Nuclear Physics

NUCLEAR PHYSICS

It is the branch of physics which deals with the study of nucleus.

1. NUCLEUS :
(a) Discoverer : Rutherford
(b) Constituents : neutrons (n) and protons (p) [collectively known as nucleons]
1. Neutron : It is a neutral particle. It was discovered by J. Chadwick (in 1932).
Mass of neutron, mn = 1.6749286 × 10–27 kg.
2. Proton : It has a charge equal to +e. It was discovered by Goldstein.
Mass of proton, mp = 1.6726231 × 10–27 kg
m ~  m p n

(c) Representation :
A A
ZX or Z X
where X   symbol of the atom
Z  Atomic number = number of protons
A  Atomic mass number = total number of nucleons.
= no. of protons + no. of neutrons.

Atomic mass number :

It is the nearest integer value of mass represented in a.m.u. (atomic mass unit).
1
1 a.m.u. = [mass of one atom of 6C12 atom at rest and in ground state]
12
1.6603 × 10–27 kg  931.478 MeV/c2
mass of proton (mp) = mass of neutron (m n) = 1 a.m.u.
Some definitions :
(1) Isotopes :
The nuclei having the same number of protons but different number of neutrons are called isotopes.
(2) Isotones :
Nuclei with the same neutron number N but different atomic number Z are called isotones.
(3) Isobars :
The nuclei with the same mass number but different atomic number are called isobars.
(d) Size of nucleus : Order of 10–15 m (fermi)
Radius of nucleus ; R = R0A1/3
where R0 = 1.1 × 10–15 m (which is an empirical constant)
A = Atomic mass number of atom.
mass ~ Amp Amp 3mp
(e) Density : density =  = =
4  R0
3
volume 4 4
R3 (R0 A1/ 3 )3
3 3
3  1.67  1027
= = 3 × 1017 kg/m3
4  3.14  (1.1 1015 )3
Nuclei of almost all atoms have almost same density as nuclear density is independent of the mass
number (A) and atomic number (Z).

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Example 1. Calculate the radius of 70Ge.

Solution : We have, R = R0 A1/3 = (1.1 fm) (70)1/3
= (1.1 fm) (4.12) = 4.53 fm.

Example 2. Calculate the electric potential energy of interaction due to the electric repulsion between two
nuclei of 12C when they ‘touch’ each other at the surface
Solution : The radius of a 12C nucleus is
R = R0 A1/3
= (1.1 fm) (12)1/3 = 2.52 fm.
The separation between the centres of the nuclei is 2R = 5.04 fm. The potential energy of the pair is
q1q2 (6  1.6  1019 C)2
U= = (9 × 109 N–m2/C2) = 1.64 × 10–12 J = 10.2 MeV.
40r 5.04  1015 m

———————————————————————————————————
2. MASS DEFECT
It has been observed that there is a difference between expected mass and actual mass of a nucleus.
Mexpected = Z mp + (A – Z)mn
Mobserved = Matom – Zme
It is found that Mobserved < Mexpected
Hence, mass defect is defined as Mass defect = Mexpected – Mobserved
m = [Zmp + (A – Z)mn] – [Matom – Zme]

3. BINDING ENERGY
It is the minimum energy required to break the nucleus into its constituent particles.
or
Amount of energy released during the formation of nucleus by its constituent particles and bringing
them from infinite separation.
Binding Energy (B.E.) = mc2
BE = m (in amu) × 931.5 MeV/amu
= m × 931.5 MeV
Note : If binding energy per nucleon is more for a nucleus then it is more stable.
For example
 B.E1   B.E2 
If    then nucleus 1 would be more stable.
 A1   A 2 

Example 3. Following data is available about 3 nuclei P, Q & R. Arrange them in decreasing order of
stability
P Q R
Atomic mass number (A) 10 5 6
Binding Energy (MeV) 100 60 66
 B.E  100  BE  60
Solution :  A   10 = 10   A   5 = 12
 P  Q
 B.E.  66
 A   6 = 11  Stability order is Q > R > P.
 R
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20 21 22
Example 4. The three stable isotopes of neon: 10 Ne , 10 Ne and 10 Ne have respective abundances of 90.51%
0.27% and 9.22%. The atomic masses of three isotopes are 19.99 u. 20.99 u, respectively.
Obtain the average atomic mass of neon.
90.51 19.99  0.27  20.99  9.22  22
Solution : m= = 20.18 u
100

Example 5. A nuclear reaction is given as A + B  C + D. Binding energies of A, B, C and D are given as

B1, B2, B3 and B4. Find the energy released in the reaction
Solution : (B3 + B4) – (B1 + B2)

Example 6 Calculate the binding energy of an alpha particle from the following data:
1
mass of 1 H atom = 1.007826 u
4
mass of He neutron = 1.008665 u
2

mass of atom = 4.00260 u Take 1 u = 931 MeV/c2.

