1.Basic theoretical approaches to translation.

translation theories may be divided into three main groups which quite
conventionally may be called transformational approach, denotative
approach, and communicational approach.

According to the transformational approach translation is viewed as the

transformation of objects and structures of the source language into those of
the target.

According to denotative approach the process of translation is not just mere

substitution but consists of the following mental operations:

4. translator reads (hears) a message in the source language;

5. translator finds a denotatum and concept that correspond to this message;

6. translator formulates a message in the target language relevant to the above

denotatum and concept.

According to communicational approach translation is a message sent by a

translator to a particular user and the adequacy of translation depends on
similarity of their background information rather than only on linguistic
correctness

2.Translation equivalence: full equivalents.

one can hardly find truly full and universal equivalents for a word. despite
contradicting theoretical evidence full equivalence is commonly accepted as a
convenient makeshift.For practical purpose full equivalence is presumed when
there is complete coincidence of pragmatic meanings of the source and target
language units.This rule applies both to individual words and their regular
combinations. Оf them the stylistically neutral words with reference meanings
(terms, geographical and proper names, words denoting physical objects and
processes) are more likely to have full translation equivalents because semantic
and pragmatic parts of their meaning are less ambiguous.

3.Translation equivalence: partial equivalents.

Partial equivalence is, as a matter of fact, the absence of one or more of

equivalence aspects, i.e. of syntactic, semantic or pragmatic aspect.
Strictly saying, however, the Ukrainian word протестувати, for example, is a
partial equivalent of the English word protesting (say, in the sentence Protesting is
a risk – Протестувати ризиковано) because of different grammatical meanings
(a Gerund and a Verb), the semantic and pragmatic aspects being similar.
4.The notion of a functional style

A Functional Styleof language is a system of interrelated language means which

serves a definite aim in communication.
Functional style is defined by the Russian linguist I. Galperin as a patterned
variety of literary text characterized by the greater or lesser typification of its
constituents, supra-phrasal units, in which the choice and arrangement of
interdependent and interwoven language media are calculated to secure the purport
of the communication.
Functional style is to be regarded as the product of a certain concrete task set by
the sender of the message. As for the usage of functional styles, they appear mainly
in the literary standard of the language.
Belles-letters style is the style of imaginative literature whose unique task is
to impress the reader authentically (V. Kukharenko).

The Publicistic Styleis the style which is characterized by explicit pragmatic

function of persuasion directed at influencing the reader and shaping his
views, in accordance with the name of the corresponding genre and its
practitioners (V. Kukharenko).

The Newspaper Styleis the style of informative materials, characteristic of

newspaper only and not found in other publications (V. Kukharenko).

The Scientific Prose Styleis the style which is characterized by the

abundance of terms denoting objects, phenomena and processes characteristic
of some particular field of science and technique. It is known for its precision,
clarity and usage of cliches (V. Kukharenko).

The Official Document Styleis the most conservative one, it preserves cast-
iron forms of structuring and use of syntactical constructions and words long
known as archaic and not observed anywhere else. Emotiveness and
subjective modality are completely banned out of the official style (V.
Kukharenko).

5.Scientific and technical style.

The main function of the scientific and technical style is informative. To convey
logical information, prove its novelty and significance is the main goal of a
scholarly, scientific or technical author. This style is used in professional spheres
of science, humanities, technology.

The scientific and technical style involves the following substyles: scientific,
technical, instructional (educational), popular science substyle. The substyles are
classified into the following genres: monograph, manual, textbook, article, report,
technical description, discussion, etc.

The distinctive features of scientific and technical style are preciseness, clear logic,
compressive character, impersonality, formality.

