BIOS 1705 – Lab 8 Cell Division & Cancer

The Cell Cycle

The cell cycle is a sequence of events that actively dividing cells go through
(Fig. 1). Mitosis and cytokinesis occur in a part of the cell cycle called M
phase. The remainder of the cell cycle, occurring between successive cell
divisions is called Interphase. Interphase consists of three phases, G1, S,
and G2. During S phase the cell’s DNA is copied. This is necessary so that
when the cell divides later in M phase there are 2 complete copies of all the
chromosomes, 1 for each new or daughter cell.

Figure 1. The cell cycle.

Mitosis & Cytokinesis

Many people think of mitosis as cell division, but more accurately mitosis is the division of the chromosomes to form to
new nuclei. The division of the entire cell is called cytokinesis. Cytokinesis usually, but not always, accompanies mitosis.

Mitosis can be divided into several phases in which different specific events occur (Fig. 2):

Prophase Chromosomes begin to condense and are observable as

thin, threadlike structures during early prophase. Chromosomes are thick
and short by the end of prophase. At this point, each chromosome contains
two DNA molecules called chromatids, that resulted from DNA replication
that occurred during S phase, held together by a centromere. However, the separate
chromatids will not be resolved at the magnifications possible on the compound
microscopes in this lab. During prophase the nuclear membrane and nucleoli break
down.

Metaphase Chromosomes align near the center of the cell. Metaphase is a

preparation for the equal division of chromosomes between the daughter cells, a
process that is accomplished in the next stage. The spindle, made of microtubules
forms and the microtubules attach to chromosomes. In the next phase they will
assist them in their movement to opposite sides of the cell.

Anaphase At the beginning of anaphase, the centromeres of each chromosome

pull apart, and the formerly attached sister chromatids of each chromosome separate,
one moving toward one side of the cell, the other toward the opposite side.

Telophase This is the last stage of mitosis. The chromosomes have reached
the ends (poles) of the spindle. The nuclear envelope begins to reform, the spindle
apparatus breaks down and the chromosomes begin to unwind.

C y tokinesis, is the division of the cell itself. It usually begins during

telophase. In plant cells, a cell plate starts to form across the center of
the cell, which will eventually develop into a new cell wall and divide the
original cell into two daughter cells. In animal cells, a contractile ring
forms, and contracts around the middle of the cell separating the two daughter cells.plant cells animal cells
Figure 2. The phases of mitosis and cytokinesis.
Activity 1 Observing Mitosis in Plant cells – Onion Root Tip

Procedure
1. Examine the pictures on your worksheet.
2. Label each one with the phase that the cell is in, either: interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
or cytokinesis.

Activity 2 Observing Mitosis in Animal cells – Blastula Stage of Whitefish

Procedure
3. Examine the pictures on your worksheet.
4. Label each one with the phase that the cell is in, either: interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
or cytokinesis.

Cancer
Cancer involves uncontrolled cell division. Cancer is a genetic disease caused by the mutation of several genes that fit
into the following 2 categories (Fig. 3):

Oncogenes - Genes which encode proteins that normally stimulate cells to divide at the appropriate time. Mutation
can cause them to be constantly active, thus continually stimulating the cell to divide.

Tumor Suppressor Genes - Genes which encode proteins that normally block cell division. Mutation can make them
inactive, thus removing a “brake” on cell division.

some proteins push the some proteins stop the cell

cell through the cycle from going through the cycle

mutated form is active mutated form is inactive

all the time - called a tumor suppressor gene
- called an oncogene

stimulates cells to fails to stop inappropriate cell

divide constantly division

Figure 3. Mutation of oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes push cells to continuously go
through the cell cycle.

A single mutation of one oncogene or tumor suppressor gene is not sufficient to cause cancer, but it can
increase the proliferation rate (division) of a cell. More division, and the associated copying of DNA, allows
for increased opportunities for additional mutations to occur. Once a certain number of mutations of
oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes has occurred in the same cell lineage the tumor is called malignant.
This is now cancer. Malignant tumors are characterized by increased rate of cell proliferation, decreased rate
of cell death, increased cell invasiveness (ability of cells to move through surrounding tissue) and metastasis
(the spreading of the cancer cells to distant organs) (Fig. 4).

normal cell
acquires a
mutation benign malignant metastasis metastasis
cells form new tumors
• tumors
cells form new
at distant
at distant site (anothersite (another
organ)

Blood vessel

invasion

invasion
Figure 4. Accumulation of several mutations in oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes
eventually leads to cancer.

In this lab we will look at microscope images of human skin. We will first examine normal
human skin and then compare this to skin cancer.

Skin has two main layers (Fig. 5):

Epidermis - an epithelium (cells covering a surface)

consisting of many layers of cells. The outermost layer
of our skin, the epidermis is protective and water
resistant, preventing loss of water to the environment.
Most of the cells in the epidermis are keratinocytes.
Keratinocytes in the basal (lowermost) layer divide,
providing new cells. As the cells mature they move up
through the epidermis. The top layer consists of dead
cells that have lots of the protein keratin and forms a
water resistant barrier. Melanocytes make the pigment
melanin.

Dermis - a layer of connective tissue beneath the

epidermis which supports the epidermis, provides
strength to the skin (due its numerous collagen fibers)
and contains other structures such as blood vessels, nerves Figure 5. The structure of human skin.
and sweat glands.

The epidermis and dermis are separated by a basal lamina (sometimes called a basement membrane). The
basal lamina is made of extracellular matrix protein fibers (a special type of collagen).
Histology – microscopic study of tissue

Since you will be looking at microscopic pictures of human tissue, below is some basic information to help you
understand what you will be seeing.

The pictures below and images on your worksheet for Activity 3 are microscope images of human tissue.
Tissue studied in this way is stained so that cell structures can be seen. The most common type of stain used
is called H&E (hematoxylin and eosin). H&E stain nuclei blue and cytoplasm pink (see pictures below).

Types of tissue
Below are common appearances of different types of animal tissue in the microscope.

collagen
fibers

muscle nervous connective

epithelial
Activity 3 Structure of Skin and Skin Cancer

A B
epidermis

dermis

blood
vessel

tumor cells
epidermis

dermis – pink swirls

Blood are collagen fibers
vessel

Figure 6. A) Normal human skin; B) Two examples of basal cell carcinoma.

Procedure
1. On your worksheet are 6 images of normal skin and skin cancer (basal cell carcinomas). Identify
and label each one on the line below the picture as normal skin or cancer.

2. Answer the questions on your worksheet.