Solution : The alpha particle contains 2 protons and 2 neutrons. The binding energy is
B = (2 × 1.007826 u + 2 × 1.008665 u – 4.00260 u)c2
= (0.03038 u)c2 = 0.03038 × 931 MeV = 28.3 MeV.
56 56
Example 7. Find the binding energy of 26 Fe . Atomic mass of Fe is 55.9349 u and that of 1H is 1.00783 u.
Mass of neutron = 1.00867 u.
Solution : 26 Fe = 26 and the number of neutrons = 56 – 26 = 30.
The number of protons in 56
56
The binding energy of 26 Fe is
= [26 × 1.00783 u + 30 × 1.00867 u – 55.9349 u] c2 = (0.52878 u)c2
= (0.52878 u) (931 MeV/u) = 492 MeV.
———————————————————————————————————
3.1 Variation of binding energy per nucleon with mass number :
The binding energy per nucleon first increases on an average and B.E
A
reaches a maximum of about 8.8 MeV for A 50  80. For still heavier 26 Fe56
8.8 MeV
nuclei, the binding energy per nucleon slowly decreases as A
increases. Binding energy per nucleon is maximum for 26Fe56, which is
equal to 8.8 MeV. Binding energy per nucleon is more for medium
nuclei than for heavy nuclei. Hence, medium nuclei are highly stable. 56 A

 The heavier nuclei being unstable have tendency to split into medium nuclei. This process is called
Fission.
 The Lighter nuclei being unstable have tendency to fuse into a medium nucleus. This process is
called Fusion.

4. RADIOACTIVITY :
It was discovered by Henry Becquerel.
Spontaneous emission of radiations () from unstable nucleus is called radioactivity. Substances
which shows radioactivity are known as radioactive substance.
Radioactivity was studied in detail by Rutherford.
In radioactive decay, an unstable nucleus emits  particle or  particle. After emission of  or  the
remaining nucleus may emit -particle, and converts into more stable nucleus.
-particle :
It is a doubly charged helium nucleus. It contains two protons and two neutrons.
Mass of -particle = Mass of 2He4 atom – 2me  4 mp
Charge of -particle = + 2 e
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-particle :
(a) – (electron) :
Mass = me ; Charge = –e
(b) + (positron) :
Mass = me ; Charge = +e
positron is an antiparticle of electron.
Antiparticle :
A particle is called antiparticle of other if on collision both can annihilate (destroy completely) and
converts into energy. For example : (i) electron ( – e, me ) and positron ( + e, m e ) are anti particles.
(ii) neutrino () and antineutrino (  ) are antiparticles.

-particle : They are energetic photons of energy of the order of Mev and having rest mass zero.

5. RADIOACTIVE DECAY (DISPLACEMENT LAW) :

5.1 -decay :
Nuclei with mass number greater than 210 undergo -decay.
ZX  Z–2Y
A A–4 + He4 + Q
2

Q value : It is defined as energy released during the decay process.

Q value = rest mass energy of reactants – rest mass energy of products.
This energy is available in the form of increase in K.E. of the products.
Let, Mx = mass of atom ZXA
My = mass of atom Z – 2YA – 4 A
Y 4
ZX + 2He + Q
MHe = mass of atom 2He . 4

Q value = [(Mx – Zme)–{(My–(Z–2)me)+(MHe – 2me)}]c2 -particle

Z-electrons
Z-electrons (it has charge + 2e)
= [Mx – My – MHe ] c2
Considering actual number of electrons in -decay
Q value = [Mx – (My + 2me) – (MHe – 2me)]c2
= [Mx – My – MHe ] c2

Calculation of kinetic energy of final products :

As atom X was initially at rest and no external forces are acting, so final momentum also has to be zero.
Hence both Y and -particle will have same momentum in magnitude but in opposite direction.
p p