6.Scientific and technical terms as a challenge for translators

Rapid scientific, technological and social changes have led to forming up of

professional "subcultures" with respective "sublanguages" used for communication
within certain political, social, scientific and industrial sections of society. Often
people of the same nation understand very little when they hear or read texts,
which belong to a professional sphere alien to them. The situation is complicated
by the development of subject field slang or jargon within professional
"sublanguages" which is often not registered by dictionaries.  However "the
ordinary people" may not know the above- mentioned contextual meanings of the
words. Translation practice of today makes use of all possible ways of rendering
subject field terms, abbreviations and acronyms with a certain preference given to
practical transcription and transliteration in comparison to loans, analogies and
descriptive translation which is often used in parallel. Therefore translators and
interpreters in order to keep up with the fast changing world and be able to
translate scientific and technical texts have to specialize in certain areas (or
domains) of human activity. Translators of scientific and technical matter have to
be a little bit of academics, engineers or medical doctors in order not to mislead
readers or listeners.

7.Style of official documents.

The official document functional style can be divided into four varieties:

a) the language style of diplomatic documents;

b) the language style of business documents;

c) the language style of legal documents;

d) the language style of military documents.

The style of official documents aims at establishing, developing and

controlling business relations between individuals and organizations.

The main aim of this type of communication is to state the conditions binding
two parties in an undertaking. These parties may be: this state and a citizen, or
citizen and citizen; a society and its members (statute or ordinance); two or
more enterprises or bodies (business correspondence or contracts); two or more
governments (pacts, treaties); a person in authority and a subordinate (order,
regulations, instructions, authoritative directives); a board or presidium and an
assembly or general meeting (procedures acts, minutes).

The aim of communication in this style of language is to reach agreement

between two contracting parties. Even protest against violations of statutes,
contracts, regulations, can also be regarded as a form by which normal
cooperation is sought on the basis of previously attained concordance.

Features:
• objective, precise, and mostly unemotional language means; words used in
primary logical meaning
• use of terms and learned words
• impersonality and generalized form of expression reflected in the choice of
grammar and syntactic constructions
• logical sequence of utterances
• most developed system of connectives
• accepted sentence-patterns: postulatory, argumentative, and formulative
• use of quotations and references
• use of footnotes both of the reference kind and digressive in character

8.Publicistic style.

The publicistic style is used in public speeches and printed public works which
are addressed to a broad audience and devoted to important social or political
events, public problems of cultural or moral character. Publicistic style exists in
two forms, written and oral. Essays and articles naturally belong to the former:
speeches, oratories, radio and TV commentaries are traditionally shaped in an
oral form.

It has three distinct sub-styles, each characterised by its own peculiar features.
They are:

1) oratorical style

Being in oral representation it retains some peculiarities of standard oral speech

such as direct address to the audience, use of contractions like I’ll, don’t,
you’ve, etc., use of imperative mood, use of colloquialisms and second person
of pronouns, etc.
2) the style of essays

An essay is a limited prose composition on some definite, perhaps scientific or

political or legal or economic or literary topic.

An essay is not supposed to treat a problem thoroughly. It is rather an

expression of the author’s personal approach to the problem discussed. Thus this
sub-style mostly depends on the writer’s individuality.

3) the style of articles

The aim of a newspaper or magazine article is to interpret news, give comments

on political, cultural, economic events of the day or to explain and convince the
reader on something. The singleness of purpose determines the existence of a
number of common principles characteristic for both this latter sub-styles and
the newspaper functional style.

9.Expressive means and stylistic devices used in the texts of publicistic style

Expressive means are morphological, phonetic, lexical, word-building,

phraseological and syntactical forms which function in the language for emotional
or logical intensification of an utterance.

They serve to strengthen the communicative effect of the speech.

Stylistic devices are a conscious and intentional usage of some language facts.

If a language fact is widely used in one and the same function, it becomes
generalized in this function.

A stylistic device is choice or arrangement of units to achieve an expressive or an

image-creating effect.

The use of stylistic devices gives an auxiliary meaning, idea, or feeling to the
literal or written.

At each level of the language we can distinguish different stylistic devices, they are
phonetic, lexical, and syntactic devices

10.Special vocabularies used in the publicistic style

11.Belles-lettres style.

Belles-lettres style.
The belles-lettres style is a generic term for three substyles in which the main
principles and the most general properties of the style are materialized. These three
sub-styles are: '

1. The language of poetry, or simply verse.

2. Emotive prоse, or the language of fiction.

3. Тhe language of the drama.

