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FUNDAMENTALS OF ENERGY CONVERSION ENGINEERING

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF ENERGY CONVERSION ENGINEERING
Dr. Osama Mohammed Elmardi Suleiman Khayal
Nile Valley University, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Atbara, Sudan
e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
Energy conversion engineering (or heat-power engineering, as it was called prior to
the Second World War), has been one of the central themes in the development of the
engineering profession. It is concerned with the transformation of energy from
sources such as fossil and nuclear fuels and the sun into conveniently used forms
such as electrical energy, rotational and propulsive energy, and heating and cooling.
Keywords: Energy Conversion, Thermodynamics, Control Volumes and Steady
Flows, Properties of Vapors, Ideal Gas Basics, Fluid Flow, Compressible Flow,
Energy Classification, Carnot Engine, Second-Law
Introduction
A multitude of choices and challenges face the modern energy conversion engineer.
A few years ago major segments of the energy conversion industry were settled into a
pattern of slow innovation. Most automobile manufacturers were satisfied to
manufacture engines that had evolved from those produced twenty years earlier,
some of which boasted 400 horsepower and consumed a gallon of leaded gasoline
every eight or nine miles. Many electric power utilities were content with state-of-the
art, reliable, fossil-fuel-consuming steam power plants, except for a few forward-
looking, and in several cases unfortunate, exceptions that risked the nuclear
alternative.
Then came the oil embargo of the 1970s, high fuel prices, and threatened shortages.
Also, the public and legislatures began to recognize that air pollution produced by
factories, power plants, and automobiles and other forms of environmental pollution
were harmful. International competitors, producing quality automobiles with smaller,
lower-pollution engines, exceptional gas mileage, and lower prices shook the
automobile industry. The limitations of the Earth’s resources and environment started
to come into clearer focus. These and other influences have been helping to create a

1
more favorable climate for consideration, if not total acceptance, of energy
conversion alternatives and new concepts.
There are opposing factors, however. Among them are limited research and
development funding due to budgetary constraints, emphasis on short-term rather
than long-term goals because of entrepreneurial insistence on rapid payback on
investment, and managerial obsession with the bottom line. But more open attitudes
have become established. New as well as previously shelved ideas are now being
considered or reconsidered, tested, and sometimes implemented. A few examples are
combined steam and gas turbine cycles, rotary combustion engines, solar and
windmill power farms, stationary and vehicular gas turbine power plants,
cogeneration, photovoltaic solar power, refuse-derived fuel, stratified charge engines,
turbocharged engines, fluidized-bed combustors, and coal-gasification power plants.
We are living in a rapidly changing world that requires continuing adaptation of old
technologies and the development of new ones. Energy conversion engineering is a
more stimulating, complex, and viable field today because of this altered climate.
History of Energy Conversion
How did we get where we are today? A good answer requires a study of the history of
science and engineering worthy of many volumes. Table 1 identifies a few pivotal
ideas and inventions, some of them landmarks to energy conversion engineers, and
the names of the thinkers and movers associated with them. Of course, the table
cannot present the entire history of energy conversion engineering. Omitted are the
contributions of Newton and Euler, the first rocket engine, the V-8 engine, the ramjet
and fanjet. The reader could easily come up with many other glaring omissions and
extend the table indefinitely.
While the names of one or two persons are associated with each landmark
achievement, most of these landmarks were the products of teams of unheralded
individuals whose talents were crucial to success. Moreover, the successes did not
occur in a vacuum, but benefited and followed from the advances and failures of
others. Unknown or renowned, each engineer and his or her associates can make a
contribution to the progress of mankind.
2
Table 1 can only hint at how the persons, ideas, and events listed there relied on
their predecessors and on a host of less well-known scientific and technological
advances. A brief bibliography of historical sources is given at the end of the notes.
These works chronicle the efforts of famous and unsung heroes, and a few villains, of
energy conversion and their struggles with ideas and limiting tools and resources to
produce machines for man and industry.
The historical progress of industry and technology was slow until the fundamentals of
thermodynamics and electromagnetism were established in the nineteenth century.
The blossoming of energy technology and its central role in the industrial revolution
is well known to all students of history. It is also abundantly clear that the
development of nuclear power in the second half of the twentieth century grew from
theoretical and experimental scientific advances of the first half century. After a little
reflection on Table 1, there should be no further need to justify a fundamental
scientific and mathematical approach to energy conversion engineering.
Since energy conversion engineering is deeply rooted in thermodynamics, fluid
mechanics, and heat transfer, this notes briefly reviews those aspects of these
disciplines that are necessary for understanding, analysis, and design in the field of
energy conversion.

Table 1 Some Significant Events in the History of Energy Conversion

3
4
 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics
The subject of thermodynamics stems from the notions of temperature, heat, and
work. Although, the following discussion makes occasional reference to molecules
and particles, useful in clarifying and motivating concepts in thermodynamics,
thermodynamics as a science deals with matter as continuous rather than as discrete
or granular.
A. System, Surroundings, and Universe
We define a pure substance as a homogeneous collection of matter. Consider a fixed
mass of a pure substance bounded by a closed, impenetrable, flexible surface. Such a
mass, called a system, is depicted schematically in Figure 1 (a). For example, the
system could be a collection of molecules of water, air, refrigerant, or combustion gas
confined in a closed container such as the boundary formed by a cylinder and a fitted
piston, Figure 1 (b). A system should always be defined carefully, to ensure that the
same particles are in the system at all times. All other matter which can interact with
the system is called the surroundings. The combination of the system and the
surroundings is termed the universe, used here not in a cosmological sense, but to
include only the system and all matter which could interact with the system.

5
Thermodynamics and energy conversion are concerned with changes in the system
and in its interactions with the surroundings.

Figure 1 System Concept

B. State

The mass contained within a system can exist in a variety of conditions call states.
Qualitatively, the concept of state is familiar. For example, the system state of a gas
might be described qualitatively by saying that the system is at a high temperature
and a low pressure. Values of temperature and pressure are characteristics that
identify a particular condition of the system. Thus a unique condition of the system is
called a state.
C. Thermodynamic Equilibrium
A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium if, over a long period of time,
no change in the character or state of the system is observed.
D. Thermodynamic Properties

