Magnetism

P4.30 P4.31 P4.32

4.31 Consider a long straight wire carrying a current 200 A.
a) Find the magnetic field at a perpendicular distance a = 10 cm from the wire
b) Suppose three such identical wires lie parallel to each other, separated by distances of 10 cm, so
that in cross-section their centres form an equilateral triangle, as shown in the figure P4.31. All
three wires carry parallel currents of 200 A. Find the magnitude and direction of the force per unit
length on the top wire due to the currents in the other two wires.
4.32 Fig.P4.32 shows a cross section of three parallel wires, each carrying a current of 6 A. The currents in
wires 1 and 3 are out of the page, while that in wire 2 is into the page. If the distance d = 3 mm, find the
magnetic force (magnitude and direction) acting on a 2-m length of wire 1.
4.33 Name three uses of magnets or magnetic materials.
4.34 A conducting strip is placed in a perpendicular magnetic field. When a current passes along the strip, a
potential difference appears across the strip in a direction perpendicular to the directions of the
magnetic field and the current flow. This phenomenon is known as:
A) diamagnetism B) ferromagnetism C) Lenz’s law
D) the Maxwell effect E) the Hall effect
4.35 The torque felt by a current-carrying coil in a uniform magnetic field does not depend on
A) the area of the loop B) the current C) the magnetic field
D) the number of turns on the coil E) the shape of the loop
4
4.36 An ion is in a region where a uniform electric field of 10 V/m is perpendicular to a uniform magnetic
field of 2 T. Find the speed of the ion if its acceleration is zero.
4.37 A straight wire of linear mass density 150 g/m is located perpendicular to a magnetic field of 0.7 T.
Find the current (direction and magnitude) in the wire needed to balance the gravitational force acting
on the wire.

57
 Electricity and Magnetism

Chapter 5: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

5.1 Faraday’s law of induction

1) In Fig. 5.1 an ammeter is connected in the circuit of a conducting loop. When the bar magnet is moved
closer to, or farther from, the loop, an electromotive force (EMF) is induced in the loop. The ammeter
indicates currents in different directions depending on the relative motion of magnet and loop. Notice
that, when the magnet stops moving, the current returns to zero as indicated by the ammeter

Fig. 5.1: Electromagnetic induction Fig. 5.2

r
The magnetic flux ΦB through an area A in a magnetic field B is defined as (Fig. 5.2)
r r
∫
ΦB = B.dA [Wb] (5.1)

where the integration is taken over the area.

Faraday’s Law of Induction: The induced electromotive force
dΦ B
e= − (5.2)
dt
2) Lenz’s law: An induced current has a direction such that the magnetic field due to the current opposes
the changes in the magnetic flux that induced the current. The induced EMF has the same direction as
the induced current.
3) Electromotive force and the induced electric field: An EMF is induced by a changing magnetic flux
even if the loop through which the flux is changing is not a physical conductor. The induced EMF is
related to the electric field E by
r r
e = Ed s
∫ (5.3)

where the integration is taken around the loop. It follows from (5.2) and (5.3) that
r r dΦ B
∫
Ed s = −
dt
(5.4)
r r
A changing magnetic field B induces an electric field E .
5.2 Inductors
NΦ B
1) Inductance L= [H] (5.5)
i
2) Self-induction: If the current in a coil changes with time, an EMF is induced in the coil
di
e = -L (5.7)
dt

58
 Electricity and Magnetism

The direction of e is found from the Lenz’s law: the direction of e acts to oppose the changes that
produces it.

Ex: The inductance per unit length near the

middle of a long solenoid of cross sectional area A
and n turns per unit length (Fig.5.3)
Ampere’s law (Fig. 4.22)
b r c r r dr r ar r
r r r
∫ Bd s = ∫ Bd s +
a
∫ Bd s + ∫ Bd s + ∫ Bd s
b c d

b
= ∫ Bds = Bh = µoienc = µonhi
a

⇒ B = µoni Fig
Flux of magnetic field through coil: ΦB = BA
NΦ B
L= = NµonA
i
N: total number of turns of solenoid. Inductance
per unit length

L/length of solenoid = µon2A (5.6)

Fig. 5.3 Fig. 5.4 Fig. 5.5

Ex: Find the inductance of a toroid (Fig.5.4)?
Ex: The inductance of a coaxial cable (Fig. 5.5)
Ampere’s law (Fig. 4.22)
r r
∫
Bd s = ∫ Bds = B ∫ ds = B2πr = µoI

d b
µ I µ I µ o Id b µ d b
B = o ⇒ ΦB = ∫ ∫ 2πor drdz = ln( ) ⇒ L = o ln( ) (4.18a)
2 πr 2π a 2π a
0 a

5.3 Series RL circuit

1) Rise of current (Fig. 5.6)

59
 Electricity and Magnetism

For t < 0, the switch K is at 2, i = 0 A.

For t > 0, the switch K is at 1. Apply the loop rule
di
KVL: E = L + Ri
dt
di E − Ri di dt
⇒ = ⇒ =
dt L E - Ri L
i(t) t
di dt
⇒ ∫i(0) E - Ri = ∫0 L
i(t)
1 di t
⇒ − ∫ =
R i(0) − E + i L
R
E E Rt
⇒ − ln | − + i | + ln | − |=
R R L
E E
− +i − +i
R Rt Rt
⇒ ln | |= − ⇒ | R |= exp( − )
E L E L
R R
Fig. 5.6
E
− +i
R Rt
⇒ = ± exp( − )
E L
R
As t = 0, i = 0 ⇒ left hand side = -1 ⇒ - sign
E
− +i
R Rt
⇒ = − exp( − )
E L
R
E
⇒ i= (1 - e-t/τ) (5.8)
R
L
where τ = : inductive time constant.
R

2) Decay of current (Fig. 5.7)

E
For t < 0, the switch K is at 1, i = .
R
For t > 0, the switch K is at 2. Apply the loop rule
di
KVL: 0 = L + Ri
dt

60
 Electricity and Magnetism

di di R
i(t )
di
t
R Fig. 5.7
⇒ L
dt
= -Ri ⇒
i
= − dt
L
⇒ ∫i ( 0 ) i = −∫0 L dt
i Rt i Rt
⇒ ln | i | E / R = − ⇒ ln | |= −
L E/R L
i Rt i Rt
⇒ | |= exp( − ) ⇒ = ± exp( − )
E/R L E/R L
As t=0, left hand side = 1 ⇒ + sign:
E -t/τ
⇒ i= e (5.9)
R
L
where τ = is the inductive time constant.
R

5.4 Magnetic energy

Magnetic energy stored in an inductance
1 2
UB = Li (5.10)
2
Density of magnetic energy = magnetic energy / volume

B2
uB = (5.11)
2µo
5.5 Mutual induction
If coil 1 and 2 are near each other, a changing current in either coil can induce an EMF in the other.
This mutual induction is described by
di 2
e1 = - M (5.12)
dt
di
e2 = - M 1 (5.13)
dt
where M (measured in Henries) is the mutual inductance for the coil arrangement.