Y 

p2 = pY2 2mT = 2mYTY (Here we are representing T for kinetic energy)
Q = Ty + T mT = mYTY
mY m A4 4
T = Q ; TY = Q T = Q ; TY = Q
m  mY m  mY A A
From the above calculation, one can see that all the -particles emitted should have same kinetic
energy. Hence, if they are passed through a region of uniform magnetic field having direction
perpendicular to velocity, they should move in a circle of same radius.

r B
v
mv mv 2Km
r= = =
qB 2eB 2eB

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Experimental Observation :
Experimentally it has been observed that all the -particles
do not move in the circle of same radius, but they move in
`circles having different radii.
This shows that they have different kinetic energies. But it is
also observed that they follow circular paths of some fixed
values of radius i.e. yet the energy of emitted -particles is X Y*(excited state) +  + Q
not same but it is quantized. The reason behind this is that
all the daughter nuclei produced are not in their ground state
but some of the daughter nuclei may be produced in their
excited states and they emits photon to acquire their ground Y + photon ( particle)
state.
The only difference between Y and Y* is that Y* is in excited state and Y is in ground state.
Let, the energy of emitted -particles be E
 Q = T + TY + E
where Q = [Mx – My – MHe ] c2
T + TY = Q – E
mY m
T = (Q  E) ; TY = (Q  E)
m  mY m  mY
5.2 –- decay :
Z XA Z+1 YA + –1 e0 + Q
–1e
0can also be written as –10.
Here also one can see that by momentum and energy conservation, we will get
mY me
Te = Q ; TY = Q
me  m Y me  m Y
as me << mY, we can consider that all the energy is taken away by  –

the electron.
From the above results, we will find that all the -particles emitted
will have same energy and hence they have same radius if passed
through a region of perpendicular magnetic field. But, experimental
observations were completely different.
On passing through a region of uniform magnetic field perpendicular to the velocity, it was observed
that -particles take circular paths of different radius having a continuous spectrum.
To explain this, Paulling has introduced the extra particles called neutrino and antineutrino (antiparticle
of neutrino).
  antineutrino,   neutrino
Properties of antineutrino(  ) & neutrino() :
(1) They have rest mass equal to zero or, at most, the mass equivalent of a few electronvolts.
speed = c (or nearly equal to c)
Energy, E = mc2
(2) They are chargeless (neutral)
1
(3) They have spin quantum number, s = ±
2
Considering the emission of antineutrino, the equation of – - decay can be written as
–
Z XA Z+1 YA + e0 + Q
–1 +
(4) They are not electromagnetic in nature as is the photon, the neutrino can pass unimpeded
through vast amounts of matter.

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Production of antineutrino along with the electron helps to explain the continuous spectrum because the
energy is distributed randomly between electron and  and it also helps to explain the spin quantum
number balance (p, n and ± e each has spin quantum number ± 1/2).

During – - decay, inside the nucleus a neutron is converted to a proton with emission of an electron
and antineutrino.
n  p + –1e0 + 
Let, Mx = mass of atom ZXA
My = mass of atom Z + 1YA
me = mass of electron
Q value = [(MX – Zme) – {(MY – (z + 1) me) + me}] c2 = [MX – MY] c2
Considering actual number of electrons.
Q value = [MX – {(MY – me) + me}] c2 = [MX – MY] c2

Energy spectrum of -particles :

The figure below shows the energy spectrum of the electrons emitted in the beta decay.
Relative number
of electrons

0
Electron energy

Example 8. Consider the beta decay 198 Au  198 Hg* + – +  where 198Hg* represents a mercury nucleus
in an excited state at energy 1.088 MeV above the ground state. What can be the maximum
kinetic energy of the electron emitted? The atomic mass 198Au is 197.968233 u and that of
198Hg is 197.966760 u.

