Charges, Coulomb’s Law, and Electric Fields, Electric Flux and Gauss

Law
Electric Charge

Electric charge comes in two types, which we call (+) and ().

An atom consists of a heavy (+) charged nucleus surrounded by light () electrons.
nucleus = (+) charged protons and (0) charged neutrons

Calling protons (+) and electrons () is a convention. We could

just have easily called electrons (+) and protons (), but Ben
Franklin chose the other, and we follow it.

The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called "Z". Z

determines the element: Z =1 is hydrogen, Z = 3 is lithium.

Unlike charges attract, and like charges repel according to

Coulomb’s Law, which says that the magnitude F of the force
between two charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance r is given
by

q1 q 2
F k
r2

where k = constant = 9.0  109 N m2/C2 .

q1 q2 q1 q2
+ + F F
F F  +
r r
Like-sign charges repel. Unlike-sign charges attract.

In SI units, the unit of charge is the coulomb (C).

magnitude of charge of electron = e = +1.602  1019 C

charge of electron = e , charge of proton = +e (by convention, the symbol e > 0, always)

A coulomb is a huge amount of charge: Number N of e’s in 1 C = ?

EE102 Fundamentals for Electrical and Electronics Engineering

 1C 1C
N e 1C N 19
6.3 1018
e 1.6 10 C

Notice that Coulomb’s law is similar to Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation:

G m1m 2 k q1 q 2
Fgrav  , Fcoul 
r2 r2

Similar, except that there are two kinds of charge ( + and  ), but only one kind (sign) of mass. Gravity
is always attractive, but electrical force can be attractive or repulsive.

Recall that force is a vector – a mathematical object that has a size (magnitude) and a direction. Forces
add like vectors, not numbers.

Example: Net force on an electron due to two nearby protons, each a distance r away, 90o apart as
shown.

r
-e F1 Net force = Fnet  F1  F2
90o q1 = +e
k e2
r F2 In this particular case, F1  F2  F  .
r2

q2 = +e k e2
Fnet  2F (not 2F)  Fnet  2
r2
Recall:

F
1 2
F

Fnet = 2 F 1

Here we have used the Superposition Principle: the net force on a charge due to other nearby charges is
the vector sum of the individual forces:

Fnet  F1  F2  F3  ... , where F1  net force due to charge 1, etc.

EE102 Fundamentals for Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Practice Problem

Figure 1.2 shows three small charges A, B and P in a line. The charge at A is positive, that at B is
negative and that at P is positive. Calculate the force on charge P due to A and B.

The Electric field

Surrounding every charge (or group of charges) is a region, called an electric field E (it is a vector) or
imaginary lines

Definition: The electric field E at a point in empty space is a vector quantity which can be measured by
the following procedure: place a small test charge q at that point, measure the force F on q due to all
other charges. The electric field at that point is given by

Fon q
E E-field at a point is the force per charge on a test charge placed at that point.
q

The electric field is not just a mathematical invention; it is real. We cannot (usually) see it or smell it,
but we can feel it. In some situations, you can see an electric field: visible light is a rapidly oscillating
electric field

What is the E-field around a point charge Q? (Q = “source charge” = “source” of E-field, q = “test
charge”)

EE102 Fundamentals for Electrical and Electronics Engineering

 source charge Q test charge +q
r Fon q

Fon q 1 kQq kQ
E  ˆ
r  ˆr
q q r2 r2

( r̂ pronounced" r-hat" is the unit vector pointing away from the origin, where Q is. r-hat has no
dimensions).

Q
Magnitude of the Efield due to a point charge Q: E k rˆ
r2

EE102 Fundamentals for Electrical and Electronics Engineering

 1
The E-field around a charge decreases in magnitude with distance r as E  . We can represent the E-
r2
field at various points in space by drawing a little dot at those points and drawing an arrow coming out
of that dot. The arrow represents the E-field at the dot point. Think of the E-field arrow as "packed into
the point". The E-field arrow is not something "reaching from beginning to end of arrow". The E-field at
a point in space exists at that point.

Notice that E   as r  0. The electric field diverges/converges near a point charge.