61
 Electricity and Magnetism

Problems
5.1 A small loop of area S = 10cm2 is placed inside a long solenoid that has n = 800 turns/cm and carries a
sinusoidally varying current i of amplitude 1A and angular frequency 300rad/s. The central axes of the
loop and the solenoid coincide. What is the amplitude of the electromotive force induced in the loop?
Hint: i(t) = cos(300t) A ⇒ B(t) = µoni = µoncos(300t) T
Flux of magnetic field through the small loop: Φ = BS = µonScos(300t) Wb
Electromotive force induced in the small loop: e = -dΦ/dt = µonS300sin(300t) V

5.2 In Fig. P5.2, the magnetic flux through the loop increases according to the relation ΦB = 6t2 + 7t where
ΦB is in miliwebers and t is in seconds. What is the magnitude of the electromotive force induced in the
loop when t = 2s? Is the direction of the current through R to the right or left?
Hint: e = -dΦB/dt = -(12t+7) V
As t = 2 s, e = -31 V, dΦB/dt = 31: ΦB is increasing ⇒ According to Lenz’s law, the magnetic field due
to the induced current opposes the increase of ΦB, the magnetic field due to the induced current enters
the screen ⇒ i is clockwise (so that its magnetic field enters the screen)

Fig. P5.2

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 Electricity and Magnetism

5.3 In Fig. P5.3, the triangle ABC is moving into a magnetic field B with velocity v. Find the electromotive
force e(t) induced in the loop. If the triangle has resistance R, find the magnitude and direction of the
current i in the triangle. Let AB = a, BC = b
Hint: Let x be the length of the part of side BC inside magnetic field: x = vt +xo
y/AB = x/BC ⇒ y = ax/b
Flux of magnetic field through triangle: Φ = Bxy/2 = Ba(vt +xo)2/2b
Electromotive force induced in triangle: e = -dΦ/dt = -Bav(vt +xo)/b
Induced current i = e/R
Triangle is moving rightward, flux of magnetic field through triangle is increasing, i opposes the
increase of Φ and produces a magnetic field with opposite direction (goes into the screen) ⇒ i is
clockwise.

Fig. P5.3
5.4 A rectangular coil of N turns and of length a, width b is rotated at frequency f in a uniform magnetic
field B indicated in Fig. P5.4. The coil is connected to co-rotating cylinders, against which metal
brushes slide to make contact. Find the electromotive force induced in the coil.

Fig. P5.4 Fig. P5.5

5.5 In Fig. P5.5, a rectangular loop of 20 closely packed turns of wire with length a = 20 cm, width b = 8
cm and resistance R = 4 Ω is placed near an infinitely long wire carrying current i = 40 A, r = 1 cm.
a) Find the mutual inductance between the long wire and the rectangular loop.
b) The loop is then moved away from the wire at constant speed v = 3mm/s. Find the current induced
in the loop.
5.6 In Fig. P5.6, a long rectangular conducting loop, of width L, resistance R, and mass m, is hung in a
horizontal, uniform magnetic field B that exists only above line a-a. The loop is then dropped. During
its fall, it accelerates until it reaches a certain terminal speed v. Find an expression for v.

63
 Electricity and Magnetism

Fig. P5.6 Fig. P5.7 Fig. P5.8

5.7 In Fig. P5.7, the current in the infinitely long wire is i = αt, the rectangle has resistance R. Find the
value and the direction of the induced current in the rectangle.
5.8 A wire bent into a semicircle with a radius r rotates with a constant angular velocity ω (Fig. P5.8). The
wire is connected to a resistor R through a conductor of dimensions a and b in the y and x direction
respectively to form a closed loop. The loop is placed into a uniform magnetic field B (into the page).
a) Find the total flux through the loop as function of time.
b) Find the EMF created in the loop. Indicate the direction of the current over time.
c) While the semicircle rotates, the external magnetic field starts decreasing as B(t) = Boe-λt. Find the
current i through the resistor as a function of time.
5.9 A coil with resistance 0.05Ω and self-inductance 0.01H is connected across a 12-volt battery of
negligible internal resistance.
a) How long after the switch is closed will the current reach 95% of its final value?
b) At that time how much energy (in Joules) is stored in the magnetic field?
c) How much energy has been delivered by the battery up to that time?
5.10 Consider a coil of wire rotating in a magnetic field. The induced EMF does not depend on
A) the angular speed of rotation B) the area of the coil
C) the number of turns on the coil D) the magnetic field
E) the resistance of the coil
5.11 A certain coil of wire can be modeled by a resistor R = 2 Ω in series with an inductor L = 5 mH. At
time t = 0 the switch is closed, connecting the coil to a 9 V battery.
a) What will be the value of the current (i) initially? (ii) after a long time?
b) How long will it take for the current to reach 95% of its final value?
c) If the coil has 100 turns, find the final value of magnetic flux through the coil.
5.12 Consider two coils. Coil 1 has 1000 turns and a self-inductance of 75 mH. Coil 2 has 50 turns and a
self-inductance of 10 mH. The mutual inductance of the coils is 20 mH. Coil 1 carries a current of 0.5
A which is increasing at a rate 4 A/s, while coil 2 carries no current. The EMF induced in coil 1 is:
A) 0.015 V B) 0.15 V C) 0.30 V D) 38 V E) none of the above.
5.13 Consider again the coils in the question 5.12. The magnetic flux linking coil 2 is:
A) 1 × 10–5 Wb B) 5 × 10–5 Wb C) 2 × 10–4 Wb D) 8 × 10–4 Wb E) none of the above.
64
 Electricity and Magnetism

5.14 The figure P5.14 shows a conducting rod ab which makes contact with two metal rails. The rails lie
parallel to each other, separated by 75 cm, and are connected through a 18 Ω resistor. The rod and rails
can be assumed to have negligible resistance. The apparatus lies in a uniform magnetic field B = 1.2 T
directed into the page. The rod is moved to the right at a constant speed v = 4 m/s.
a) Find the magnitude of the EMF induced in the rod, and the magnitude and direction of the induced
current.
b) Find the force required to keep the rod moving at this constant speed. (Assume friction is
negligible.)