Solution : If the product nucleus 198Hg is formed in its ground state, the kinetic energy available to the
electron and the antineutrino is Q = [m(198Au) – m(198Hg)]c2 .
As 198Hg* has energy 1.088 MeV more than 198Hg in ground state, the kinetic energy actually
available is Q = [m(198Au) – m(198Hg)]c2 – 1.088 MeV
 MeV 
= (197.968233 u – 197.966760 u)  931 – 1.088 MeV
 u 
= 1.3686 MeV – 1.088 MeV = 0.2806 MeV.
This is also the maximum possible kinetic energy of the electron emitted.
———————————————————————————————————
5.3 + - decay :
ZX  Z–1Y + +1e +  + Q
A A 0

In  decay, inside a nucleus a

+ proton is converted into a neutron, positron and neutrino.
p  n + +1 
e0 +
As mass increases during conversion of proton to a neutron, hence it requires energy for + decay to
take place,
 + decay is rare process. It can take place in the nucleus where a proton can take energy from the
nucleus itself.
Q value = [(MX– Zme) – {(MY – (Z – 1) me) + me}] c2 = [MX – MY – 2me] c2
Considering actual number of electrons.
Q value = [MX – {(MY + me) + me}] c2 = [MX – MY – 2me] c2
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Example 9. Calculate the Q-value in the following decays :

(a) 19O  19F + e– +  (b) 25Al  25Mg + e+ + .
The atomic masses needed are as follows:
19O 19F 25Al 25Mg

19.003576 u 18.998403 u 24.990432 u 24.985839 u

Solution : (a) The Q-value of – -decay is
Q = [m(19O) – m(19F)]c2
= [19.003576 u – 18.998403 u ] (931 MeV/u) = 4.816 MeV
(b) The Q-value of + -decay is
Q = [m(25Al) – m(25Mg) – 2me]c2
 MeV 
= 24.99032u  24.985839u  2 0.511 2 c 2
 c 
= (0.004593 u) (931 MeV/u) – 1.022 MeV
= 4.276 MeV – 1.022 MeV = 3.254 MeV.
———————————————————————————————————
5.4 K capture :
It is a rare process which is found only in few nucleus. In this process the
nucleus captures one of the atomic electrons from the K shell. A proton in
N
the nucleus combines with this electron and converts itself into a neutron.
A neutrino is also emitted in the process and is emitted from the nucleus. K shell

Electron capture is competitive with positron emission. It occurs more often than positron
emission in heavy nuclides because electrons are relatively closer to nucleus which allows more
interaction.
p + –1e0  n + 
If X and Y are atoms then reaction is written as :
ZX  Z–1Y +  + Q + characteristic x-rays of Y.
A A

If X and Y are taken as nucleus, then reaction is written as :

ZX + –1e  Z–1Y + 
A 0 A

5.5 -decay :
Like an atom a nucleus can also exist in states whose energies are higher than that of its ground state.
Excited nuclei return to their ground states by emitting photons whose energies correspond to the
energy differences between the various initial and final states in the transitions involved. The photons
emitted by nuclei have energy up to several Mev, and are traditionally called gamma rays.
12Mg
27  * 27
13 Al + –1e0
* 27
13 Al  13Al27 + 
Al* represents aluminium nucleus in its excited state.
When -rays are passed through a slab their intensity decreases exponentially with slab thickness x.
I = I0e–x where  is absorption coefficient. It depends on the slab.
Note : (1) Nuclei having atomic numbers from Z = 84 to 112 shows radioactivity.
(2) Nuclei having Z = 1 to 83 are stable (only few exceptions are there)
(3) Whenever a neutron is produced, a neutrino is also produced.
(4) Whenever a neutron is converted into a proton, a antineutrino is produced.

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6. NUCLEAR STABILITY :
Figure shows a plot of neutron number N versus no. of
neutron(N) N
proton number Z for the nuclides found in nature. The Z
=1.6 N
=1
Z
solid line in the figure represents the stable nuclides. N
Z
>
N
Z stable
(shows  decay) N < N
–
Stability curve
For light stable nuclides, the neutron number is equal Z Z stable

to the proton number so that ratio N/Z is equal to 1. (shows + decay)

The ratio N/Z increases for the heavier nuclides and

becomes about 1.6 for the heaviest stable nuclides.
The points (Z, N) for stable nuclides fall in a rather
no. of proton (Z)
well-defined narrow region. There are nuclides to the
left of the stability belt as well as to the right of it. The
nuclides to the left of the stability region have excess
neutrons, whereas, those to the right of the stability
belt have excess protons.
These nuclides are unstable and decay with time according to the laws of radioactive disintegration.
Nuclides with excess neutrons (lying above stability belt) show   decay while nuclides with excess
protons (lying below stability belt) show  decay and K - capture.

