INTRODUCTION TO EXPERIMENTATION

WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY

 Definition- Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental

processes. Behavior includes all of our outward or overt actions and reactions,
such as verbal and facial expressions and movements. Mental processes refer to all
the internal and covert activity of our mind such as thinking, feeling and
remembering. It is a scientific study because to study behavior and mental
processes, the psychologists use the scientific methods for understanding more
precisely and accurately.

 Introduction- The word Psychology has its origin from two Greek words
‘Psyche’ and ‘Logos’, ‘psyche’ means ‘soul’ and ‘logos’ means ‘study’. Thus
literally, Psychology means ‘the study of soul’ or ‘science of soul’.
The first definition of the Psychology was the study of the soul-The earliest
attempts at defining Psychology owe their origin to the most mysterious and
philosophical concept, namely that of soul. What is soul? How can it be studied?
The inability to find clear answers to such questions led some ancient Greek
philosophers to define psychology as the study of the mind.
In terms of the study of the mind- Although the word mind was less mysterious
and vague than soul, yet it also faced the same questions, namely what is mind?
How can it be studied, etc. This definition was also rejected.
In terms of the study of consciousness- The description and explanation of the
states of consciousness is the task of Psychology which is usually done by the
instrument introspection—process of looking within. This definition was also
rejected as introspection proved to be subjective and unscientific.

 Early schools of psychology- There were many ways in which the major
ideas of Psychology were classified, they were known as the various schools of
 Psychology or major perspectives of Psychology. Given below are few of the
perspectives:
o Structuralism- Founded by Wilhelm Wundt
He built first research lab that was dedicated to scientific study of experiences and
sensations. They used the method of Introspection. Introspection is the process of
looking inward to identify how one feels, thinks, or acts. His studies revealed a
high level of complexity in human beings. Therefore Structuralism aimed to focus
on the structure of the mind and identify the basic elements of consciousness.
o Functionalism- Founded by William James

He was more interested in the function or purpose of behavioral acts to explain

them. Therefore Functionalism focused on how we adapt to our environments.
(stream of consciousness).
o Behaviorism- Founded by John B. Watson

According to him Psychology is the science of behavior which is observable and

measurable. He believed that what we do and feel depends on the connection and
associations that we have made.
o Psychoanalysis- Founded by Sigmund Freud

He believed that our behavior is heavily influenced by our unconscious mind.

According to him our repressed childhood can be a cause to many problems as an
adult.
o Neurobiological approach- The neurobiological approach to psychology is
when we look at how the neural functioning of neurons and neurotransmitters
shape and affect the behavior of a person. In the case of mental illness you are
looking at how a biological basis plays a part in the cause of the maladaptive
human behavior. It is especially focused on how learning and the processing of
information occurs within the patient.
o Behavioral approach- Focuses on measuring and recording observable
behavior. ( behavior results from learning) Pavlov and his dogs, Watson and Baby
 Albert, Skinner and his rats (rewards, punishments, and associations). All these
men believed that psychology should be the science of behavior.
o Humanistic Approach- Humans are naturally good and always strive to
reach perfection. Abraham Maslow (Hierarchy of Needs) and Carl Rogers
(Unconditional Positive Regard) led the charge. This approach came out the 60’s
and 70’s. Believe that our environment does not force us to become anything but
acts as a background for our internal growth.
o Cognitive Approach- It came in 1960s and emphasized on the importance
of receiving, storing, and processing information. It also focuses on thinking,
reasoning, and using language to understand human behavior.
o Socio-cultural Approach- Examines the impact of specific social, ethnic,
racial, and religious groups on behaviorIt reminds people that how they and others
behave (or even think) is influenced not only by whether they are alone, with
friends, in a crowd, or part of a group but also by the particular culture in which
they live.
o Eclecticism- The process of making your own system by borrowing from
two or more other systems.