The belles-lettres style rests on certain indispensable linguistic features which are:

1. Genuine, not trite, imagery, achieved by purely linguistic devices.

2. The use of words in contextual and very often in more than one dictionary
meaning, or at least greatly influenced by the lexical environment.

3. A vocabulary which will reflect to a greater or lesser degree the author's

personal evaluation of things or phenomena.

4. A peculiar individual selection of vocabulary and syntax, a kind of lexical and

syntactical idiosyncrasy.

+5. The introduction of the typical features of colloquial language to a full degree
(in plays) or a lesser one (in emotive prose) or a slight degree, if any (in poems).

12.Notion of transformations.
Transformation is any change of the source text at the syntactic level during
translation.

On the one hand, even for the languages of different structure general structural
similarity in translation is common enough. Just compare any English text and its
translation into Ukrainian and you will see much in common at the syntactic level
(e. g. Subject-Predicate-Object sequences, Attribute-Noun structures, etc.).

On the other, total similarity of syntactic structures is a rare (and generally hardly
desirable) case, which means that English-Ukrainian translation we often observe
transformations.

It should be noted, that the majority of syntactic transformations in English-

Ukrainian translation are occasional, i. e. the translator transforms the source
syntactic structures on case-by-case basis, each case being dependent on the
context, situation, pragmatic intent and many other factors some of which are
unknown and the translator's decisions relevant to the case are often intuitive.
In English-Ukrainian translation occasional transformations are often the matter of
translator's individual choice and, in general, strongly depend on stylistic
peculiarities and communication intent of the source text.

13.Lexical and semantic transformations.

14.Grammatical transformations.
15.Syntactical transformations

English Verbal Complexes

A verbal complex is a unique structure of the English language system missing in

Ukrainian.
The complex includes a predicate verb, an object and an object predicate
comprising either Infinitive or Participle I (e.g.I saw him run or I saw him
running).

Gerund

Gerund is a peculiar English language phenomenon missing in Ukrainian. As a

rule Gerund is translated into Ukrainian by Infinitive or Verbal Nouns.

Pluralia and Singularia Tantum

In English-Ukrainian translation the cases of missing Plural or Singular Noun

Forms are also worth paying attention to because of their frequent mismatch with
the corresponding Russian words. These cases are, of course, shown in the
dictionaries that is why several examples seem to be sufficient to illustrate this
minor translation problem: oats - овес, onions -цибуля.

Gender Forms
The category of Noun Gender is known to be expressed in English indirectly:
either through pronouns or by lexical means. This information is to be born in
mind by translators when translating from Ukrainian into English. Again an
example will do to illustrate the problem: кіт - tom-cat, he-cat.

Sequence of Tenses

As the readers of this Manual might know from their language course the Sequence
of Tenses is a peculiar system of correlation between the Verb Tenses in the main
and subordinate clauses. Since similar system is missing in Ukrainian it may
present a problem for translation, especially from Ukrainian into English.

16.Written translation.

Written translation

When information presented in the source text (the source language text to be
translated, oral or written) is presented in a written form in the target language,
then we are talking about written translation. Written translation has to comply
with the grammar rules of the target language and the indications and wishes of the
client.

The most important keywords of written translation are adequacy, compactness

and reliability. The quality of the translation has the utmost importance and it has
to correspond to the purpose of the translated text.

16.Oral translation/interpretation.

Oral translation
Interpretation – the presentation of information in spoken language on an
operational basis.
This type of translation allows you to establish a productive communication
between representatives of different language cultures. The structure conveys the
content of oral speech through vocabulary, grammar and features of intonation
structures. As a rule, there are two main versions of interpretation: synchronous
and sequential.

Features of oral speech

Interpretation, which is traditionally divided into synchronous and sequential, has

its own peculiarities.

17.Consecutive translation/interpretation.
Oral consecutive interpretation involves the provision of speaker speech, and then
the translation of the same in logical pauses.

As a simultaneous translation, consecutive interpretation is used after official

communication, as well as on less strict forms of communication: meetings,
escorting delegations, etc.

A specialist can spend several hours on a sequential translation.