7. NUCLEAR FORCE :
(i) Nuclear forces are basically attractive and are responsible for keeping the nucleons bound in a
nucleus in spite of repulsion between the positively charge protons.
(ii) It is strongest force with in nuclear dimensions (F n ; 100 Fe)
(iii) It is short range force (acts only inside the nucleus)
(iv) It acts only between neutron-neutron, neutron-proton and proton-proton i.e. between nucleons.
(v) It does not depend on the nature of nucleons.
(vi) An important property of nuclear force is that it is not a central force. The force between a pair of
nucleons is not solely determined by the distance between the nucleons. For example, the nuclear
force depends on the directions of the spins of the nucleons. The force is stronger if the spins of the
nucleons are parallel (i.e., both nucleons have m s = + 1/2 or – 1/2) and is weaker if the spins are
antiparallel (i.e., one nucleon has m s = + 1/2 and the other has m s = – 1/2). Here ms is spin
quantum number.

8. RADIOACTIVE DECAY : STATISTICAL LAW :

(Given by Rutherford and Soddy)
Rate of radioactive decay  N
where N = number of active nuclei =  N
where = decay constant of the radioactive substance.
Decay constant is different for different radioactive substances, but it does not depend on amount of
substance and time.
S unit of  is s–1
If 1  2 then first substance is more radioactive (less stable) than the second one.
For the case, if A decays to B with decay constant 

A  B
t=0 N0 0 where N0 = number of active nuclei of A at t = 0
t = tN N’ where N = number of active nuclei of A at t = t
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dN N
Rate of radioactive decay of A = – = N
dt N0
N t
dN
– 
N0
N 0
 dt  N = N0 e–t (it is exponential decay)
t
Number of nuclei decayed (i.e. the number of nuclei of B N´ = N0 – N
formed)
N0
N’ = N0 – N
= N0 – N0e–t
N´ = N0(1 – e–t) t

8.1 Half life (T1/2) :

It is the time in which number of active nuclei becomes half.
N = N0 e–t
N0
After one half life, N=
2
N0 ln 2 0.693
= N0 e–t  t =  = t1/2
2  
ln2 0.693
t1/2 =
= (to be remembered)
 
Number of nuclei present after n half lives i.e. after a time t = n t1/2
ln2
n

N = N0e–t = N0 e–nt1/2 = N0 e
ln2(  n ) N0
= N0 e = N0 (2)–n = N0(1/2)n =
2n
t
{n = . It may be a fraction, need not to be an integer}
t1/ 2
2 3 n
N0 2  1  1  1
or N0 
after 1st
  N0   
3
N0   ............... 
n
N0  
half life 2 2 2 2

Example 10. A radioactive sample has 6.0 × 1018 active nuclei at a certain instant. How many of these nuclei
will still be in the same active state after two half-lives?
Solution : In one half-life the number of active nuclei reduces to half the original number. Thus, in two half
 1  1
lives the number is reduced to      of the original number. The number of remaining
2 2
 1  1
active nuclei is, therefore, 6.0 × 1018 ×      = 1.5 × 10 18.
2 2
Example 11. The number of 238U atoms in an ancient rock equals the number of 206Pb atoms. The half-life of
decay of 238U is 4.5 × 10 9 y. Estimate the age of the rock assuming that all the 206Pb atoms are
formed from the decay of 238U.
Solution : Since the number of 206Pb atoms equals the number of 238U atoms, half of the original 238U
atoms have decayed. It takes one half-life to decay half of the active nuclei. Thus, the sample is
4.5 × 109 y old.

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———————————————————————————————————
8.2 Activity :
Activity is defined as rate of radioactive decay of nuclei
It is denoted by A or R A =N
If a radioactive substance changes only due to decay then
dN
A= 
dt
As in that case, N = N0 e–t
A = N = N0e–t
A = A0 e–t
S Unit of activity : becquerel (Bq) which is same as 1 dps (disintegration per second)
The popular unit of activity is curie which is defined as
1 curie = 3.7 × 1010 dps (which is activity of 1 gm Radium)

Example 12. The decay constant for the radioactive nuclide 64Cu is 1.516 × 10–5 s–1. Find the activity of a
sample containing 1 g of 64Cu. Atomic weight of copper = 63.5 g/mole. Neglect the mass
difference between the given radioisotope and normal copper.
Solution : 63.5 g of copper has 6 × 1023 atoms. Thus, the number of atoms in 1 g of Cu is
6  1023  1g
N= = 9.45 × 1015
63.5g
The activity = N
= (1.516 × 10–5 s–1) × (9.45 × 1015) = 1.43 × 1011 disintegrations/s
1.43  1011 A0
= Ci = 3.86 Ci. Activity after n half lives :
3.7  1010 2n