Fig. P5.14 Fig. P5.15

5.15 A conducting rod of length l is free to slide on two parallel conducting bars as in Fig.P5.15. In addition,
two resistors R are connected across the ends of the bars. There is a uniform magnetic field pointing
into the page. Suppose an external agent pulls the bar to the right at a constant speed v. Evaluate the
following quantities:
a) The currents through both resistors
b) The total power delivered to the resistors;
c) The applied force needed for the rod to maintain a constant velocity.
5.16 Two inductors L1 and L2 are connected in parallel and separated by a large distance.
1 1 1
a) Show that the equivalent inductance is given by: = +
L eq L1 L 2

b) Why must their separation be large for this relationship to hold?

c) What is the generalization of (a) for N inductors in parallel?
5.17 At time t = 0, a 12 V potential difference is suddenly applied to an RL circuit with L = 50 mH and R =

200 Ω. Calculate the rate of the current increasing at t = 1 ms.

5.18 A bar magnet is held above a current loop as shown in Fig. P5.18. Which of the following will produce
a clockwise current in the loop?
A) hold the magnet stationary B) move the magnet towards the loop
C) move the magnet away from the loop D) both (B) and (C)
E) none of the above

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Electricity and Magnetism

Fig.P5.18

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 Electricity and Magnetism

Chapter 6: ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUIT

6.1 RLC circuit

1) Undamped oscillation
Consider the circuit in Fig. 6.1. At t < 0, the switch K is at 1. At t > 0, the switch K is at 2.

The storage energy of the circuit

1 2 1 2
U = UE + UB = Li + Cv c [J] (6.1)
2 2
dU di dv
= Li + Cvc c = 0 (6.2)
dt dt dt
dv c di d2v
i = -C ⇒ = -C 2c
dt dt dt
Fig. 6.1
d 2 vc
⇒ LC + vc = 0 (6.3)
dt 2
⇒ vc(t) = Vcos(ωt) (6.4)
and i(t) = VωCsin(ωt) (6.5)
1
where ω = (6.6)
LC
2) Damped oscillation
Consider the circuit in Fig. 6.2. At t < 0, the switch K is at 1. At t > 0, the switch K is at 2.

The storage energy U of the circuit is given in (6.1).

dU di dv
= Li + Cvc c = -Ri2 (6.7)
dt dt dt
d 2 vc dv
⇒ LC 2
+ RC c + vc = 0 (6.8)
dt dt
⇒ vc(t) = Voe-Rt/2Lcos(ωt+ϕo) (6.9)
1 R
where ω = − ( )2 Fig. 6.2
LC 2L

6.2 Alternating current circuit

1) Resistive load (Fig. 6.3): the current i and the voltage e across the resistor are in phase. The impedance
of the resistor
Vm
z= =R
Im

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 Electricity and Magnetism

Im, Vm: amplitude of i and e, respectively.

2) Inductive load (Fig. 6.4): the current in the inductor lags the voltage by 90°. The impedance of the
inductor
Vm
z= = ωL
Im
Im, Vm: amplitude of i and e, respectively.

Fig. 6.3 Fig. 6.4 Fig. 6.5

3) Capacitive load (Fig. 6.5): the current in the capacitor leads the voltage by 90°.The impedance of the
capacitor
Vm 1
z= =
I m ωC
Im, Vm: amplitude of i and e, respectively.

4) The series RLC circuit (Fig. 6.6)

2
V  1 
The impedance of the circuit z = m = R 2 +  ωL - 
Im  ωC 
1
ωL -
The phase constant tan(ϕ ) = ωC
R Fig. 6.6

1
• ωL > : the circuit is more inductive than capacitive, the current i lags the voltage e.
ωC
1
• ωL < : the circuit is more capacitive than inductive, the current i leads the voltage e.
ωC
1
• ωL = : the circuit is in resonance, the current i and the voltage e are in phase.
ωC
1
The resonance frequency: ωo =
LC

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 Electricity and Magnetism

6.3 Phasor

The sinusoidal quantity i = Imcos(ωt+ϕ) is

represented by a vector of length Im which rotates
around the origin with the angular speed ω (Fig.
6.7). At time t = 0 this vector is the phasor Im ∠ ϕ
of the sinusoidal quantity.

Fig. 6.7

6.4 Transformer (Fig. 6.8)

u1 n1
=
u2 n2
i1 n
=− 2
i2 n1
Fig. 6.8

Problems
6.1 Consider the circuit in Fig. P6.1 with e(t) = 12sin(120πt) V. When S1 and S2 are open, i leads e by 30°.
When S1 is closed and S2 is open, i lags e by 30°. When S1 and S2 are closed, i has amplitude 0.5A.
What are R, L and C?

Fig. P6.1 Fig. P6.2 Fig. P6.3

6.2 Consider the circuit in Fig. P6.2 with e(t) = 12sin(120πt) V, r = 10Ω. Find the value of R such that the
power in R is maximized?
6.3 Consider the circuit in Fig. P6.3 with e(t) = 12sin(120πt) V, L = 26.5mH. Find the value of R such that
the power in R is maximized?

Fig. P6.4
6.4 Consider the circuits in Fig. P6.4 where R = 100Ω, L = 100mH, C = 10µF, e = 100sin(ωt) volts. Find
iR(t), iL(t), iC(t), V(t), the storage energy of the capacitor, the storage energy of the inductor, and the
total storage energy in 3 cases:

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 Electricity and Magnetism

a) ω = 500 rad/s, b) ω = 1000 rad/s, c) ω = 2000 rad/s

6.5 Consider the circuit in Fig. P6.5 where e = 100sin(ωt) volts, R = 100Ω, L = 100mH, C = 10µF.
Determine i(t), vR(t), vL(t), vC(t), the storage energy of the capacitor UC(t), the storage energy of the
inductor UL(t), the average power of the resistor PR, the average power of the source Pe in 3 cases:
a) ω = 500 rad/s, b) ω = 100 rad/s, c) ω = 1000 rad/s

Fig. P6.5 Fig. P6.6

6.6 Consider the circuit in Fig. P6.6 where R = 100Ω, C = 10µF, e = 100sin(1000t) volts. The capacitor C
has circular plates of radius a, the space between the two plates is d = 0.1mm.
a) Find the voltage v and the current i.
b) Find the electric field E, the magnetic field B and the displacement current id between the capacitor
plates.
6.7 A typical “light dimmer” used to dim the stage lights in a theater consist of a variable inductor L
connected in series with the light bulb B as shown in the figure P6.7. The power supply is 220 V
(RMS) at 60 Hz; the light bulb is marked “220 V, 1000W”
a) What maximum inductance L is required if the power in the light bulb is to be varied by a factor of
five? Assume that the resistance of the light bulb is independent of its temperature?
b) Could one use a variable resistor instead of an inductor? If so, what maximum resistance is
required? Why isn’t this done?

Fig. P6.7 Fig. P6.8

6.8 The circuit in Fig. P6.8 is driven by an EMF V = Vosin(ωt)
a) At time t1, the switch is closed on A.
- Calculate the impedance of the circuit.
- What is the frequency ωo that maximizes the average power dissipated in the resistor R?
- For ω = ωo, what is the average power dissipated in the resistor R?