6
It is a fundamental assumption of thermodynamics that a state of thermodynamic
equilibrium of a given system may be described by a few observable characteristics
called thermodynamic properties, such as pressure, temperature, and volume.
Obviously, this approach excludes the possibility of description of the condition of
the molecules of the system, a concern that is left to the fields of statistical and
quantum mechanics and kinetic theory. Nevertheless, it is frequently useful to think
of thermodynamic phenomena in molecular terms.
The Temperature Property. Temperature is a measure of the vigor of the
molecular activity of a system. How can it be observed? A thermometer measures a
system property called temperature when it is in intimate and prolonged contact
(thermodynamic equilibrium) with the system. A mercury-in-glass thermometer, for
instance, functions by thermal expansion or contraction of mercury within a glass
bulb. The bulb must be in intimate thermal contact with the observed system so that
the temperatures of the bulb and the system are the same. As a result of the
equilibrium, elongation or contraction of a narrow column of mercury connected to
the bulb indicates the temperature change of the system with which it is in contact.
The Pressure Property. Another way to observe changes in the state of a liquid or
gaseous system is to connect a manometer to the system and observe the level of the
free surface of the manometer fluid . The manometer free surface rises or drops as the
force per unit area or pressure acting on the manometer-system interface changes.
E. Defining a State
It has been empirically observed that an equilibrium state of a system containing a
single phase of a pure substance is defined by two thermodynamic properties. Thus, if
we observe the temperature and pressure of such a system, we can identify when the
system is in a particular thermodynamic state.
F. Extensive and Intensive properties
Properties that are dependent on mass are known as extensive properties. For these
properties that indicate quantity, a given property is the sum of the corresponding
properties of the subsystems comprising the system. Examples are internal energy
and volume. Thus, adding the internal energies and volumes of subsystems yields the
7
internal energy and the volume of the system, respectively.
In contrast, properties that may vary from point to point and that do not change with
the mass of the system are called intensive properties. Temperature and pressure are
well-known examples. For instance, thermometers at different locations in a system
may indicate differing temperatures. But if a system is in equilibrium, the
temperatures of all its subsystems must be identical and equal to the temperature of
the system. Thus, a system has a single, unique temperature only when it is at
equilibrium.
G. Work
From basic mechanics, work, W, is defined as the energy provided by an entity that
exerts a force, F, in moving one or more particles through a distance, x. Thus work
must be done by an external agent to decrease the volume, V, of a system of
molecules. In the familiar piston-cylinder arrangement shown in Figure 1. (b), an
infinitesimal volume change of the system due to the motion of the piston is related to
the differential work through the force-distance product:
dW = Fdx = pAdx = pdV [ft-lbf | n-m] . a)
or
dw = pdv [Btu/lbm | kJ/kg] . b)
where p is the system pressure, and A is the piston cross-sectional area.
Note that in Equation (1. b), the lower case letters w and v denote work and volume
on a unit mass basis. All extensive properties, i.e., those properties of state that are
proportional to mass, are denoted by lowercase characters when on a unit mass basis.
These are called specific properties. Thus, if V represents volume, then v denotes
specific volume. Although work is not a property of state, it is dealt with in the same
way.
Also note that the English units of energy in Equation (1a) are given in mechanical
units. Alternately, the British Thermal unit [Btu] may be used, as in Equation (1b).
The two sets of units are related by the famous conversion factor known as the
mechanical equivalent of heat, 778 ft-lbf/Btu. The student should pay close attention
to the consistency of units in all calculations. Conversion factors are frequently
8
required and are not explicitly included in many equations. For the convenience of
the reader, Appendix A lists physical constants and conversion factors.
When work decreases the volume of a system, the molecules of the system move
closer together. The moving molecules then collide more frequently with each other
and with the walls of their container. As a result, the average forces (and hence
pressures) on the system boundaries increase. Thus the state of the system may be
changed by work done on the system.
H. Heat
Given a system immersed in a container of hot fluid, by virtue of a difference in
temperature between the system and the surrounding fluid, energy passes from the
fluid to the system. We say that heat, Q [Btu | kJ], is transferred to the system. The
system is observed to increase in temperature or to change phase or both. Thus heat
transfer to or from the system, like work, can also change the state of the matter
within the system.
When the system and the surrounding fluid are at the same temperature, no heat
is transferred. In this case the system and surroundings are said to be in thermal
equilibrium. The term adiabatic is used to designate a system in which no heat
crosses the system boundaries. A system is often approximated as an adiabatic system
if it is well insulated.
I. Heat and Work Are Not Properties
Mechanics teaches that work can change the kinetic energy of mass and can change
the elevation or potential energy of mass in a gravitational field. Thus work
performed by an outside agent on the system boundary can change the energy
associated with the particles that make up the system. Likewise, heat is energy
crossing the boundary of a system, increasing or decreasing the energy of the
molecules within. Thus heat and work are not properties of state but forms of energy
that are transported across system boundaries to or from the environment. They are
sometimes referred to as energy in transit. Energy conversion engineering is vitally
concerned with devices that use and create energy in transit.
J. Internal Energy and The First Law of Thermodynamics
9
A property of a system that reflects the energy of the molecules of the system is
called the internal energy, U. The Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy
can be neither created nor destroyed. Thus the internal energy of a system can change
only when energy crosses a boundary of the system, i.e., when heat and/or work
interact with the system. This is expressed in an equation known as the First Law of
Thermodynamics. In differential form the First Law is:
du = dq dw [Btu/lbm | kJ/kg]
Here, u is the internal energy per unit mass, a property of state, and q and w are,
respectively, heat and work per unit mass. The differentials indicate infinitesimal
changes in quantity of each energy form. Here, we adopt the common sign
convention of thermodynamics that both the heat entering the system and work done
by the system are positive. This convention will be maintained throughout the text.
Thus Equation (2) shows that heat into the system (positive) and work done on the
system (negative) both increase the system's internal energy.
K. Cyclic Process
A special and important form of the First Law of Thermodynamics is obtained by
integration of Equation (2) for a cyclic process. If a system, after undergoing arbitrary
change due to heat and work, returns to its initial state, it is said to have
participated in a cyclic process. The key points are: (1) the integral of any state
property differential is the difference of its limits, and (2) the final state is the same as
the initial state (hence there is no change in internal energy of the system)

where the special integral sign indicates integration over a single cycle and subscripts
I and f designate, respectively, initial and final states. As a consequence, the
integration of Equation (2) for a cycle yields:

This states that the integral of all transfers of heat into the system, taking into account
the sign convention, is the integral of all work done by the system. The latter is the
network of the system. The integrals in Equation (3) may be replaced by summations
for a cyclic process that involves a finite number of heat and work terms. Because
11
many heat engines operate in cyclic processes, it is sometimes convenient to evaluate
the network of a cycle using Equation (3) with heat additions and losses rather than
using work directly.
L. Arbitrary Process of a System
Another important form of the First Law of Thermodynamics is the integral of
Equation (2) for an arbitrary process involving a system:

where q and w are, respectively, the net heat transferred and network for the process,
and uf and ui are the final and initial values of the internal energy. Equation (4), like
Equation (2), shows that a system that is rigid (w = 0) and adiabatic (q = 0) has an
unchanging internal energy. It also shows, like Equation (3), that for a cyclic process
the heat transferred must equal the work done.
M. Reversibility and Irreversibility
If a system undergoes a process in which temperature and pressure gradients are
always small, the process may be thought of as a sequence of near-equilibrium states.
If each of the states can be restored in reverse sequence, the process is said to be
internally reversible. If the environmental changes accompanying the process can
also be reversed in sequence, the process is called externally reversible. Thus, a
reversible process is one that is both internally and externally reversible. The
reversible process becomes both a standard by which we measure the success of real
processes in avoiding losses and a tool that we can use to derive thermodynamic
relations that approximate reality.
All real processes fail to satisfy the requirements for reversibility and are therefore
irreversible. Irreversibility occurs due to temperature, pressure, composition, and
velocity gradients caused by heat transfer, solid and fluid friction, chemical reaction,
and high rates of work applied to the system. An engineer's job frequently entails
efforts to reduce irreversibility in machines and processes.
N. Entropy and Enthalpy
Entropy and enthalpy are thermodynamic properties that, like internal energy, usually