Example 13. The half-life of a radioactive nuclide is 20 hours. What fraction of original activity will remain
after 40 hours?
Solution : 40 hours means 2 half lives.
A0 A0 A 1
Thus A =  or = .
22 4 A0 4
So one fourth of the original activity will remain after 40 hours.
Specific activity : The activity per unit mass is called specific activity.
———————————————————————————————————
8.3 Average Life :


 λN e
 λt
0 dt.t
sum of ages of all the nuclei 1
Tavg = = 0

N0 N0 

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Example 14. The half-life of 198Au is 2.7 days. Calculate (a) the decay constant, (b) the average-life and (c)
the activity of 1.00 mg of 198Au. Take atomic weight of 198Au to be 198 g/mol.
Solution : (a) The half-life and the decay constant are related as
ln2 0.693 0.693 0.693 0.693
t1/2 = = or, = = = = 2.9 × 10–6 s–1.
  t1/ 2 2.7days 2.7  24  3600s
1
(b) The average-life is tav = = 3.9 days.

(c) The activity is A = N. Now, 198 g of 198Au has 6 × 1023 atoms.
The number of atoms in 1.00 mg of 198Au is
1.0 mg
N = 6 × 1023 × = 3.03 × 10 18.
198 g
Thus, A = N = (2.9 × 10–6 s–1) (3.03 × 10 18)
8.8  1012
= 8.8 × 1012 disintegrations/s = Ci = 240 Ci.
3.7  1010
Example 15. Suppose, the daughter nucleus in a nuclear decay is itself radioactive. Let p and d be the
decay constants of the parent and the daughter nuclei. Also, let N p and Nd be the number of
parent and daughter nuclei at time t. Find the condition for which the number of daughter nuclei
becomes constant.
Solution : The number of parent nuclei decaying in a short time interval t to t + dt is p Npdt. This is also
the number of daughter nuclei decaying during the same time interval is dNddt. The number of
the daughter nuclei will be constant if
pNpdt = dNddt or pNp = dNd.
Example 16. A radioactive sample decays with an average-life of 20 ms. A capacitor of capacitance 100 F
is charged to some potential and then the plates are connected through a resistance R. What
should be the value of R so that the ratio of the charge on the capacitor to the activity of the
radioactive sample remains constant in time?
Solution : The activity of the sample at time t is given by
A = A0 e–t
where  is the decay constant and A0 is the activity at time t = 0 when the capacitor plates are
connected. The charge on the capacitor at time t is given by
Q = Q0 e–t/CR
Q Q0 e t / CR
where Q0 is the charge at t = 0 and C = 100 F is the capacitance. Thus  , .
A A 0 et
1 1 t 20  10 3 s
It is independent of t if = or R= = av = = 200 .
CR C C 100  10 6 F
Example 17. A radioactive nucleus can decay by two different processes. The half-life for the first process is
t1 and that for the second process is t2. Show that the effective half-life t of the nucleus is given
1 1 1
by   .
t t1 t 2
ln 2 ln 2
Solution : The decay constant for the first process is 1 = and for the second process it is 2 = .
t1 t1
The probability that an active nucleus decays by the first process in a time interval dt is 1dt.
Similarly, the probability that it decays by the second process is 2dt. The probability that it
either decays by the first process or by the second process is 1dt + 2dt. If the effective decay
constant is , this probability is also equal to dt. Thus.
dt = 1dt + 2dt
1 1 1
or  = 1 + 2 or   (To be remembered)
t t1 t 2

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Example 18. A factory produces a radioactive substance A at a constant rate R which decays with a decay
constant  to form a stable substance. Find (i) the no. of nuclei of A and (ii) Number of nuclei of
B, at any time t assuming the production of A starts at t = 0. (iii) Also find out the maximum
number of nuclei of ‘A’ present at any time during its formation.