Example: Electric fields Four point charges, labeled 1 through 4, all with the same magnitude q, are
placed around the origin as shown. Charge 2 is negative, the rest are positive. What is the direction of
the E-field at the origin?
y

1 r r 2
The total E-field at origin is the vector sum
r r Etot = E1 + E2 + E3 + E4
E=?
x
3 4

Notice that E3 and E4 cancel since they have equal magnitude,

1 2 but opposite directions. The total E-field points right.

E2
E2 Etot
E3
3 E4 4 E1
E1

What would be the direction of the force on an electron (charge q = –e) placed at the origin?
Since E F / q , we have Fon q q E . If q is negative, the direction of the force on q is opposite the
direction of the E-field. So the force is to the left.

F –e Fon q qE
E

In this equation, the E-field is due to all the other charges, not the field due to the charge q itself.

EE102 Fundamentals for Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Practice Problem
Two charge q1 and q2 are placed as shown separated by small distance. What the electric field at the
origin?

EE102 Fundamentals for Electrical and Electronics Engineering

E-field due to Continuous distribution of charge

Image a continuous distribution of charge with the charge

spread out smoothly over the volume of some object. What is dq
the electric field at some point p due to this volume of charge?
A very small (infinitesimal) volume of the object has an
infinitesimal charge dq. "dq" means a "little bit of charge"
This little bit of charge dq creates an infinitesimal electric field dE
dE. The total electric field E at p due to all the bits of charge is p
E dE .

Example: A portion of the line of charge with charge per length =  , units [] = C/m. What is the E-
field at a distance d from the end of the line, as shown?

dx
E =?
x ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

0 d x
charge dq = dx
dx = "little bit of x" , dq = "little bit of charge"

Coulomb's Law gives us the magnitude of the field dE due to the charge dq, a distance x away:

k dq k dq k dx
dE = “dE due to little bit of charge dq calculated "
r2 x2 x 2

Since all directions here are along the x-axis, we are only interested in dEx and can just drop the
subscript x.

k dx k k k
E dE 2
0 .
d
x x d d d

In problems where the E-field has components along x and y, break the problem up into x- and y-
components.
E dE E E x xˆ E y yˆ dE x xˆ dE y yˆ

EE102 Fundamentals for Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Surface Charge Density: In a similar manner, the charge can be distributed over a surface S of area A
with a surface charge density σ
dq

dA

The dimension of σ is charge/unit area in SI units. The total charge on the entire surface is: (C/m2)

Volume Charge Density: the charge can be distributed over a surface S of area A with a surface charge
density ρ
dq

dV

The dimension of ρ is charge/unit area in SI units. The total charge on the entire surface is: (C/m3)

Electric Flux ɸE
The concept of electric flux was introduced by Gauss. The flux is the property of any field vector and is
measured by number of lines of force that pass through an open or closed surface.

The electric flux through a planar area is defined as the electric field E times the area A perpendicular
to the field (A cosθ). The angle θ is measured from the normal (perpendicular to the surface) the
surface of area as shown in Figure below. The electric flux through the surface is;

In general, the electric flux through a surface is

E   E.dA

The area dA is Gaussian area taken to be vector. The net flux through the surface is proportional to the
net number of lines leaving the surface (entering-outgoing).

EE102 Fundamentals for Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Example An electric field with a magnitude of 3.50 kN/C is applied along the x axis. Calculate the
electric flux through a rectangular plane 0.350 m wide and 0.700 m long assuming that

(a) the plane is parallel to the yz plane;

(b) the plane is parallel to the xy plane; and
(c) the plane contains the y axis, and its normal makes an angle of 40.0° with the

Gauss’s Law

q enclosed
 E.da  o

In, words, the electric flux through any closed surface S is a constant (1/  o ) times the total charge inside
S.

Gauss’s law can be applied to find E quite easily when the charge distribution is symmetric. To apply
the Gauss’s Law to calculate E, the following three steps are to be followed:
 draw appropriate Gaussian surface (enclosing the charge)
 use the equation,
 Above point will give you E, using it write E.

An insulating solid sphere of radius a has a uniform volume charge density ρ and carries a total
positive charge Q as shown in Figure below. Calculate the magnitude of the electric field everywhere.

EE102 Fundamentals for Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Reference
Dubson, Phys1120 Notes, University of Colorado.

EE102 Fundamentals for Electrical and Electronics Engineering