11
appear in the form of differences between initial and final values. The entropy change
of a system, , is defined as the integral of the ratio
of the system differential heat transfer to the absolute temperature for a reversible
thermodynamic path, that is, a path consisting of a sequence of well-defined
thermodynamic states. In differential form this is equivalent to:

where the subscript rev denotes that the heat transfer must be evaluated along a
reversible path made up of a sequence of neighboring thermodynamic states. It is
implied that, for such a path, the system may be returned to its condition before the
process took place by traversing the states in the reverse order. An important example
of the use of Equation (5) considers a thermodynamic cycle composed of reversible
processes. The cyclic integral, Equation (3), may then be used to show that the
network of the cycle is:

This shows that the area enclosed by a plot of a reversible cyclic process on a
temperature-entropy diagram is the network of the cycle.
The enthalpy, h, is a property of state defined in terms of other properties:

where h, u and v are, respectively, the system specific enthalpy, specific internal
energy, and specific volume, and p is the pressure.

Figure 2 Two reversible paths and an irreversible path from state 1 to state 2
12
Two other important forms of the First Law make use of these properties.
Substitution of Equations (1) and (5) in Equation (2) yields, for a reversible process

and differentiation of Equation (1.6), combined with elimination of du in Equation

(7), gives

Equations (7) and (8) may be regarded as relating changes in entropy for reversible
processes to changes in internal energy and volume in the former and to changes in
enthalpy and pressure in the latter. The fact that all quantities in these equations are
properties of state implies that entropy must also be a thermodynamic property.
Because entropy is a state property, the entropy change between two equilibrium
states of a system is the same for all processes connecting them, reversible or
irreversible. Figure 2 depicts several such processes 1-a-b-c- -d-2, and a sequence
of non – equilibrium states not describable in thermodynamic terms indicated by the
dashed line (an irreversible path). To use Equation (5) directly or as in Equations (7)
and (8), a reversible path must be employed. Because of the path independence of
state property changes, any reversible path will do. Thus the entropy change, s2 . s1,
may be evaluated by application of Equations (5), (7), or (8) to either of the reversible
paths shown in Figure 2 or to any other reversible path connecting states 1 and 2.
O. The Second Law of Thermodynamics
While Equation (5) may be used to determine the entropy change of a system, the
Second Law of Thermodynamics, is concerned with the entropy change of the
universe, i.e., of both the system and the surroundings. Because entropy is an
extensive property, the entropy of a system is the sum of the entropy of its parts.
Applying this to the universe, the entropy of the universe is the sum of the entropy of
the system and its surroundings. The Second Law may be stated as "The entropy
change of the universe is non-negative":

Note that the entropy change of a system may be negative (entropy decrease) if the
entropy change of its environment is positive (entropy increase) and sufficiently large
13
that inequality (9) is satisfied. As an example: if the system is cooled, heat is
transferred from the system. The heat flow is therefore negative, according to sign
convention. Then, according to Equation (5), the system entropy change will also be
negative; that is, the system entropy will decrease. The associated heat flow,
however, is into the environment, hence positive with respect to the environment
(considered as a system). Then Equation (5) requires that the environmental entropy
change must be positive. The Second Law implies that, for the combined process to
be possible, the environmental entropy change must exceed the magnitude of the
system entropy change.
The First Law of Thermodynamics deals with how the transfer of heat influences the
system internal energy but says nothing about the nature of the heat transfer, i.e.,
whether the heat is transferred from hotter or colder surroundings. Experience tells us
that the environment must be hotter to transfer heat to a cooler object, but the First
Law is indifferent to the condition of the heat source. However, calculation of the
entropy change for heat transfer from a cold body to a hot body yields a negative
universe entropy change, violates the Second Law, and is therefore impossible. Thus
the Second Law provides a way to distinguish between real and impossible processes.
This is demonstrated in the following example:
EXAMPLE 1
(a) Calculate the entropy change of an infinite sink at 27°C temperature due to heat
transfer into the sink of 1000 kJ.
(b) Calculate the entropy change of an infinite source at 127°C losing the same
amount of heat.
(c) What is the entropy change of the universe if the aforementioned source supplies
1000 kJ to the sink with no other exchanges?
(d) What are the entropy changes if the direction of heat flow is reversed and the
source becomes the sink?
Solution
(a) Because the sink temperature is constant, Equation (5) shows that the entropy

14
change of the sink is the heat transferred reversibly divided by the absolute
temperature of the sink. This reversible process may be visualized as one in which
heat is transferred from a source which is infinitesimally hotter than the system:

(b) Treating the source in the same way:

(c) Because the entropy change of the universe is the sum of the entropy changes of
source and sink, the two acting together to transfer 1000kJ irreversibly give:

which satisfies the Second Law inequality (9).

(d) A similar approach with the direction of heat flow reversed, taking care to observe
the sign convention, gives

Thus we see that heat flow from a low to a high temperature reduces the entropy of
the universe, violates the Second Law, and therefore is not possible.
Parts a, b, and c of Example 1 show that the entropy change of the universe depends
on the temperature difference driving the heat transfer process:

Note that if the temperature difference is zero, the universe entropy change is also
zero and the heat transfer is reversible. For finite positive temperature differences,
exceeds zero and the process is irreversible. As the temperature difference
increases, increases. This exemplifies the fact that the entropy change of the
universe produced by a process is a measure of the irreversibility of the process.
For an isolated system, there is no change in the entropy of the surroundings.

15
Hence the system entropy change is the entropy change of the universe and therefore
must be non-negative. In other words, the entropy of an isolated system can only
increase or at best stay constant.
Control Volumes and Steady Flows
In many engineering problems it is preferable to deal with a flow of fluid particles as
they pass through a given region of space rather than following the flow of a fixed
collection of particles. Thus, putting aside the system concept (fixed collection) for
the moment, consider a volume with well-defined spatial boundaries as shown in
Figure .