Solution : Factory  R
 A   B
const. rate decay

Let N be the number of nuclei of A at any time t

N t
dN dN

dt
 R  N 0 R  N 0 dt
=

On solving we will get N = R/(1 - e -t)

(ii) Number of nuclei of B at any time t, NB = R t – NA = Rt – R/(1 - e -t) = R/ ( t – 1 + e -t).
(iii) Maximum number of nuclei of ‘A’ present at any time during its formation = R/.
Example 19. A radioactive substance “A” having N0 active nuclei at t = 0, decays to another radioactive substance
“B” with decay constant 1. B further decays to a stable substance “C” with decay constant 2.
(a) Find the number of nuclei of A, B and C after time t.
(b) What would be the answer of part (a) if 1 >> 2 and 1 << 2.
Solution : (a) The decay scheme is as shown
1 2
A  B  C (stable)
t=0 N0 0 0
t N1 N2 N3
Here N1, N2 and N3 represent the nuclei of A, B and C at any time t.
For A, we can write
N1 = N0 e–1t .... (1)
For B, we can write
dN2 dN2
= 1N1  2N2 .....(2) or, + 2N2 = 1N1
dt dt
This is a linear differential equation with integrating factor .F. = e2t
dN2 2 t
e 2 t  e2 t  2N2 = 1N1 e ;  d(N2 e2 t ) =  1N1e2 t dt
dt
2 t 2 t
N2 e =  1 N 0 e ...... using (1)
2 t e( 2 1 ) t
N2 e = 1N0 +C ......(3)
 2  1
1N0
At t = 0, N2 = 0 0= +C
 2  1
1N0 1N0
Hence C =
1   2
Using C in eqn. (3), we get N2 =
 2  1

e1t  e2 t 
and N 1 + N 2 + N 3 = N0 N3 = N0 - (N1 + N2)
1N0 e2 t
(b) For 1 >> 2 N2 = ( )= N0 e–2t
1
1N0 e1t
For 1 << 2 N2 = ( )=0
2
Alternate solution of (b) part without use of answer of part (a) :
If 1 > 2 that means A will decay very fast to ‘B’ and B will then decay slowly. We can say that
practically N1 vanishes in very short time & B has initial no. of atoms as N0.
2 t 1t
 Now N2 = N 0 e & N1 = N 0 e
If 1 << 2 then B is highly unstable and it will soon decay into C.
So, it’s rate of formation its rate of decay.
1N1 N 1t
 1N1  2N2 N2 = = 1 0 (e )
2 2

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
9. NUCLEAR FISSION :
In nuclear fission heavy nuclei of A, above 200, break up into two or more fragments of comparable
masses. The most attractive bid, from a practical point of view, to achieve energy from nuclear fission is
to use 92U236 as the fission material. The technique is to hit a uranium sample by slow-moving neutrons
(kinetic energy  0.04 eV, also called thermal neutrons). A 92U235 nucleus has large probability of
absorbing a slow neutron and forming 92U236 nucleus. This nucleus then fissions into two or more parts.
A variety of combinations of the middle-weight nuclei may be formed due to the fission. For example,
one may have
235 + n1  236  X + Y + 2 n1, 235 + n1  236  X´ + Y´ + 3 n1
92U 0 92U 0 or 92U 0 92U 0
and a number of other combinations.
  On an average 2.5 neutrons are emitted in each fission event.
  Mass lost per reaction  0.2 a.m.u.
  In nuclear fission the total B.E. increases and excess energy is released.
  In each fission event, about 200 MeV of energy is released a large part of which appears in the
form of kinetic energies of the two fragments. Neutrons take away about 5MeV.
92 U o n 
eg. 235 92 U  56 Ba 36 Kr  3 on + energy
1 236 141 92 1

Q value = [(MU – 92me + mn) – {(MBa – 56 me) + (MKr – 36me) + 3mn}]c2

= [(MU + mn) – (MBa + MKr + 3mn)]c2
  A very important and interesting feature of neutron-induced fission is the chain reaction.