 Branches of psychology( biological, cognitive, neuropsychology,

developmental, social, clinical, organizational, cultural, and cross cultural,
environmental, health, educational, sports and school)
o Clinical psychology-Clinical psychology integrates science, theory, and
practice in order to understand, predict and relieve problems with adjustment,
disability, and discomfort. Clinical psychology can help us to understand, prevent,
and alleviate psychologically-caused distress or dysfunction, and promote an
individual’s well-being and personal development.
o Cognitive psychology- Cognitive psychology investigates internal mental
processes, such as problem solving, memory, learning, and language. It looks at
how people think, perceive, communicate, remember, and learn.
o Developmental psychology- This is the scientific study of systematic
psychological changes that a person experiences over the life span, often referred
 to as human development. It focuses not only on infants and young children but
also teenagers, adults, and older people.
o Evolutionary psychology- Evolutionary psychology looks at how human
behavior, for example language, has been affected by psychological adjustments
during evolution.
o Forensic psychology-Forensic psychology involves applying psychology to
criminal investigation and the law. A forensic psychologist practices psychology
as a science within the criminal justice system and civil courts.
o Health psychology- Health psychology is also called behavioral medicine or
medical psychology. It observes how behavior, biology, and social context
influence illness and health.
o Neuropsychology- Neuropsychology looks at the structure and function of
the brain in relation to behaviors and psychological processes. A neuropsychology
may be involved if a condition involves lesions in the brain, and assessments that
involve recording electrical activity in the brain.
o Organizational psychology- Organizational or Industrial psychologists are
involved in assessing and making recommendations about the performance of
people at work and in training. They help companies to find more effective ways
to function, and to understand how people and groups behave at work. This
information can help improve effectiveness, efficiency, job satisfaction, and
employee retention.
o Social psychology- Social psychology uses scientific methods to understand
how social influences impact human behavior. A social psychologist looks at
group behavior, social perception, non-verbal behavior, conformity, aggression,
prejudice, and leadership. Social perception and social interaction are seen as key
to understanding social behavior.
o Educational psychology- Educational psychologists study factors that
impact learning, including learning methods and how information is processed and
absorbed. Memory, concepts, and individual differences all affect how a person
learns. In researching these processes, psychologists apply theories of human
development to better understand how to improve the instructional process.
o School psychology- Creating a safe and healthy school environment is the
goal of every school psychologist. These psychologists focus on helping find the
best environment for student learning as well as helping teachers or students find
their optimal learning space.
o Sports psychology- Sports psychologists help athletes achieve optimal
performance on the field. Psychologists in this subset study how sports affect
human psychology and vice versa. In applied settings, sports psychologists work
with athletes (from youth to adults), parents, coaches, and more regarding injuries
and rehabilitation, positive communication, and team building. They help them to
succeed through the mental and physical pressures they face on a daily basis.

o Cultural psychology- Cultural psychology is the study of how cultures

reflect and shape the psychological processes of their members. The main tenet of
cultural psychology is that mind and culture are inseparable and mutually
constitutive, meaning that people are shaped by their culture and their culture is
also shaped by them.

o Environmental psychology- Environmental psychologists are often

researchers who investigate how people work with and respond to the world
around them. Their research might ask why some people choose to recycle, what
motivates people to adopt environmentally positive behaviors and why certain
surroundings make people feel happy and productive.

GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY

 Description- What is happening? Observing a behavior and noting

everything about it. What is happening, where it happens, to whom it happens and
under what circumstances?
 Explanation- Why is it happening and the causes of these behaviors.
 Prediction- When will it happen again. Determining what will happen in the
future is prediction.
 Control- How can it be changed? Finding out how to modify the behavior by
changing it from undesirable to a desirable form.
 Application- To use the knowledge gained in order to enhance human
welfare.
PSYCHOLOGY- A SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINE
Psychology is a scientific discipline as it uses scientific methods to study the
various aspects. It believes in the cause and effect relationship and emphasizes on
the search of truth. Psychology has adopted the method of objective investigation,
systematic and controlled observation and scientific approach.
EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
Experimental psychology can be defined as the scientific and empirical approach
to the study of the mind. The experimental approach means that tests are
administered to participants, with both control and experimental conditions.
Wilhelm Wundt is considered to be the Father of Experimental Psychology as he
established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany in 1879.

HISTORY OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

1879- The first experimental psychology lab was founded in Leipzig, Germany in.
Modern experimental psychology dates back to the establishment of the very first
psychology laboratory by pioneering psychologist Wilhelm Wundt during the late
nineteenth century.

1883- G. Stanley Hall opened the first experimental psychology lab in the United
States at John Hopkins University.

1885 - Herman Ebbinghaus published his famous Über das Gedächtnis ("On

Memory"), which was later translated to English as Memory. A Contribution to
Experimental Psychology. In the work, he described his learning and memory
experiments that he conducted on himself.

1887 - George Truball Ladd published his textbook Elements of Physiological

Psychology, the first American book to include a significant amount of
information on experimental psychology.

1887 - James McKeen Cattell established the world's third experimental

psychology lab at the University of Pennsylvania.

1890 - William James published his classic textbook, The Principles of

Psychology.

1891 - Mary Whiton Calkins established an experimental psychology lab at

Wellesley College, becoming the first woman to form a psychology lab.