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 Electricity and Magnetism

1
- For ω = ω1 = . Calculate the current i flowing through the resistor R. What is the phase
2LC
between i and V? Is i leading or lagging V?
- How does the amplitude Io of the current i depend on the frequency ω? Draw a graph of Io vs. ω
b) At time t2, the switch is closed on B.
- Calculate the impedance of the circuit.
- How does the amplitude Io of the current i depend on the frequency ω? Draw a graph of Io vs. ω
6.9 Let q(t) be the charge on the capacitor in a series RLC circuit driven by a periodic EMF e = Emcos(ωt).
a) Derive a differential equation showing the time evolution of the charge on the capacitor.
b) Use the known solution for i(t) and the definition i = dq/dt to find an expression for q(t). What is
the amplitude qm of q(t)?

c) Show that the maximum charge amplitude is at ω = ωo2 − R 2 / 2L2

6.10 A single loop circuit consists of a resistor R, a 12 H inductor and a 3.2 µF capacitor. Initially the
capacitor has a charge of 6.2 µC and the current is zero.
a) R = 7.2 Ω. Find the charge on the capacitor 10 complete cycles later.
b) Find R such that the maximum charge on the capacitor decays to 99% of its initial value in 50
cycles.
6.11 An LC oscillator consists of a 2 mH inductor and a 2 nF capacitor. The maximum voltage is 4V.
a) Find the frequency of the oscillations.
b) Find the maximum current and the maximum energy stored in the inductor.
6.12 The circuit in Fig. P6.12 is driven by an alternating EMF V = Vosin(ωt)
a) The switch is initially put into position A. The frequency of the AC driving voltage is adjusted until
the amplitude of the current delivered to the circuit is maximized. What is this frequency?
b) The frequency is left untouched and the switch is now placed in the open position. Use this
frequency for the rest of the problem. Compute the phase angle φ between the current and the
driving EMF. Does the current lead or lag the EMF? For what value of resistance R is the
amplitude of the current delivered in the open position half that delivered in position A?
c) The switch is finally put into position B. What is the amplitude of the current delivered to the
circuit? What is the average power supplied by the EMF source?

Fig. P6.12 Fig. P6.13

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 Electricity and Magnetism

6.13 Consider the circuit in Fig. P6.13 where C1 = 10,000 µF, C2 = 1,000 µF, and L = 10 H, C1 is initially
charged to 75 V. Explain how to open and close the switches so as to discharge C1 and charge C2.
Starting at t = 0, you should give explicitly times for opening and closing each switch. What is the final
voltage across C2.
6.14 A generator has an internal resistance r = 0.4 Ω and produces an EMF e(t) = 150cos(100πt) V.
a) If a load resistor R = 15 Ω is connected to the generator. Find the average power delivered to the
load?
b) If a transformer is connected between the generator and the load resistor R = 15 Ω. Find the ratio of
turns of the transformer such that the power delivered to the load is maximized? Find the maximum
value of the power?
6.15 A circuit contains a self-inductance L = 15 mH in series with a capacitor C = 5 µF and a resistor R = 80
Ω. The circuit is driven by a alternating voltage V(t) = 40sin(ωt) V.
a) What is the value of the resonance frequency ωo?
b) Consider 3 separate cases for which ω = 0.25ωo, ω = ωo, ω = 4ωo respectively. For each case
calculate the peak current Io, the energy Uc(t) and the energy UL(t) stored, respectively, in the
capacitor and in the inductor as a function of time.
6.16 Electricity supplied to homes in Vietnam is said to be 50 Hz, 220 V. These figures represent
A) the angular frequency and voltage amplitude B) the angular frequency and RMS voltage
C) the angular frequency and peak to peak voltage D) the frequency and voltage amplitude
E) the frequency and RMS voltage
6.17 An AC circuit contains a 10 Ω resistor, a 100 µF capacitor and an inductor L connected in series. In
order for the circuit to resonate at 100 Hz, the value of L (in Henries) must be
A) 1/4π2 B) 1/2π C) 1 D) 2π E) 4π2 F) A, B, C, D, E are wrong
6.18 A neon sign requires a 13 kV RMS voltage. This is to be obtained from a 220 V RMS power supply
using a single transformer.
a) Find the required turns ratio for the transformer.
b) The amplitude of the current supplied to the neon sign must not exceed 30mA. Find the maximum
RMS current allowed in the primary circuit.
6.19 In order to convert a 220 V AC signal to 15 V AC we should use
A) a step-up transformer B) a step-down transformer C) a half-wave rectifier
D) an antenna E) a capacitor
6.20 A RLC series circuit has R = 10 Ω, L = 2.5 mH and C = 12 µF. The AC source provides a voltage of
amplitude 24 V. The frequency of the voltage is adjusted so that the circuit is in resonance.
a) Find the angular frequency ω at which resonance occurs.
b) Find the impedance of the circuit, the amplitude of the current and the amplitude of the voltage
across each component.
c) At the moment that the voltage across the resistor takes its maximum value, what are the voltages
across the inductor and capacitor?

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 Electricity and Magnetism

6.21 The RLC circuit shown in Fig. P6.21 has R = 2 Ω, L = 0.1 mH and C = 40 µF. The AC source provides
a voltage of amplitude 5 V and angular frequency ω = 25000 rad/s.
a) Find the impedance of the circuit.
b) Suppose the current in the circuit is i = Icos(ωt).
- Find the value of the current amplitude, I.
- Write a corresponding expression for the instantaneous voltage across the source. Does the
voltage lead or lag the current?
c) Find the average power dissipated by the circuit.
6.22 The figure P6.22 shows the current i and driving EMF ε in a series RLC circuit. From the graph we can
deduce that:
A) C < L B) C > L C) C < 1/(ω2L) D) C > 1/(ω2L)
E) We do not have enough information to deduce any of the above

Fig. P6.21 Fig. P6.22 Fig. P6.23

6.23 The circuit in Fig. P6.23 has R = 10 Ω, C = 10 µF, L = 0.1 H, and the ideal battery has EMF E = 24 V.
The switch is kept at position 1 for a long time and then thrown to position 2. Find the voltage across
the capacitor and the current through the inductor?
6.24 A capacitor with circular plates of radius R =18 cm is connected to a source of EMF e = 220sin(130t)
V. The maximum value of the displacement current is 7.6 mA. Neglect fringing of the electric field at
the edges of the plates. What is the maximum value of the current i in the circuit? What is the
maximum value of dφE/dt, where φE is the electric flux through the region between the plates? What is
the separation d between the plates? Find the maximum value of the magnitude of B between the plates
at a distance r = 11 cm from the center.