Figure 3 Control volume with an inlet and an outlet

This is called a control volume. Mass at state 1 enters at a rate m and leaves at state 2
with mass flow m . If one mass flow rate exceeds the other, mass either accumulates
in the volume or is depleted. The important special case of steady flow, in which no
accumulation or depletion of mass occurs in the control volume, is considered here.
In steady flow, the conservation of mass requires equal mass flows in and out, i.e.,

If Q-dot is the rate of heat flow into the control volume and W-dot is the rate atwhich
shaft work is delivered from the control volume to the surroundings, conservation of
energy requires that the excess of inflowing heat over outgoing work equal the net
excess of the energy (enthalpy) flowing out of the ports, i.e.,

16
where summations apply to inflows i and outflows o, and where other types of energy
terms, such as kinetic and potential energy flows, are assumed negligible. For clarity,
the figure shows only one port in and one port out. Kinetic and potential energy terms
may be added analogous to the enthalpy terms at each port, if needed.
Equation (10) may be the most important and frequently used equation in this book.
Mastery of its use is therefore essential. It is known as the steady flow form of the
First Law of Thermodynamics. It may be thought of as a bookkeeping relation for
keeping track of energy crossing the boundaries of the control volume.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics applied to steady flow through an adiabatic
control volume requires that m s m s1, or by virtue of mass conservation:

That is, because entropy cannot accumulate within the control volume in a steady
flow, the exit entropy must equal or exceed the inlet entropy. In steady flows, heat
transfer can increase or decrease the entropy of the flow, depending on the direction
of heat transfer, as long as the entropy change of the surroundings is such that the net
effect is to increase the entropy of the universe.
We will often be concerned with adiabatic flows. In the presence of fluid friction and
other irreversibilities, the exit entropy of an adiabatic flow exceeds its inlet entropy.
Adiabatic flows that have no irreversibilities also have no entropy change and
therefore are called isentropic flows.
Properties of Vapors: Mollier and T-s Diagrams
When heated, liquids are transformed into vapors. The much different physical
character of liquids and vapors makes engines in which phase change takes place
possible. The Newcomen atmospheric engine, for instance condensed steam to liquid
water in a piston-cylinder enclosure to create a partial vacuum. The excess of
atmospheric pressure over the low pressure of the condensed steam, acting on the
opposite face of the piston, provided the actuating force that drove the first successful

17
engines in the early eighteenth century. In the latter half of the eighteenth century,
engines in which work was done by steam pressure on the piston rather than by the
atmosphere, replaced Newcomen-type engines. Steam under pressure in reciprocating
engines was a driving force for the industrial revolution for about two centuries. By
the middle of the twentieth century, steam turbines and diesel engines had largely
replaced the steam engine in electric power generation, marine propulsion, and
railroad locomotives.
Figure 4 shows typical saturation curves for a pure substance plotted in temperature
and entropy coordinates. A line of constant pressure (an isobar) is shown in which the
sub-cooled liquid at state 1 is heated, producing increases in entropy, temperature,
and enthalpy, until the liquid is saturated at state 2. Isobars in the sub-cooled region
of the diagram lie very close to the saturated liquid curve. The separation of the two
is exaggerated for clarity.

Figure 4 Liquid, vapor, and mixed phases

Once the substance has reached state 2, further transfer of heat fails to increase the
system temperature but is reflected in increased enthalpy and entropy in a
vaporization or boiling process. During this process the substance is converted from a
saturated liquid at state 2 to a mixture of liquid and vapor, and finally to a saturated

18
vapor at state 3. The enthalpy difference between the saturation values, h . h , is
called the enthalpy of vaporization or heat of vaporization.
Continued addition of heat to the system, starting at state 3, superheats the steam to
state 4, again increasing temperature, enthalpy, and entropy. Several observations
about the isobaric process may be made here. Equation ( and Figure 4 show that the
effect of adding heat is to always increase system entropy and that of cooling to
always decrease it. A similar conclusion can be drawn from Equation (10) regarding
heat additions acting to increase enthalpy flow through a control volume in the
absence of shaft work.
A measure of the proximity of a superheated state (state 4 in the figure) to the
saturated vapor line is the degree of superheat. This is the difference between the
temperature T4 and the saturated vapor temperature T3, at the same pressure. Thus
the degree of superheat of superheated state 4 is T - T .
In the phase change from state 2 to state 3, the temperature and pressure give no
indication of the relative quantities of liquid and vapor in the system. The quality x is
defined as the ratio of the mass of vapor to the mass of the mixture of liquid and
vapor at any point between the saturation curves at a given pressure. By virtue of this
definition, the quality varies from 0 for a saturated liquid to 1 for a saturated vapor.
Because extensive properties are proportional to mass, they vary directly with the
vapor quality in the mixed region. The entropy, for example, varies from the entropy
of the saturated liquid sl at state 2 to the saturated vapor entropy sv at state 3 in
accordance with the following quality equation:

where s is the entropy per unit mass. Other extensive properties such as enthalpy and
volume vary with quality in the same way.
A variable closely related to the quality is moisture fraction (both quality and
moisture fraction can be expressed as percentages). Moisture fraction, M, is defined
as the ratio of the mass of liquid to the total mass of liquid and vapor. It can be easily
shown that the sum of the quality and the moisture fraction of a mixture is one.

19
A Mollier chart, a diagram with enthalpy as ordinate and entropy as abscissa, is much
like the temperature-entropy diagram. A Mollier diagram for steam is included in
Appendix B. An isobar on a Mollier chart, unlike that on a T-s diagram, has a
continuous slope. It shows both enthalpy and entropy increasing monotonically with
heat addition. Such a diagram is frequently used in energy conversion and other areas
because of the importance of enthalpy in applying the steady-flow First Law.
Ideal Gas Basics
Under normal ambient conditions, the average distance between molecules in gases is
large, resulting in negligible influences of intermolecular forces. In this case,
molecular behavior and, therefore, system thermodynamics are governed primarily by
molecular translational and rotational kinetic energy. Kinetic theory or statistical
thermodynamics may be used to derive the ideal gas or perfect gas law:

where p [lbf /ft | kN/m ], v [ft /lbm | m /kg] and T [°R | °K] are pressure, specific
volume, and temperature respectively and R [ft-lbf /lbm-°R | kJ/kg-°K] is the ideal
gas constant. The gas constant R for a specific gas is the universal gas constant R
divided by the molecular weight of the gas.
Thus, the gas constant for air is (1545 ft-lbf /lb-mole-°R) / (29 lbm/lb-mole) = 53.3 ft-
lbf /lbm-°R in the English system and (8.31 kJ/kg-mole-°K) / (29 kg/kg-mole) =
0.287 kJ/kg-°K in SI units.
The specific heats or heat capacities at constant volume and at constant pressure,
respectively, are:

and

As thermodynamic properties, the heat capacities are, in general, functions of two

other thermodynamic properties. For solids and liquids, pressure change has little
influence on volume and internal energy, so that to a very good approximation:

21
A gas is said to be thermally perfect if it obeys Equation (13) and its internal energy,
enthalpy, and heat capacities are functions of temperature only. Then

and

A gas is said to be calorically perfect if in addition to being thermally perfect it also

has constant heat capacities. This is reasonably accurate at low and moderate
pressures and at temperatures high enough that intermolecular forces are negligible
but low enough that molecular vibrations are not excited and dissociation does not
occur. For air, vibrational modes are not significantly excited below about 600K, and
dissociation of oxygen does not occur until the temperature is above about 1500K.
Nitrogen does not dissociate until still higher temperatures. Excitation of molecular
vibrations causes specific heat to increase with temperature increase. Dissociation
creates further increases in heat capacities, causing them to become functions of
pressure.
It can be shown (see Exercise 4) that for a thermally perfect gas the heat capacities
are related by the following equation:

This relation does not apply for a dissociating gas, because the molecular weight of
the gas changes as molecular bonds are broken. Note the importance of assuring that
R and the heat capacities are in consistent units in this equation.
Another important gas property is the ratio of heat capacities defined by k = cp /cv. It
is constant for gases at room temperatures but decreases as vibrational modes become
excited. The importance of k will be seen in the following example.
EXAMPLE 2
(a) Derive an expression for the entropy change of a system in terms of pressure and
temperature for a calorically perfect gas.
(b) Derive a relation between p and T for an isentropic process in a calorically perfect
gas.
21
Solution
(a) For a reversible process, Equation (8) gives Tds = dh - vdp. Dividing by T and
applying the perfect gas law gives ds = cp dT/T - Rdp/p.
Then integration between states 1 and 2 yields

(b) For an isentropic process, = . Then the above equation gives

)(k - 1)/k
But R/cp = (cp - cv )/cp = (k - 1)/k. Hence T /T = (p /p .
This and other important relations for an isentropic process in a calorically perfect
gas are summarized as follows

These relations show that the ratio of heat capacities governs the variation of
thermodynamic properties in an isentropic process. For this reason the ratio of heat
capacities is sometimes called the isentropic exponent.
Fundamentals of Fluid Flow
Almost all energy conversion devices involve the flow of some form of fluid. Air,
liquid water, steam, and combustion gases are commonly found in some of these
devices. Here we review a few of the frequently used elementary principles of fluid
flow.
The volume flow rate, Q [ft /s | m /s] at which a fluid flows across a surface is the
product of the area, A [ft | m ], of the surface and the component of velocity normal
to the area, V [ft/s | m/s]. The corresponding mass flow rate is the ratio of the volume
rate and the specific volume, v [ft /lbm | m /kg]:

22
Alternatively the flow rate can be expressed in terms of the reciprocal of the specific
volume, the density, :

The first important principle of fluid mechanics is the conservation of mass, a

principle that we have already used in Section 3. For a steady flow, the net inflow to a
control volume must equal the net outflow. Any imbalance between the inflow and
outflow implies an accumulation or a reduction of mass within the control volume,
i.e., an unsteady flow. Given a control volume with n ports, the conservation of mass
provides an equation that may be used to solve for the nth port flow rate, given the
other n-1 flow rates. These flows may be (1) given, (2) calculated from data at the
ports using Equation (22) or (23), (3) obtained by solving n-1 other equations, or
(4) a combination of the preceding three.
For isentropic flow of an incompressible (constant density, ) fluid, the Bernoulli
equation applies:

This is an invariant form, i.e. an equation with the same terms on both sides,
. The subscripts identify the locations in the flow where the invariants are
evaluated. The first term of the invariant is sometimes called the pressure head, and
the second the velocity head. The equation applies only in regions where there are no
irreversibilities such as viscous losses or heat transfer.
The invariant sum of the two terms on either side of Equation (1.24) may be called
the total head or stagnation head. It is the head that would be observed at a point
where the velocity approaches zero. The pressure associated with the total head is
therefore called the total pressure or stagnation pressure, . Each
point in the flow may be thought of as having its own stagnation pressure resulting
from an imaginary isentropic deceleration.
In the event of significant irreversibilities, there is a loss in total head and the
Bernoulli equation may be generalized to:

23
or

Stagnation pressure or head losses in ducts, such as due to flow turning or sudden
area change, are tabulated in reference books as fractions of the upstream velocity
head for a variety of geometries. Another example is the famous Darcy-Weisbach
equation which gives the head loss resulting from fluid friction in a pipe of constant
cross section.
Compressible Flow
While many engineering analyses may reasonably employ incompressible flow
principles, there are cases where the compressibility of gases and vapors must be
considered. These are situations where the magnitude of the kinetic energy of the
flow is comparable to its enthalpy such as in supersonic nozzles and diffusers, in
turbines and compressors, and in supersonic flight. In these cases the steady-flow
First Law must be generalized to include kinetic energy per unit mass terms. For two
ports:
̇ ̇
Care should be taken to assure consistency of units, because enthalpy is usually stated
in thermal units [Btu /lbm | kJ/kg] and velocity in mechanical units [ft /s | m /s].
Another invariant of significance appears in Equation (1.26a). The form

is seen to be invariant in applications where heat transfer and shaft work are
insignificant. The invariant, ho, is usually given the name stagnation enthalpy
because it is the enthalpy at a point in the flow (real or imagined) where velocity
approaches zero. In terms of stagnation enthalpy, Equation (1.26a) may be rewritten
as
̇ ̇
where conservation of mass with steady flow through two ports has been assumed.
Writing dho = cp dTo with cp constant, we get
ho2 - ho1 = cp(To2 - To1)

24
Combining this with Equation (27), we are led to define another invariant, the
stagnation temperature for a calorically perfect gas:

The stagnation temperature may be regarded as the temperture at a real or imaginary

point where the gas velocity has been brought to zero adiabatically. For this special
case of a constant heat capacity, Equation (26b) may be written as:
̇ ̇

In both incompressible and compressible flows, the mass flow rates at all stations in a
stream tube are the same. Because the specific volume and density are constant in
incompressible flow, Equation (22) shows that the volume flow rates are the same at
all stations also. However for compressible flow, Equation (23) shows that density
change along a stream tube implies volume flow rate variation. Thus, while it is
frequently convenient to think and talk in terms of volume flow rate when dealing
with incompressible flows, mass flow rate is more meaningful in compressible flows
and in general .
A measure of the compressibility of a flow is often indicated by a Mach number,
defined as the dimensionless ratio of a flow velocity to the local speed of sound in the
fluid. For ideal gases the speed of sound is given by

Compressible flows are frequently classified according to their Mach number:

M=0 Incompressible
0<M<1 Subsonic
M=1 Sonic
M>1 Supersonic
Studies of compressible flows show that supersonic flows have a significantly
different physical character than subsonic and incompressible flows. For example, the
velocity fields in subsonic flows are continuous, whereas discontinuities known as
shock waves are common in supersonic flows. Thus the student should not be