1893 - G. Stanley Hall founded the American Psychological Association, the

largest professional and scientific organization of psychologists in the United
States.

1920 - John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner conducted their now-famous Little

Albert Experiment, in which they demonstrated that emotional reactions could be
classically conditioned in people.

1929 - Edwin Boring's book A History of Experimental Psychology was published.

Boring was an influential experimental psychologist who was devoted to the use
of experimental methods in psychology research.

1955 - Lee Cronbach published Construct Validity in Psychological Tests, which

popularized the use of the construct validity in psychological studies.
1958 - Harry Harlow published The Nature of Love, which described
his experiments with rhesus monkeys on attachment and love.

1961 - Albert Bandura conducted his now-famous Bobo doll experiment, which

demonstrated the effects of observation on aggressive behavior.

IS PSYCHOLOGY A SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINE

There are some necessary facts which should be present in a subject to make it a
science and all these facts are to be proven
1. Scientific methods- Most of the methods of modern psychology a scientific.
Scientific method such as experimental methods, observational, mathematical
methods, and psychometric methods are used in psychology.
2. Verifiability- The subject method of psychology is verifiable because as many
times the subject matter is studied it gives the similar results. Thus psychology
also fulfills the condition of verifiability to be called as a branch of science.
3. Objectivity- When a number of observers observe a phenomenon in psychology
they all reach at similar results it is said that obtained results are objective.
4. Universality- The principle of scientific subjects are universal. For the principle
to be universal it should be scientific, verifiable and objective. Since the problem
of psychology has the quality of verifiability, objectivity and uses scientific
method it can be said that they are universal.

RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY

 Experimental method- Method where researchers randomly assign
participants to groups and control all variables except for one which is
manipulated to see if it has an effect on another variable.
 Non – Experimental method
o Correlational Research- A statistical method used to examine the
relationship between two or more variables.
o Survey- Using interviews or questionnaires to gather information about
aptitudes, beliefs, experiences or behaviors.
o Observational method- Researchers observe and record subjects in their
natural settings.
o Interviews- An interview is generally a qualitative research technique which
involves asking open-ended questions to converse with respondents and collect
elicit data about a subject.
o Case study method- Researchers observe and record one or a few
participants in depth.

Experiments
Experiments are widely used in psychology as one of the most primary methods of
inquiry. An experiment refers to an investigation in which the validity of
a hypothesis is tested in a scientific manner. Psychologists who conduct
experiments use various variables for the experiment. Mainly there are two types
 of variables. They are the dependent variable and the independent variable.
Usually the psychologist manipulates the independent variable, in relation to
which the dependent variable also reacts. Through this, the cause and effect are
studied.

When speaking of experiments, most people assume that these are confined to the
laboratory. Although there is a category known as the laboratory experiment in
which the study is conducted in a very controlled environment, there are other
experiments as well. These are known as natural experiments in which the
variables are merely observed rather than controlled.

EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

 Introduction to experimental method- The experimental method involves the

manipulation of variables to establish cause and effect relationships. The key
features are controlled methods and the random allocation of participants
into controlled and experimental groups. This method is used to study the impact
of one variable on another variable.

o Independent variables- Variables that are manipulated to study its effect on

the dependent variable.
o Dependent variables- Variables that get modified or changed due to a change
in independent variables are called dependent variable.
o Extraneous variable- Extraneous variables are all variables, which are not the
independent variable, but could affect the results of the experiment.
 Organismic- Organismic Variables are the internal forces and influences that
influence an organism's behavior like mood, personality etc.
 Sequential- Sequential variables are related to the very procedure of
conducting the experiment when the participant is required to be tested across
several conditions. Hence exposure of the participant to varied conditions may
 result either in attaining proficiency due to practice effects or in developing
fatigue and monotony towards experiment.
 Situational- These are aspects of the environment that might affect the
participant’s behavior, e.g. noise, temperature, lighting conditions, etc. Situational
variables should be controlled so they are the same for all participants.
o Experimental group- An experimental group ( sometimes called a treatment
group) is a group that receives a treatment in an experiment. The group is made up
of test subjects (humans, animals etc.) and the “treatment” is the variable you are
studying.
o Control group- The group that does not receive the treatment is called the
control group.
o Controlling the extraneous variables- There are three key considerations
when controlling extraneous variables-
Participant variable - minimizing differences between participants (e.g. their
stage of development such as age, or ability such as IQ).
Researcher variables - factors such as researcher behavior, appearance or gender
could affect participant responses, so should be made consistent throughout the
experiment.
Situational variables - control of the setting where the experiment takes place,
such as keeping light, sound and temperature levels consistent.