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 Electricity and Magnetism

Chapter 7: ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

7.1 Maxwell’s equations

1) Maxwell’s equations
r r q
Gauss’ law for electricity
∫ E.dA =
closed surface
εo
(7.1)

r r
Gauss’ law for magnetism
∫ B.dA = 0
closed surface
(7.2)

r r ∂Φ B
Faraday ‘s law
∫ E.d s = -
closed path
∂t
(7.3)

r r ∂Φ E
Ampere-Maxwell law
∫ B.d s = µ o ε o
closed path
∂t
+ µoi (7.4)

2) Vector calculus
r ∂ r ∂ r ∂
• del operator: ∇ = ax +ay +az (7.5)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂V r ∂V r ∂V r
• gradient: grad(V) = ∇V = ax + ay + az (7.6)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Maps scalar fields to vector fields.
Measures the rate and direction of change in a scalar field.
r r r ∂ r ∂ r ∂  r
+ a z .(a x Fx + a y Fy + a z Fz )
r r
• divergence: div( F ) = ∇F =  a x +ay
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

∂Fx ∂Fy ∂Fz

= + + (7.7)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Maps vector fields to scalar fields.
Measures the magnitude of a source or sink at a given point in a vector field.

74
 Electricity and Magnetism

r r r
Property:
∫
volume
∇F.dV =
∫ F.dA
closed surface
(7.8)

r r r r ∂ r ∂ r ∂  r
+ a z  x (a x Fx + a y Fy + a z Fz )
r r
• curl: curl( F ) = rot( F ) = ∇xF =  a x +ay
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
r r r
ax ay az
∂ ∂ ∂
= (7.9)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Fx Fy Fz

Maps vector fields to vector fields.

Measures the tendency to rotate about a point in a vector field.
r r r r
Property: ∫ ∇xF.dA = ∫ F.d s (7.10)
surface closed path

• Laplacian: ∆V = ∇ 2 .V = ∇.∇.V = div(grad(V))

r ∂ r ∂ r ∂  r ∂ r ∂ r ∂ 
=  a x +ay + a z . a x +ay + a z V
 ∂x ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂y ∂z 

∂ 2V ∂ 2V ∂ 2V
= + + (7.11)
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
Maps scalar fields to scalar fields.
A composition of the divergence and gradient operations.
r  ∂2 ∂2 ∂ 2 r r r r
∆F =  2 + 2 + 2 F = ∆Fx a x + ∆Fy a y + ∆Fz a z (7.12)
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

r r r
Property: ∆F = ∇ 2 F - ∇ x ∇ x F (7.13)

3) Maxwell’s equations in term of del operator

r r r q ρ r ρ
Gauss’ law for electricity ∇E.dV =
∫
volume
E.dA =
εo
=
∫
closed surface
∫
volume
εo
.dV ⇒ ∇E =
εo

r r r r
Gauss’ law for magnetism
∫
volume
∇B.dV =
∫ B.dA = 0 ⇒ ∇B = 0
closed surface
r r
r r r r ∂Φ B ∂B r r ∂B
Faraday‘s law ∫ .dA =
∇
surface
x E
∫ E.d s = -
closed path
∂t
=- ∫
surface
∂t
dA. ⇒ ∇xE = -
∂t

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 Electricity and Magnetism

r
r r r r dΦ E ∂E r r
Ampere-Maxwell law ∫ .dA =
∇ x
surface
B
∫ B.d s = µoεo
closed path
dt
+ µoi = ∫
surface
(µ o ε o
∂t
+ µ o J ) dA

r
r ∂E r
⇒ ∇xB = µ o ε o + µoJ
∂t
Recap
r r ρ
div( E ) = ∇E = (7.14)
εo
r r
div( B ) = ∇B = 0 (7.15)
r
r r ∂B
rot( E ) = ∇xE = - (7.16)
∂t
r
r r ∂E r
rot( B ) = ∇xB = µ o ε o + µoJ (7.17)
∂t

4) Wave equation
Applying (7.13) yields
r r r
∆E = ∇ 2 E - ∇ x ∇ x E (7.18)
With J = 0 and ρ = 0
r
r r ∂B
∇E = 0 and ∇ x E = - (7.19)
∂t
We have
r r
r ∂B ∂ r ∂ 2E
∆E = ∇ x = ∇xB = µ o ε o 2 (7.20)
∂t ∂t ∂t
Inserting (7.19) and (7.20) into (7.18) we have the wave equation
r
r ∂ 2E
∆E - µ o ε o 2 = 0 (7.21)
∂t

7.2 Electromagnetic waves

An electromagnetic wave consists of oscillating electric and magnetic fields. The various possible
frequencies of electromagnetic waves form a spectrum, a small part of which is visible light. An
r r
electromagnetic wave traveling along an x axis has an electric field E and a magnetic field B with
magnitudes that depend on x and t
E = Emsin(kx-ωt) (7.22)
B = Bmsin(kx-ωt) (7.23)

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Electricity and Magnetism

where ω: angular frequency of the wave, k: angular wave number of the wave. These two components
can’t exist independently. The two fields continuously create each other via induction: the time varying
magnetic field induces the electric field via Faraday‘s law of induction, the time varying electric field
induces the magnetic field via Maxwell‘s law of induction.

Fig. 7.1 a: Electric field induced by magnetic field Fig. 7.1 b: Magnetic field induced by electric field

Fig. 7.2: The electromagnetic spectrum [1]

The key features of an electromagnetic wave
r r r
- The electric field E is always perpendicular to the magnetic field B . The electric field E and the
r
magnetic field B are always perpendicular to the direction in which the wave is traveling (the wave
r r
is a transverse wave). The cross product E x B always gives the direction in which the wave
travels.
- The fields always vary sinusoidally with the same frequency and in phase with each other.
- All electromagnetic waves, including visible light, have the same speed c (3x108 m/s) in vacuum.
The electromagnetic wave requires no medium for its travel. It can travel through a medium such as
air or glass. It can also travel through vacuum.