10. NUCLEAR REACTOR

Nuclear reactors utilize energy released in nuclear fission reaction to produce power. Some nuclear
reactor are research reactors. Their primary aim is to provide a facility for research on different aspects
of nuclear science and technology. Some reactors are used to produce power.
Important components of a nuclear reactor :
(i) Moderators : The average energy of neutrons liberated in fission of a 92U235 is 2 Mev. These
neutrons unless slowed down will escape from the reactor without interacting with uranium nuclei.
Fast neutrons need to be slowed down for them to be able to get absorbed by Uranium.
When neutrons are made to strike a light nuclei like that of a hydrogen it looses almost all of it K. E.
In reactor light nuclei called moderators are used. Commonly used moderators are water, heavy
water (D2O) and graphite 'Apsara' reactor in BARC user H2O
RAPP uses D2O as moderator
(ii) Multiplication factor (K) : The ratio of number of fissions produced by given generation of
neutrons to the number of fissions of the preceding generation
If K = 1, the operation of reactor is said to be critical.
For steady generation of power K must be equal to 1
If K > 1, the reaction rate and reactor power increases exponentially if K is not brought down the
reactor will become super critical and may explode.
(iii) Control Rods :- The reaction rate is controlled through control-rods made out of neutron absorbing
material such as cadmium.
(iv) Safety Rods : - These rods are provided in reactors in addition to control rods These, when
required, can be inserted into the reactor and K can be reduced.
11. NUCLEAR FUSION (THERMO NUCLEAR REACTION):
(a) Some unstable light nuclei of A below 20, fuse together, the B.E. per nucleon increases and hence
the excess energy is released. The easiest thermonuclear reaction that can be handled on earth is
the fusion of two deuterons (D–D reaction) or fusion of a deuteron with a triton (D–T reaction).
1H + 1H  2He + 0n + 3.3 MeV (D–D)
2 2 3 1

Q value = [2(MD – me) – {(MHe3 – 2me) + mn}]c2 = [2MD – (MHe3 + mn)]c2

1H + 1H  1H + 1H + 4.0 MeV (D–D)
2 2 3 1

Q value = [2(MD – me) – {(MT – me) + (MH – me)}]c2 = [2MD – (MT + MH)]c2
1H + 1H  2He + n + 17.6 MeV (D – T)
2 3 4

Q value = [{(MD – me) + (MT – me)} – {(MHe4 – 2me) + mn}]c2 = [(MD + MT) – (MHe4 + mn)]c2
Note : In case of fission and fusion, m = matom = mnucleus .

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(b) These reactions take place at ultra high temperature (  107 to 109). At high pressure it can take
place at low temperature also. For these reactions to take place nuclei should be brought upto
1 fermi distance which requires very high kinetic energy.
(c) Energy released in fusion exceeds the energy liberated in the fission of heavy nuclei.

FUSION REACTIONS IN SUN

The fusion reaction in sun is multi-step process which involves conversion of hydrogen in helium.
The below set of reactions is called as p–p cycle of nuclear fusion in stars
1H
1 + 1H1 1H2 + +1e0 +  + 0.42 Mev …(i)
0
+1e + -1e
0  +  + 1.02 Mev …(ii)
1H
2 + 1H
1 2He3 +  + 5.49 Mev …(iii)
2He 2He …(iv)
3 3 4 21H1
2He + + + 12.86 Mev
2[(i) + (ii) + (iii)] + (iv)
61H1 + 2-1e0 2He4 + 21H1 + 6 +2
41H1 + 2-1e0 2He4 + 2 + 6 + 26.7 Mev

Example 20. Calculate the energy released when three alpha particles combine to form a 12C nucleus. The
4
atomic mass of He is 4.002603 u.
2

Solution : The mass of a 12C atom is exactly 12 u.


The energy released in the reaction 3 24 He  126 C is 
[3 m( 24 He ) – m( 126 C )] c2 = [3 × 4.002603 u – 12 u] (931 MeV/u) = 7.27 MeV.

Example 21. Consider two deuterons moving towards each other with equal speeds in a deutron gas. What
should be their kinetic energies (when they are widely separated) so that the closest separation
between them becomes 2fm? Assume that the nuclear force is not effective for separations
greater than 2 fm. At what temperature will the deuterons have this kinetic energy on an
average?
Solution : As the deuterons move, the Coulomb repulsion will slow them down. The loss in kinetic energy
will be equal to the gain in Coulomb potential energy. At the closest separation, the kinetic
e2
energy is zero and the potential energy is . If the initial kinetic energy of each deuteron
40r
is K and the closest separation is 2fm, we shall have
e2 (1.6  1019 C)2  (9  109 N  m2 / C2 )
2K = =
40 (2 fm) 2  1015 m
or, K = 5.7 × 10–14 J.
If the temperature of the gas is T, the average kinetic energy of random motion of each nucleus
will be 1.5 kT. The temperature needed for the deuterons to have the average kinetic energy of
5.7 × 10–14 J will be given by
1.5 kT = 5.7 × 10–14 J
where k = Botzmann constant
5.7  1014 J
or, T = = 2.8 × 109 K.
1.5  1.38  1023 J/ K

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