HYPOTHESIS

 Definition- A hypothesis is a precise, testable statement of what the

researcher(s) predict will be the outcome of the study. This usually involves
proposing a possible relationship between two variables: the independent variable
(what the researcher changes) and the dependent variable (what the research
measures).
 Null Hypothesis- The null hypothesis states that there is no relationship
between the two variables being studied (one variable does not affect the other). It
 states results are due to chance and are not significant in terms of supporting the
idea being investigated.
 Alternative hypothesis- The alternative hypothesis states that there is a
relationship between the two variables being studied (one variable has an effect on
the other). It states that the results are not due to chance and that they are
significant in terms of supporting the theory being investigated.
 Directional hypothesis- A one-tailed directional hypothesis predicts the
nature of the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable. E.g.,
adults will correctly recall more words than children.
 Non- directional hypothesis- A two-tailed non-directional hypothesis
predicts that the independent variable will have an effect on the dependent
variable, but the direction of the effect is not specified. E.g., there will be a
difference in how many numbers are correctly recalled by children and adults.

VARIABLES

 Definition- A variable is something that can be changed or varied, such as a

characteristic or value. Variables are generally used in psychology experiments to
determine if changes to one thing result in changes to another. Variables play a
critical role in the psychological research process.
 Qualitative variable- Variables that are not measurement variables. Their
values do not result from measuring or counting. A qualitative variable is not a
numerical value. Eg.- fairness of skin, hair color, religion etc.
 Quantitative variable- A quantitative variable is a quantity, such as height,
that is typically measured by assigning a number to each individual.
Other examples of quantitative variables include people's level of talkativeness,
how depressed they are, and the number of siblings they have.
 Discrete variable- A variable that has only certain or finite values and comes
from a specifically defined set. Eg.- The number of siblings can be 1, 2, 3, 4 etc.
but not 2.333
 Continuous variable- Variable that can take on any value within a range. Eg-
There would be numerous individuals between 62 inch and 82 inch of height like
of height 62.5 inch or 76 inch etc.
 Independent variable- The independent variable is the characteristic of
a psychology experiment that is manipulated or changed by researchers, not by
other variables in the experiment. Eg. In an experiment looking at the effects of
studying on test scores, studying would be the independent variable.
 Dependent variable- The dependent variable is the variable that is being
measured or tested in an experiment. It can get changed due to the change in the
independent variable. Eg. If in an experiment to test whether memory increases
with age or not, memory is the dependent variable.
 Confounding variable- Variables that can pollute the results of an
experiment. It changes the effect of independent variable on dependent variable.
Eg. Age and gender.
 Stimulus variable- The specific features that make up the context in which
behavior occurs. Factors that have actual or potential effects on the organism's
response
 Organism variable- The internal forces and influences that influences an
organism’s behavior eg. Mood, personality etc.
 Response variable- A response variable is the variable about which a
researcher is asking a specific question. It is the focus of a question in a study or
experiment.
 Relevant variable- Any variable other than independent variable which
influences dependent variable is known as Relevant or intervening variable
 Subject relevant variable- Subject relevant variables are the differing
individual characteristics of participants in an experiment. These variables are
plentiful and varied including things such as age, background, socioeconomic
status, current mood, how much sleep the individual person got the night before,
and many more. These variables can be considered extraneous variables because
they are variables that can influence the results of an experiment but that the
experimenter is not studying. 
 Situation relevant variable- Things in the environment that may impact how
each participant responds. For example, if a participant is taking a test in a chilly
room, the temperature would be considered as a situation relevant variable .
 Sequence relevant variable- It is related to the very procedure of conducting
the experiment when the participant is required to be tested across several
conditions.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

 Definition- Experimental design describes the way participants are allocated

to experimental groups of an investigation. Types of design include Repeated
Measures, Independent Groups, and Matched Pairs designs. The purpose of
experimental design is to minimize extraneous or uncontrolled variation, thereby
increasing the likelihood that an experiment produces consistent, valid results.
 Within subject design vs. Between subject design- One of the first design
decisions that the experimenter must make is how to assign subjects to the various
levels of independent variables. The two main possibilities are to assign only some
subjects to each level or how to assign each subject to every level. The first
possibility is called between subjects design and second a within subject design.
 Pre-test post- test design- A pre-test post-test design is an experiment where
measurements are taken both before and after a treatment. Such measures are used
to determine if there are any changes that could be attributed to the treatment or
condition.
 Counterbalancing design- Counterbalancing is a procedure that allows a
researcher to control the effects of nuisance variables in designs where the same
participants are repeatedly subjected to conditions, treatments, or stimuli.
Counterbalancing refers to the systematic variation of the order of conditions in a
study, which enhances the study’s interval validity. 