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 Electricity and Magnetism

E Em 1 ω
= = = =c (7.24)
B Bm µ oε o k

7.3 Energy flow

The rate per unit area at which energy is transported via an electromagnetic wave is given by the
Poynting vector
r 1 r r
S= E x B (7.25)
µo

Fig. 7.3: Electromagnetic wave

Fig.7.4: An arrangement for generating a traveling electromagnetic wave.

r
The direction of S (and thus of the wave’s travel and the energy transport) is perpendicular to the
r r r r
direction of both E and B . Since E and B are perpendicular
EB E 2 E2
S= = = m sin2(kx-ωt) [W/m2] (7.26)
µ o cµ o cµ o

The time-averaged of S is called the intensity I of the wave

E 2m
I= [W/m2] (7.27)
2cµ o

A point source of electromagnetic waves emits the wave isotropically (i.e. with equal intensity in all
directions). The intensity of the waves at distance r from a point source of power Ps is

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 Electricity and Magnetism

Ps
I= [W/m2] (7.28)
4πr 2

Example: The emitting energy rate of the North Star (Polaris) is 2.2 x 103 times that of our Sun (Psun =
3.9 x 1026 W)
Ps = 2.2 x 103 Psun = 8.58 x 1029 W
The intensity of the light from the North Star is
29
Ps 8.58x10
I= 2
= = 0.04x10-7 W/m2
18 2
4πr 4π(4.08x10 )
E 2m E
I= ⇒ Em = 1.7 mV/m ⇒ Bm = m = 5.6 pT
2cµ o c

7.4 Radiation pressure

r r
Electromagnetic waves have linear momentum ( p = mv , ≠ angular momentum) and thus can exert a
pressure on an object when shining on it. Let us shine a beam of electromagnetic radiation on an object
for a time interval ∆t. If the object absorbs entirely the energy ∆U of the radiation, the magnitude ∆p of
the momentum change of the object is
∆U AI∆t
∆p = = (total absorption)
c c
If the radiation is entirely reflected back along its original path, the magnitude of the momentum
change of the object is twice that given above (conservation of linear momentum), or
2∆U 2AI∆t
∆p = = (total reflection back along path).
c c
If the incident radiation is partly absorbed and partly reflected, the momentum change of the object is
AI∆t 2AI∆t r dpr
between and . From Newton’s second law in its linear momentum form ( F = ), a
c c dt
change in momentum is related to a force by
∆p
F=
∆t
If the radiation is totally absorbed by the surface, the force is
IA
F=
c
If the radiation is totally reflected back along its original path, the force is
2IA
F=
c
The radiation pressure pr is the force per unit area

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 Electricity and Magnetism

F
pr =
A
(I is the intensity and A is the area of the surface perpendicular to the path of the radiation.)

Application: A solar sail in

space which moves due to a
generated radiation power
from the photon flux.
Attitude control is typically
regarded with respect to
rotation about three
principle axes centered upon
the solar sail. Pitch is the
rotation about our chosen x-
axis, yaw corresponds to
rotation about the y-axis and
roll corresponds to rotation
about the z-axis.

Laser propulsion is a form of beam-powered

propulsion where the energy source is a remote Solar sail is a method of spacecraft propulsion
(usually ground-based) laser system and using radiation pressure exerted by sunlight on
separate from the reaction mass. This form of large mirrors. As it uses no propellant, that
propulsion differs from a conventional force is exerted almost constantly and the
chemical rocket where both energy and collective effect over time is great enough to be
reaction mass come from the solid or liquid considered a potential manner of propelling
propellants carried on board the vehicle. spacecraft.

Problems
7.1 An electromagnetic wave with frequency 4x1014 Hz travels through vacuum in the positive direction of
an x axis. The wave has its electric field directed parallel to the y axis with amplitude Em. At time t = 0,
the electric field at point P on the x axis has a value of Em/4 and is decreasing with time. What is the
distance along the x axis from point P to the first point with E = 0 if we search in
a) the negative direction of the x axis
b) the positive direction of the x axis

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 Electricity and Magnetism

7.2 An airplane flying at a distance of 10 km from a radio transmitter receives a signal of intensity 10
µW/m2. What is the amplitude of the electric and magnetic component of the signal at the airplane? If
the transmitter radiates uniformly over a hemisphere, what is the transmission power?
7.3 The maximum electric field 10 m from an isotropic point source of light is 2 V/m.
a) Find the amplitude of the magnetic field
b) Find the average intensity of the light there.
c) Find the power of the source.
7.4 Sunlight just outside Earth’s atmosphere has an intensity of 1.4 kW/m2. Although this radiation
consists of a spectrum of frequencies, many of the interesting properties do not depend on frequency
and can therefore be calculated by using the methods described for monochromatic waves.
a) What is the average energy density in the solar radiation at the top of the atmosphere?
b) What average force would the radiation exert on a completely absorbing surface with an area of 1
m2 oriented perpendicular to the Earth-Sun line?
c) What are the amplitudes of the electric field and the magnetic field in the wave?
7.5 A plane electromagnetic wave, with wave length 3 m, travels in vacuum in the positive direction of an
x axis. The electric field, of amplitude 300 V/m, oscillates parallel to the y axis. What are the
frequency, angular frequency and angular wave number of the wave? What is the amplitude of the
magnetic field component? Parallel to which axis does the magnetic field oscillates? What is the time-
averaged rate of energy flow associated with this wave? The wave uniformly illuminates a surface of
area 2 m2. If the surface totally absorbs the wave, what are the rate at which momentum is transferred
to the surface and the radiation pressure on the surface?
7.6 An isotropic point source emits light at wavelength 500 nm, at rate of 200 W. A light detector is
∂B
positioned 400 m from the source. What is the maximum rate at which the magnetic component of
∂t
the light changes with time at the detector’s location?
7.7 The large radio telescope in Arecibo, Puerto Rico can detect a signal which lays down on the entire
surface of the earth a power of only one picowatt.
a) What is the power that would be received by the Arecibo antenna for such a signal? The antenna
diameter is 300m.
b) What would be the power of an isotropic source at the center of our galaxy that could provide such
a signal? The galactic center is 2.2x104 light-year away.
7.8 An electromagnetic wave is the superposition of two linearly polarized waves along the y and z
directions and is described by the following equation
r r r
E = E o sin(ωt − kx )a y + E o cos(ωt − kx )a z

a) Find the magnitude of the electric field at all points of space for all times.
b) What is the direction of propagation of this wave?
c) What is the magnetic field B?