Every specialist working in this language sphere should have an impeccable

knowledge, because he will not have the opportunity to consult someone during a
speech if there are any questions regarding the speech of the speaker.

To ensure accurate translation, the translator must have a dictionary in the

designated area, and also understand the specific features and subtleties in the
translation field.

18.Simultaneous translation/interpretation

Simultaneous interpretation is considered as the most complex form of translation

in this field of activity.

Speaker’s speech enters a normal pace, and the simultaneous interpreter interprets
it in the required foreign language.

Thus, the time interval between the initial speech and the interpretation is minimal.

This allows listeners of all language directions to simultaneously receive

information.
Listeners easily perceive the translation, as if the speaker spoke in their native
language.

This popular form of interpretation is widely used in official speeches, conferences

and international meetings. A specialist can work in simultaneous translation for a
maximum of 20-30 minutes, after the passage of this time, an interpreter needs to
be replaced.

Application area:

Official speeches of various officials;

Negotiations, including telephone;

Speech sessions of the court;

Briefings and conferences;

19.Differences in the working environments of a translator and interpreter.

20.“At sight” translation.

Sight translation Somewhere between translation and interpreting we have sight
translation, which involves the oral translation of a written text.

Sight interpretation "Interpreters have to listen, translate and read at the same time,
using two input channels. At the extreme, the interpreters may even be provided
with a previously prepared translation to read from, yet they still have to listen to
the speakers in order to synchronise with them. It's called sight interpretation (by
analogy with sight translation […]). In addition, there's the matter of all the
background documentation that interpreters should skim through in preparation for
a meeting.

Sight translation Sight translation: translating a written text orally.

So it's a hybrid of written translation and interpreting. Faster and more economical
than writing the translation. It's more widespread than people realise, much of it in
the form of dictated translation, in which a Professional Translator dictates into a
recorder for transcription by a secretary or, nowadays, into a computer equipped
with speech recognition software.
 21.Machine translation.

Machine translation (MT) is an automatic translation from one language to

another. The benefit of machine translation is that it is possible to translate large
swathes of text in a very short time.

21.CAT tools in the work of a translator

5 CAT tools that every translator should use

 Translation Memory Software. Translation memory software is the most

well-known CAT tool. ...
 Language Search-Engine Software. ...
 Terminology Management Software. ...
 Alignment Software. ...
 Interactive Machine Translation.

22.Editing
Editing is the process of selecting and
preparing written, photographic, visual, audible, or cinematic material used by a
person or an entity to convey a message or information. The editing process can
involve correction, condensation, organisation, and many other modifications
performed with an intention of producing a correct, consistent, accurate and
complete piece of work

23.Proofreading
In the publishing industry, proofreaders usually check a printed “proof copy” of the
text and mark corrections using specialized proofreading marks. In other fields,
though, professional proofreaders often work with digital texts and make
corrections directly using the track changes feature in Microsoft Word or Google
Docs.

Step 1: Content Revising an early draft of a text, often making significant

editing changes to the content and moving,
adding or deleting entire sections (also known as developmental or
substantive editing).

Step 2: Line editing Revising the use of language to communicate your story,
ideas, or arguments as effectively as possible.
 This might involve changing words, phrases and sentences
and restructuring paragraphs to improve the flow of the text.

Step 3: Copy editing Polishing individual sentences to ensure correct grammar,

clear syntax, and stylistic consistency,
often following the rules of a specific style guide
(such as APA or MLA).

Copy editors don’t change the content of a text,

but if a sentence or paragraph is ambiguous or awkward,
they can work with the author to improve it.

Step 4: Proofreading Carefully checking for any remaining errors,

such as misspelled words, misplaced punctuation, and stylistic
inconsistencies.

In print publishing, proofreaders are also responsible for checking th

formatting
(e.g. page numbers and line spacing).

24.Translator’s shorthand

25.Stylistic devices.

26.Stylistic resources of English and Ukrainian languages: common and

distinct features. Problems of translation

27.Lexical stylistic devices. Problems of their translation from English into

Ukrainian.

28.Grammatical and syntactical stylistic devices. Ways of their preserving in

translation from English into Ukrainian.