 Longitudinal design- Longitudinal studies collect data repeatedly from the

same subjects over time, often focusing on a smaller group of individuals that are
connected by a common trait.
Same group compared over the time

Group 1
Group 1 Group 1
Time 3
Time 1 Time 2
 Cross sectional design- A cross-sectional study is a type of research
design in which you collect data from many different individuals at a single point
in time. In cross-sectional research, you observe variables without influencing
them.

Different groups compared in the same time

Group 1 Group 3

Group 2

 Quasi- experimental- The word “Quasi” indicates similarity. A quasi-

experimental design is similar to experimental, but it is not the same. The
difference between the two is the assignment of a control group. In this research,
an independent variable is manipulated, but the participants of a group are not
randomly assigned. Quasi-research is used in field settings where random
assignment is either irrelevant or not required.
 Ex-post facto design- Ex post facto study or after-the-fact research is a
category of research design in which the investigation starts after the fact has
occurred without interference from the researcher For example, a researcher is
interested in how weight influences self-esteem levels in adults. So the
participants would be separated into differing groups (underweight, normal
 weight, overweight) and their self-esteem levels measured. This is an ex post facto
design because a pre-existing characteristic (weight) was used to form the groups .

TYPES OF EXPERIMENTS

 Laboratory Experiments- A laboratory experiment is

an experiment conducted under highly controlled conditions (not necessarily
a laboratory), where accurate measurements are possible. The researcher decides
where the experiment will take place, at what time, with which participants, in
what circumstances and using a standardized procedure.
 Field Experiments- Field experiments are done in the everyday (i.e. real life)
environment of the participants. The experimenter still manipulates the
independent variable, but in a real-life setting (so cannot really control extraneous
variables).  Instead of a laboratory setting, the experiment is carried out in
the field, or the real world.
 Exploratory Experiments- Exploratory research is defined as a research used
to investigate a problem which is not clearly defined. It is conducted to have a
better understanding of the existing problem, but will not provide conclusive
results. Such a research is usually carried out when the problem is at a
preliminary stage.

EVALUATION OF EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

 Definition- Method where researchers randomly assign participants to

groups and control all variables except for one which is manipulated to see if it has
an impact on another variable.
 Advantages-
o It provides researchers with a high level of control.
o There is no limit to the subject matter or industry involved.
o  Experimental research provides conclusions that are specific.
o Experimental research allows cause and effect to be determined.
 Disadvantages
o Results are highly subjective due to the possibility of human error.
o Experimental research can create situations that are not realistic.
o There may be ethical or practical problems with variable control.
o Extraneous variables cannot always be controlled.
o Lab settings may inhibit natural behavior.

ETHICAL ISSUES IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH

 Introduction- Ethics refers to the correct rules of conduct necessary when

carrying out research. We have a moral responsibility to protect research
participants from harm. However important the issues under investigation
psychologists need to remember that they have a duty to respect the rights and
dignity of research participants. This means that they must abide by certain moral
principles and rules of conduct. The purpose of these codes of conduct is to protect
research participants, the reputation of psychology, and psychologists themselves.
 Voluntary Participation- All ethical research must be conducted using
willing participants. Study volunteers should not feel coerced, threatened or bribed
into participation. This becomes especially important for researchers working at
universities or prisons, where students and inmates are often encouraged to
participate in experiments.
 Informed consent- Whenever possible investigators should obtain the
consent of participants. In practice, this means it is not sufficient to simply get
 potential participants to say “Yes”. They also need to know what it is that they are
agreeing to. In other words, the psychologist should, so far as is practicable
explain what is involved in advance and obtain the informed consent of
participants.
 Debriefing- After the research is over the participant should be able to
discuss the procedure and the findings with the psychologist.   They must be given
a general idea of what the researcher was investigating and why, and their part in
the research should be explained. Participants must be told if they have been
deceived and given reasons why. They must be asked if they have any questions
and those questions should be answered honestly and as fully as possible.
 Sharing the results of the study- After research results are published,
psychologists do not withhold the data on which their conclusions are based from
other competent professionals who seek to verify the substantive claims through
reanalysis and who intend to use such data only for that purpose, provided that the
confidentiality of the participants can be protected and unless legal rights
concerning proprietary data preclude their release.
 Confidentiality of data- Participants and the data gained from them must be
kept anonymous unless they give their full consent.  No names must be used in
a lab report.

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