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7.9 Consider a plane, monochromatic wave traveling in a homogeneous medium. Find the wave length, the
wave number, the frequency, the speed, the propagation direction, the components of the magnetic field
vector (Bx, By, Bz), and the Poynting vector (magnitude and direction) in three cases
a) Ex = Ey = 0, Ez = -25sin(1.57x + 4.71×108t)
b) Ex = Ez = 0, Ey = 50cos(3.14x – 9.42×108t)
c) Ex = Ey = 0, Ez = 40cos(6.28x + 1.34×109t)
where E is measured in V/m, t in sec, and x in m.
7.10 A current I = dQ/dt delivers charge to a capacitor. This capacitor has radius a, and the plates are
separated by a distance d.
a) Find the Poynting vector due to the electric field and the magnetic field between the capacitor
plates. Give both the magnitude and the direction.
b) Calculate the total power P flowing into the capacitor. Given the Poynting vector found in (a), what
is the correct surface to use for the integral?
c) Integrate this power over time. Assuming that the capacitor has charge 0 at t =0 and has some
charge level Q at a later time t, show that the total energy that flows into the capacitor is given by U
= Q2/2C.
7.11 A coaxial cable transmits DC power from a battery to a load. The cable consists of two concentric,
long, hollow cylinders of zero resistance. The inner cylinder has radius a, the outer has b, and the
length of both is L. The battery provides an EMF E between the two conductors at one end of the cable,
and the load is a resistance R connected between the two conductors at the other end.
a) How much power is dissipated in the resistor?
r r
b) What are the electric field E and the magnetic field B in the cable?
r
c) What is the Poynting vector S in the cable?
r
d) Suppose the battery is now reversed. Does the direction of S change?
r
r ∂ 2E
7.12 Show that from Maxwell’s equation the following wave equation can be derived ∆E − ε o µ o 2 = 0
∂t
7.13 The distance from the Earth to the Moon is 3.8x105 km. The time taken for a radar signal to travel from
Earth to the Moon and back again is approximately
A) 0.4 s B) 1.3 s C) 2.5 s D) 8 s E) 16 s F) A, B, C, D, E are wrong
7.14 If the amplitude of the electric field in an electromagnetic wave is 1 kV/m then the amplitude of the
magnetic field is
A) 3.3×10-6 T B) 6.7×10-6 T C) 2.7 T D) 8.0×108 T E) 3.0×108 T
F) A, B, C, D, E are wrong
7.15 Radio waves differ from visible light waves in that radio waves:
A) have higher frequency B) have lower frequency C) travel faster
D) travel slower E) cannot travel in a vacuum F) A, B, C, D, E are wrong
7.16 The units of light intensity are:

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 Electricity and Magnetism

A) J B) J/m2 C) J/s D) W/m2 E) W/s F) A, B, C, D, E are wrong

7.17 A television station broadcasts a sinusoidal TV signal at a power of 315 kW. Assume the signal is
emitted uniformly over a hemisphere. Find the amplitude of the electric field of the wave at a house 5
km from the antenna.
7.18 Which of the following statements is incorrect?
A) Blue light has higher frequency than microwaves
B) Blue light travels faster than radio waves
C) Blue light and x-rays can both travel in a vacuum
D) Blue light has shorter wavelength than red light
E) Blue light transports energy
7.19 Light with an intensity of 1 kW/m2 falls normally on a surface and is completely absorbed. The
radiation pressure is:
A) 1 kPa B) 3 × 105 Pa C) 3.3 × 10–6 Pa D) 3.3 × 10–6 Pa E) 6.7 × 10–6 Pa
7.20 It has been proposed that a spaceship might be propelled in the solar system by radiation pressure, using a
large sail made of foil. How large must the surface area of the sail be if the radiation force is to be equal
in magnitude to the Sun’s gravitational attraction? Assume that the mass of the ship + sail is 1500 kg,
that the sail is perfectly reflecting, and that the sail is oriented perpendicular to the Sun’s rays. (With a
larger sail, the ship is continuously driven away from the Sun.)
7.21 Prove, for a plane electromagnetic wave that is normally incident on a flat surface, that the radiation
pressure on the surface is equal to the energy density in the incident beam. (This relation between
pressure and energy density holds no matter what fraction of the incident energy is reflected.)
7.22 In Fig. P7.22, a laser beam of power 4.60 W and diameter D = 2.60 mm is directed upward at one
circular face (of diameter d < 2.60 mm) of a perfectly reflecting cylinder. The cylinder is levitated
because the upward radiation force matches the downward gravitational force. If the cylinder’s density
is 1.20 g/cm3, what is its height H?
7.23 A coaxial cable transmits DC power from a battery with EMF ε to a load with resistance R. The cable
consists of two concentric, long, hollow cylinders with radii a, b and length d (Fig.P7.23). Assume that
the internal resistance of the battery and the resistance of the cable can be neglected.
a) Find the electric field in the cable and the capacitance of the cable.
b) Find the magnetic field in the cable and the inductance of the cable.
c) Find the Poynting vector and the total power flowing through the cable.

Fig.P7.22 Fig.P7.23 Fig P7.24 The waveguide

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 Electricity and Magnetism

7.24) Two long conductors of width a and separation d form a waveguide as shown in Fig. P7.24.
a) Find the inductance per unit length Lo and the capacitance per unit length Cc in terms of d and a.
b) One end of the transmission line is driven by a voltage V(t) = Vof(zk − ωt). Find the electric field
r r r
E , the magnetic field B and the Poynting vector S in terms of d, a and Vo.
c) Find the impedance Z of the waveguide.
d) At z = 10 cm from the driven end of the waveguide, the waveguide changes to width a + ∆a (∆a <<
a), and separation d + ∆d (∆d << d). What is the impedance Z′ of the waveguide for z > 10cm? Use
a Taylor expansion to express your answer as a linear function as ∆a and ∆d.
e) How must ∆a and ∆d be related in order for Z′ = Z?
7.25 As a comet swings around the Sun, ice on the comet’s surface vaporizes, releasing trapped dust
particles and ions. The ions, because they are electrically charged, are forced by the electrically charged
solar wind into a straight ion tail that points radially away from the Sun (Fig. P7.4). The (electrically
neutral) dust particles are pushed radially outward from the Sun by the radiation force on them from
sunlight. Assume that the dust particles are spherical, have density 3.5 x 103 kg/m3, and are totally
absorbing.
a) What radius must a particle have in order to follow a straight path, like path 2 in the figure?
b) If its radius is larger, does its path curve away from the Sun (like path 1) or toward the Sun (like
path 3)?

Fig.P7.25

7.26 The average intensity of the solar radiation that strikes normally on a surface just outside Earth’s
atmosphere is 1.4 kW/m2.
a) What radiation pressure pr is exerted on this surface, assuming complete absorption?
b) For comparison, find the ratio of pr to Earth’s sea-level atmospheric pressure, which is 1.0 x 105 Pa.
7.27 A small spaceship with a mass of only 1.5 x 103 kg (including an astronaut) is drifting in outer space
with negligible gravitational forces acting on it. If the astronaut turns on a 10 kW laser beam, what
speed will the ship attain in one day because of the momentum carried away by the beam?
7.28 A small laser emits light at power 5.00 mW and wavelength 633 nm. The laser beam is focused
(narrowed) until its diameter matches the 1266 nm diameter of a sphere placed in its path. The sphere is
perfectly absorbing and has density 5.00 x 103 kg/m3.What are the beam intensity at the sphere’s
location, the radiation pressure on the sphere, the magnitude of the corresponding force, and the
magnitude of the acceleration that force alone would give the sphere?

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7.29 When you look at the North Star (Polaris), you intercept light from a star at a distance of 431 ly and
emitting energy at a rate of 2.2 x 103 times that of our Sun (Psun = 3.90 x 1026 W). Neglecting any
atmospheric absorption, find the RMS values of the electric and magnetic fields when the starlight
reaches you.