25
surprised to find that different relations hold in supersonic flows than in subsonic
flows.
Energy Classification
Energy exists in a variety of forms. All human activities involve conversion of energy
from one form to another. Indeed, life itself depends on energy conversion processes.
The human body, through complex processes, transforms the chemical energy stored
in food into external motion and work produced by muscles as well as electrical
impulses that control and activate internal functions.
It is instructive to examine some of the processes for transformation between
technically important forms of energy. Table 2 shows a matrix of energy forms and
the names of some associated energy converters.
The table is far from complete, and other energy forms and energy converters could
readily be added. However, it does include the major energy converters of interest to
mechanical engineers. It is a goal of this book to present important aspects of the
design, analysis, performance, and operation of most of these devices.
Table 2 Energy Transformation Matrix

One of the major criteria guiding the design of energy conversion systems is
efficiency. Each of the conversions in Table 2 is executed by a device that operates
with one or more relevant efficiencies. The following section explores some of the
variety of definitions of efficiency used in design and performance studies of energy
conversion devices.
Efficiencies

26
Efficiency is a measure of the quality of an operation or of a characteristic of a device.
Several types of efficiencies are widely used. It is important to clearly distinguish
among them. Note that the terms work and power are equally applicable here.
The efficiency of a machine that transmits mechanical power is measured by its
mechanical efficiency, the fraction of the power supplied to the transmission device
that is delivered to another machine attached to its output, Figure 5(a). Thus a
gearbox for converting rotational motion from a power source to a device driven at
another speed dissipates some mechanical energy by fluid and/or dry friction, with a
consequent loss in power transmitted to the second machine. The efficiency of the
gearbox is the ratio of its power output to the power input, a value less than one. For
example, a turboprop engine with a gearbox efficiency of 0.95 will transmit only 95%
of its power output to its propeller.

Figure 5 Types of Efficiencies

27
Another type of efficiency that measures internal losses of power is used to indicate
the quality of performance of turbo-machines such as pumps, compressors and
turbines. These devices convert flow energy to work (power), or vice versa. Here the
efficiency compares the output with a theoretical ideal in a ratio [Figure 1.5(b)]. The
resulting efficiency ranges from 0 to 1 as a measure of how closely the process
approaches a relevant isentropic process. A turbine with an efficiency of 0.9, will, for
example, deliver 90% of the power of a perfect (isentropic) turbine operating under
the same conditions. This efficiency, sometimes referred to as isentropic efficiency or
turbine efficiency.
Another form of isentropic efficiency, sometimes called compressor efficiency (or
pump efficiency), is defined for compressors (or pumps). It is the ratio of the
isentropic work to drive the compressor (or pump) to the actual work required.
Because the actual work required exceeds the isentropic work, this efficiency is also
less than to 1. A third type of efficiency compares the magnitude of a useful effect to
the cost of producing the effect, measured in comparable units. An example of this
type of efficiency compares the network output, wn, of a heat engine to the heat
supplied, qa, to operate the engine. This is called the to [Figure 5(c)].
For example, the flow of natural gas to an electrical power plant provides a chemical
energy flow rate or heat flow rate to the plant that leads to useful electric power
output. It is known from basic thermodynamics that this efficiency is limited by the
Carnot efficiency, as will be discussed in the next section.
Another example of this type of efficiency as applied to refrigerators and heat pumps
[Figure 5(d)] is called the coefficient of performance, COP. In this case the useful
effect is the rate of cooling or heating, and the cost to produce the effect is the power
supplied to the device. The term "coefficient of performance" is used instead of
efficiency for this measure of quality because the useful effect usually exceeds the
cost in comparable units of measure. Hence, unlike other efficiencies, the COP can
exceed unity. As seen in Figure 5(d), there are two definitions for COP, one for a
refrigerator and another for a heat pump. It may be shown using the First Law of

28
Thermodynamics, that a simple relationship exists between the two definitions:
COPhp = COPrefr .
The Carnot Engine
On beginning the study of the energy conversion ideas and devices that will serve us
in the twenty-first century, it is appropriate to review the theoretical cycle that stands
as the ideal for a heat engine. The ideas put forth by Sadi Carnot in 1824 in his
"Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat" (see Historical Bibliography) expressed
the content of the Second Law of Thermodynamics relevant to heat engines, which,
in modern form (attributed to Kelvin and Planck) is: "It is impossible for a device
which operates in a cycle to receive heat from a single source and convert the heat
completely to work" Carnot's great work also described the cycle that today bears his
name and provides the theoretical limit for efficiency of heat engine cycles that
operate between two given temperature levels: the Carnot cycle.
The Carnot cycle consists of two reversible, isothermal processes separated by two
reversible adiabatic or isentropic processes, as shown in Figure 6. All of the heat
transferred to the working fluid is supplied isothermally at the high temperature TH =
T , and all heat rejected is transferred from the working medium at the low
temperature TL = T . No heat transfer takes place, of course, in the isentropic
processes. It is evident from Equation (5) and the T-s diagram that the heat added is
T (s - s ), the heat rejected is T1 (s - s ), and, by the cyclic integral relation, the
network is T (s - s ) + T (s - s ). The thermal efficiency of the Carnot cycle, like
that of other cycles, is given by wn / qa and can be expressed in terms of the high and
low cycle temperatures as :

Because both isothermal processes operate between the same entropy limits.
29
The Carnot efficiency equation shows that efficiency rises as TL drops and as TH
increases. The message is clear: a heat engine should operate between the widest
possible temperature limits. Thus the efficiency of a heat engine will be limited by
the maximum attainable energy-source temperature and the lowest available heat-sink
temperature.
Students are sometimes troubled by the idea of isothermal heat transfer processes
because they associate heat transfer with temperature rise. A moments reflection,
however, on the existence of latent heats-e.g., the teakettle steaming on the stove at
constant temperature-makes it clear that one should not always associate heat transfer
with temperature change.