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Appendix I
Factor Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol
1024 yotta- Y 10-24 yocto- y
1021 zetta- Z 10-21 zepto- z
1018 exa- E 10-18 atto- a
1015 peta- P 10-15 femto- f
1012 tera- T 10-12 pico- p
109 giga- G 10-9 nano- n
106 mega- M 10-6 micro- µ
103 kilo- k 10-3 milli- m
102 hecto- h 10-2 centi- c
101 deka- da 10-1 deci d

Appendix II
Constant Symbol Value
Speed of light in vacuum c 3x108 m/s
Elementary charge e 1.6x10-19 C
Avogadro constant NA 6.02x1023 mol-1
Permittivity constant εo 8.85x10-12 F/m
Permeability constant µo 1.26x10-6 H/m
Electron mass me 9.11x10-31 kg
Proton mass mp 1.67x10-27 kg
Neutron mass mn 1.68x10-27 kg

Appendix III
Dot product of two vectors is a scalar
r r r r
A • B = | A |.| B |.cos(α) = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz

Cross product of two vectors is a vector

r r r
C = A xB
r r r r
where | C | = | A |.| B |.sin(α) and the direction of C is determined by the right hand rule.

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r
The line integral of the vector F along the curve L from A to B is a scalar
B Bx By Bz
r r B
∫
A
F • d L = ∫ | F | cos(α )dL =
A
∫ F dL + ∫ F dL + ∫ F dL
Ax
x x
Ay
y y
Az
z z

r
The surface integral of the vector F through the surface A is a scalar
r r
∫ • n dA = ∫ | F | cos(α )dA = ∫ (Fx n x + Fy n y + Fz n z )dA
F
A A A

The volume integral of the scalar F over the volume V: ∫ FdV

V

Appendix IV: Trigonometric formula

sin(x+y) = sin(x)cos(y) + sin(y)cos(x)
cos(x+y) = cos(x)cos(y) - sin(x)sin(y)
sin(x)cos(y) = [sin(x+y) + sin(x-y)]/2
cos(x)cos(y) = [cos(x-y) + cos(x+y)]/2
sin(x)sin(y) = [cos(x-y) - cos(x+y)]/2
sin(x) + sin(y) = 2sin[(x+y)/2]cos[(x-y)/2]
cos(x) + cos(y) = 2cos[(x+y)/2]cos[(x-y)/2]
cos(x) - cos(y) = -2sin[(x+y)/2]sin[(x-y)/2]

Appendix V
Surface of a sphere of radius R: S = 4πR2
Volume of a sphere of radius R: V = 4πR3/3
Circumference of a circle of radius R: C = 2πR
dx x
∫ (x 2 + a 2 )3 / 2 = a 2 (x 2 + a 2 )1 / 2

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Appendix VI: Magnetic Properties of Material

[http://www.tutorvista.com/content/physics/physics-iv/magnetism-matter/magnetic-properties.php#]
On the basis of their magnetic properties different materials are classified as: diamagnetic substance,
paramagnetic substance, ferromagnetic substance.
Diamagnetic Substance
Michael Faraday discovered that a specimen of bismuth was repelled by a strong magnet.
Diamagnetism occurs in all materials. These materials are those in which individual atoms do not
possess any net magnetic moment. [Their orbital and spin magnetic moment add vectorially to become
zero]. The atoms of such material however acquire an induced dipole moment when they are placed in
an external magnetic field.
The diamagnetic materials are Type 1 superconductors as they exhibit perfect conductivity and perfect
diamagnetization when cooled to very low temperature. The superconductor repels a magnet and in
turn is repelled. Such perfect diamagnetism in superconductors exhibiting the above phenomena is
called Meissner effect.
Some important properties are:

1) When suspended in a uniform magnetic field they set

their longest axis at right angles to the field as shown.

2) In a non-uniform magnetic material, these substances move from stronger parts of the field to the
weaker parts. For e.g., when diamagnetic liquid is put in a watch glass placed on the two pole
pieces of an electromagnet and current is switched on the liquid accumulates on the sides.
[Note on increasing the distance between the pole, the effect is reversed]

3) A diamagnetic liquid in a U shaped tube is depressed,

when subjected to a magnetic field.

4) The lines of force do not prefer to pass through the

specimen, since the ability of a material to permit the
passage of magnetic lines of force through it is less.

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Electricity and Magnetism

5) The permeability of the substance, that is, µr < 1.

6) The substance loses its magnetization as soon as the magnetizing field is removed.
7) Such specimen cannot be easily magnetized and so their susceptibility is negative.
Example: Bismuth, antimony, copper, gold, quartz, mercury, water, alcohol, air, hydrogen etc.

Paramagnetic substance

Paramagnetic substances are attracted by a magnet very

feebly. In a sample of a paramagnetic material, the atomic
dipole moments initially are randomly oriented in space.
When an external field is applied, the dipoles rotate into
alignment with field as shown. The vector sum of the
individual dipole moments is no longer zero.

Some important properties are:

1) The paramagnetic substance develops a weak magnetization in the direction of the field.

2) When a paramagnetic rod is suspended freely in a

uniform magnetic field, it aligns itself in the direction of
magnetic field.

3) The lines of force prefer to pass through the material

rather than air that is µr > 1 that is their permeability is
greater than one.

4) As soon as the magnetizing field is removed the paramagnetics lose their magnetization.
5) In a non-uniform magnetic, the specimen moves from weaker parts of the field to the stronger parts
(that is it accumulates in the middle).

6) A paramagnetic liquid in U tube placed between two

poles of a magnet is elevated.

7) The magnetization of paramagnetism decreases with increase in temperature. This is because the
thermal motion of the atoms tends to disturb the alignment of the dipoles.
Example: Aluminum, platinum, chromium, manganese, copper sulphate, oxygen etc.

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Electricity and Magnetism

Ferromagnetic substance
Ferromagnetism, like paramagnetism, occurs in materials in which atoms have permanent magnetic
dipole moments. The strong interaction between neighboring atomic dipole moments keeps them
aligned even when the external magnetic field is removed.
Some important properties are:
1) These substances get strongly magnetized in the direction of field.

2) The lines of force prefer to pass through the

material rather than air, that is µr >> 1.

3) In a non-uniform magnetic, the specimen moves from weaker parts of the field to the stronger parts
(that is it accumulates in the middle).
4) Ferromagnetic substances retain their magnetism even after the magnetizing field is removed.
5) The effectiveness of coupling between the neighboring atoms that causes ferromagnetism decreases
by increasing the temperature of the substance. The temperature at which a ferromagnetic material
becomes paramagnetic is called its Curie temperature. For example, the Curie temperature of iron is
1418oF, which means above this temperature, iron is paramagnetic.
Example: Iron, cobalt, nickel and number of alloys.

Appendix VII: Mendeleev's periodic table

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