Figure 6 Carnot cycle in T – s and p – v coordinates

It is important here, as we start to consider energy conversion devices, to recall the
famous Carnot Theorem, the proof of which is given the most thermodynamics texts.
31
It states that it is impossible for any engine operating in a cycle between two
reservoirs at different temperatures to have an efficiency that exceeds the Carnot
efficiency corresponding to those temperatures. It can also be shown that all
reversible engines operating between two given reservoirs have the same efficiency
and that all irreversible engines must have lower efficiencies. Thus the Carnot
efficiency sets an upper limit on the performance of heat engines and therefore serves
as a criterion by which other engines may be judged.
Additional Second-Law Considerations
The qualitative relationship between the irreversibility of a process and the entropy
increase of the universe associated with it was considered in section 2. Let us now
consider a quantitative approach to irreversibility and apply it to a model of a power
plant.
A. Reversible Work
Instead of comparing the work output of the power plant with the energy supplied
from fuel to run the plant, it is instructive to compare it with the maximum work
achievable by a reversible heat engine operating between the appropriate temperature
limits, the reversible work. It has been established that any reversible engine would
have the same efficiency as a Carnot engine. The Carnot engine provides a device for
determining the reversible work associated with a given source temperature, TH, and a
lower sink temperature, TL.
B. Irreversibility
The irreversibility, I, of a process is defined as the difference between the reversible
work and the actual work of a process:
I = Wrev - Wact [Btu | kJ]
It is seen that the irreversibility of a process vanishes when the actual work is the
same as that produced by an appropriate Carnot engine. Moreover, the irreversibility
of a non-work-producing engine is equal to the reversible work. It is clear that I
because no real engine can produce more work than a Carnot engine operating
between the same limiting temperatures.
C. Second-Law Efficiency
31
We can also define a .second-law efficiency,. , as the ratio of the actual work of a
process to the reversible work:

This is an efficiency that is limited to 100%, as opposed to the thermal efficiency of a

heat engine, sometimes referred to as a .first-law efficiency,. which may not exceed
that of the appropriate Carnot engine. Note that an engine which has no irreversibility
is a reversible engine and has a second-law efficiency of 100%.
D. A Power Plant Model
Let us consider a model of a power plant in which a fuel is burned at a high
temperature, TH, in order to transfer heat to a working fluid at an intermediate
temperature, TINT. The working fluid, in turn, is used in an engine to produce work
and reject heat to a sink at the low temperature, TL. Figure 7 presents a diagram of the
model that shows explicitly the combustion temperature drop from the source
temperature, TH, to the intermediate temperature, TINT, the actual work-producing
engine, and a Carnot engine used to determine the reversible work for the situation.
The Carnot engine has an efficiency of and develops work in the
following amount:

Suppose that the engine we are considering is a Carnot engine that operates from the
intermediate source at TINT. Its efficiency and work output are, respectively, =1-
TL /TINT and Wact = QIN - QI = QIN . The irreversibility, I, of the power plant is then

and the second-law efficiency is:

= Wact /Wrev = (1 - TL/TINT ) / (1 - TL/TH) [dl]
32
Note that when TINT = TH, the irreversibility vanishes and the second-law efficiency
becomes 100%. Also, when TINT = TL, the irreversibility is equal to the reversible
work of the Carnot engine and the second- law efficiency is zero. The latter condition
indicates that a pure heat transfer process or any process that produces no useful work
causes a loss in the ability to do work in the amount of Wrev . Thus the reversible
work associated with the extremes of a given process is a measure of how much
capability to do work can be lost, and the irreversibility is a measure of how much of
that work producing potential is actually lost. The following example illustrates these
ideas.

Figure 7 An engine model and a Carnot engine to determine the reversible work
for the model
EXAMPLE 3
Through combustion of a fossil fuel at 3500°R, an engine receives energy at a rate of
3000 Btu/s to heat steam to 1500°R. There is no energy loss in the combustion
process. The steam, in turn, produces 1000 Btu/s of work and rejects the remaining
energy to the surroundings at 500°R.
33
(a) What is the thermal efficiency of the plant?
(b) What are the reversible work and the Carnot efficiency corresponding to the
source and sink temperatures?
(c) What is the irreversibility?
(d) What is the second-law efficiency?
(e) What would the irreversibility and the second-law efficiency be if the working
fluid were processed by a Carnot engine rather than by the real engine?
Solution
(a) The thermal efficiency, or first-law efficiency, of the plant is = Wact/QIN =
1000/3000 = 0.333 or 33.3%.
(b) The relevant Carnot efficiency is 1 - 500/3500 = 0.857, or 85.7%. The engine's
reversible work is then QIN = 0.857(3000) = 2571 Btu/s.
(c) The plant irreversibility is 2571 - 1000 = 1571 Btu/s.
(d) The second-law efficiency is then
/ . . 57 = 0.389, or 38.9%
or
Wact /Wrev = 1000/2571 = 0.389, or 38.9%.
(e) The Carnot efficiency corresponding to the maximum temperature of the working
fluid is 1 - 500/1500 = 0.667 or 66.7%. The second-law efficiency for this system is
then 0.667/0.857 = 0.778, compared with 0.389 for the actual engine. The actual
work produced by the irreversibly heated Carnot engine is 0.667(3000) = 2001 Btu/s,
and its irreversibility is then I = 2571 -2001 = 570 Btu/s.
In summary, the thermal efficiency, or first-law efficiency, of an engine is a measure
of how well the engine converts the energy in its fuel to useful work. It says nothing
about energy loss, because energy is conserved and cannot be lost: it can only be
transformed. The second-law efficiency, on the other hand, recognizes that some of
the energy of a fuel is not available for conversion to work in a heat engine and
therefore assesses the ability of the engine to convert only the available work into
useful work. This is a reason why some regard the second-law efficiency as more
significant than the more commonly used first-law efficiency.
34
 Bibliography and References
1. Van Wylen, Gordon J., and Sonntag, Richard E., Fundamentals of Classical
Thermodynamics, 3rd ed. New York: Wiley, 1986.
2. Balmer, Robert, Thermodynamics. Minneapolis: West, 1990.
3. Cengel, Yunus A., and Boles, Michael A., Thermodynamics. New York: McGraw-
Hill, 1989.
4. Faires, Virgil Moring, Thermodynamics, 5th ed. New York: Macmillan, 1970.
5. Silver, Howard F., and Nydahl, John E., Engineering Thermodynamics.
Minneapolis: West, 1977.
6. Bathie, William W., Fundamentals of Gas Turbines. New York: Wiley, 1984
7. Wilson, David Gordon, The Design of High Efficiency Turbomachinary and Gas
Turbines. Boston: MIT Press, 1984.
8. Anderson, John D., Modern Compressible Flow. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1982.
9. Anderson, John D., Introduction to Flight. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978.
10. Chapman, Alan J. and Walker, William F., Introductory Gas Dynamics. New
York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1971.
Historical Bibliography
1. Barnard, William N., Ellenwood, Frank E., and Hirschfield, Clarence F., Heat-
Power Engineering. Wiley, 1926.
2. Bent, Henry, The Second Law. New York: Oxford University Press, 1965.
3. Cummins, C. Lyle, Jr., Internal Fire, rev. ed. Warrendale, Penna.: Society of
Automotive Engineers, 1989.
4. Tann, Jennifer, The Selected Papers of Boulton and Watt. Boston: MIT Press,
.
5. Carnot, Sadi, Reflexions Sur la Puissance Motrice de Feu. Paris: Bachelor,1824.
6. Potter, J. H., .The Gas Turbine Cycle.. ASME Paper presented at the Gas Turbine
Forum Dinner, ASME Annual Meeting, New York, Nov. 27, 1972.
7. Grosser, Morton, Diesel: The Man and the Machine. New York: Atheneum, 1978.
8. Nitske, W. Robert, and Wilson, Charles Morrow, Rudolph Diesel: Pioneer of the
Age of Power. Norman, Okla: University of Oklahoma Press, 1965.
35
9. Rolt, L.T. C., and Allen, J. S., The Steam Engine of Thomas Newcomen. New
York: Moorland Publishing Co., 1977.
10. Briggs, Asa, The Power of Steam. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982.
11. Thurston, Robert H., A History of the Growth of the Steam Engine. 1878; rpr.
Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1939.
EXERCISES
1. Determine the entropy of steam at 1000 psia and a quality of 50%.
. Show that the moisture fraction for a liquid water-steam mixture, defined as the
ratio of liquid mass to mixture mass, can be written as 1 - x, where x is steam quality.
. Write expressions for the specific entropy, specific enthalpy, and specific volume
as functions of the moisture fraction. Determine the values of these properties for
steam at 500°F and a moisture fraction of 0.4.
. Show that for a thermally perfect gas, cp - cv = R.
. During a cyclic process, 75kJ of heat flow into a system and 25kJ are rejected from
the system later in the cycle. What is the network of the cycle.
. Seventy-five kJ of heat flow into a rigid system and 25 kJ are rejected later. What
are the magnitude and sign of the change in internal energy? What does the sign
indicate?
. The mass contained between an insulated piston and an insulated cylinder
decreases in internal energy by 50 Btu. How much work is involved, and what is the
sign of the work term? What does the sign indicate?
. Derive Equation (8) from Equation (7).
. Use Equation (8) to derive an expression for the finite enthalpy change of an
incompressible fluid in an isentropic process. If the process is the pressurization of
saturated water initially at 250 psia, what is the enthalpy rise, in Btu /lbm and in ft-lbf
/ lbm, if the final pressure is 4000 psia? What is the enthalpy rise if the initial
pressure is 100 kPa and the final pressure is 950 kPa?
. Sixty kg /s of brine flows into a device with an enthalpy of 200 kJ/kg. Brine flows
out of the other port at a flow rate of 20 kg /s. What is the net inflow? Is the system in
steady flow? Explain.
36
 . Use the steam tables in Appendices B and C to compare the heats of vaporization
at 0.01, 10, and 1000 psia. Compare the saturated liquid specific volumes at these
pressures. What do you conclude about the influence of pressure on these properties?
. Using the heat capacity equation for nitrogen:

Where is in Btu / lb-mole and T is in degrees Rankine (From Gordon J. Van

Wylen and Richard E. Sonntag, Fundamentals of Classical Thermodynamics, 3rd ed.
New York: Wiley, 1986). Compare the enthalpy change per mole of nitrogen
between 540°R and 2000°R for nitrogen as a thermally perfect gas and as a
calorically perfect gas.
. Use Equation (7) to derive Equation (20) for a calorically perfect gas.
. Use Equation (7) to derive a relation for the entropy change as a function of
temperature ratio for a constant-volume process in a calorically perfect gas.
. Use Equation (8) to derive a relation for the entropy change as a function of
temperature for an isobaric process in a calorically perfect gas.
. A convergent nozzle is a flow passage in which area decreases in the streamwise
direction (the direction of the flow). It is used for accelerating the flow from a low
velocity to a higher velocity. Use the generalized form of the steady-flow First Law
given in Equation (26a) to derive an equation for the exit velocity for an adiabatic
nozzle.
. Derive an equation for the pressure drop for a loss-free incompressible flow in a
varying-area duct as a function of area ratio.
. Two units of work are required to transfer 10 units of heat from a refrigerator to
the environment. What is the COP of the refrigerator? Suppose that the same amount
of heat transfer instead is by a heat pump into a house. What is the heat pump COP?
. A power plant delivers 100 units of work at 30% thermal efficiency. How many
heat units are supplied to operate the plant? How many units of heat are rejected to
the surroundings?
. A steam turbine has an efficiency of % and a theoretical isentropic power of’
100 kW. What is the actual power output?
37
 . Thomas Newcomen used the fact that the specific volume of saturated liquid is
much smaller than the specific volume of saturated steam at the same pressure in his
famous "atmospheric engine." Calculate the work done on the piston by the
atmosphere if steam is condensed at an average pressure of 6 psia by cooling in a
tightly fitted piston-cylinder enclosure if the piston area is 1 ft2 and the piston stroke
is 1 ft. If the process takes place 10 times a minute, what is the power delivered?
Discuss what can be done to increase the power of the engine. Describe the
characteristics of a Newcomen engine that would theoretically deliver 20 horsepower.
. Expand Table 2 to include solar and geothermal sources.
. Twenty pounds of compressed air is stored in a tank at 200 psia and 80 oF. The
tank is heated to bring the temperature to 155oF. What is the final tank pressure, and
how much heat was added?
. Ten kilograms of compressed air is stored in a tank at 250 kPa and 50 oC. The
tank is heated to bring the air temperature to 200 °C. What is the final tank pressure,
and how much heat was added?
. An 85-ft tank contains air at 30 psia and 100o F. What mass of air must be added
to bring the pressure to 50 psia and the temperature to 150 oF?
. A 20-L tank contains air at 2 bar and 300K. What mass of air must be added to
bring the pressure to 2 bar and the temperature to 375K?
. Air enters a wind tunnel nozzle at 160oF, 10 atm, and a velocity of 50 ft/s. The
entrance area is 5ft . If the heat loss per unit mass is 10 Btu/lbm and the exit pressure
and velocity are, respectively, 1.5 atm and 675 ft/s, what are the exit temperature and
area?
. Air enters a wind tunnel nozzle at 90°C, 250 kPa, and a velocity of 40 m/s. The
entrance area is 3 m . If the heat loss per unit mass is 7 kJ/kg and the exit pressure
and velocity are, respectively, 105 kPa and 250 m/s, what are the exit temperature
and area?
. Air enters a wind tunnel nozzle at 160oF, 10 atm, and a velocity of 50 ft/s. The

38
 entrance area is 5ft . If the heat loss per unit mass is 8 Btu/lbm and the exit pressure
and temperature are, respectively, 1.25 atm and 120oF, what are the exit velocity and
area?
. Air enters a wind tunnel nozzle at 90oC, 250 kPa, and a velocity of 40 m/s. The
entrance area is 3 m . If the heat loss per unit mass is 5 kJ/kg and the exit pressure
and temperature are, respectively, 120 kPa and 43°C, what are the exit velocity and
area?
. Sketch a Mollier diagram showing the character of three isotherms and three
isobars for a calorically perfect gas. Label each curve with a value in SI units to show
the directions of increasing temperature and pressure. Explain how the diagram
would differ if the gas were not calorically perfect.

39

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