7e) SM110 Q Spring Testing Apparatus User Guide TecQuipment Introduction Figure 1 The Spring Testing Apparatus SM110 Most engineers use springs in their work and study. They are used in many different things, such as: * Automobiles, bicycles, motorcycles and aircraft - engines, suspension and controls * Garage doors and Hand tools * Furniture - bed mattresses and chair seats * Ballpoint pens and toys. Springs store mechanical energy, in a simple, efficient and reliable way. The energy is held for as long as the spring stays in good condition, ready for use. This is useful, but can be dangerous if not used correctly. Engineers must know the best type and size of spring for any job, so their designs will work safely and correctly. The Spring Testing Apparatus (SM110) is a simple to use, fundamental machine. It tests wire extension springs and helps engineers to understand how to use them correctly. It also proves some basic theories of physics and rules of spring design. The Spring Testing Apparatus is good for classroom ‘work, mechanical workshops and class demonstrations. TecQuipment Li 1 User Guide'SM110 Spring Testing Apparatus Description Transparent Pointer Metric Scale Weight Hangers —_—_ at Storage Area Mi Ce ' o J sito 3 = 2 Ss A = » IO > ses eivcn Figure 2 The Spring Testing Apparatus Figure 2 shows the main parts of the Spring Testing Apparatus. Iti a sturdy metal frame with adjustable feet and a metric measuring scale. Figure 3 shows how the parts connect in a typical experiment. The back of the frame is a storage area for springs and masses. Supplied with the Spring Testing Apparatus is a set of different wire extension springs. This allows the User to compare springs of different sizes and prove the basic spring design theory. Also included are two different types of Weight Hanger and two sets of different masses, so the user can match the correct ‘extension load to the spring. Small weights are for use with the small springs and large weights are for use with large springs. Included with the apparatus are extra hooks and two parallel hanger plates to allow more advanced experiments with two springs. TecQuipment td 3 User Guide‘SM110 Spring Testing Apparatus Bottom Hook Transparent Pointer Large Weight Hanger Large Masses Figure 3 How to Fit the Parts User Guide 4 ‘TecQuipment Lid'SM110 Spring Testing Apparatus Information and Theory of Wire Springs Types of Wire Springs There are many different shapes and sizes of springs, but only three basic types of wire spring: Compression Springs Figure 5 A Compression Spring ‘These springs have coils that are spaced apart. When a force compresses the spring, the spring becomes shorter. The spring then has its own stored energy. This energy tries to push its two ends back to their original position. Car suspension struts use this type of spring. Extension or ‘Tension’ Springs Hooks or Eyes Helix (Coils) Figure 6 An Extension or Tension Spring These springs have tightly packed coils. When a force pulls the two ends apart, the spring extends. The spring then has its own stored energy. This energy tries to pull its two ends back to their original position. Usually, hooks or ‘eyes’ are at each end of the spring. Spring-operated garage doors use this type of spring. TecQuipment Lis " User Guide'SM110 Spe Sprin: User Guide ing Testing Apparatus Torsion Springs Figure 7 A Torsion Spring ‘torsion spring usually has tightly packed coils. When a force rotates its ends around its centre, the spring stores energy. This eneray tries to force its ends back to their original position. Some electronic products and toys use use this type of spring to open small doors or lids (for example - compact disc doors). g Material and Design Wire springs are made of many different types of metals and in many shapes. The most common material is carbon steel, Steel is an alloy of iron and a small amount of carbon. Different amounts of carbon gives different types of steel. Also, when the steel is formed and shaped, it can be heated and cooled (tempered) in different ways to make it work better as a spring. Springs can be made of stainless steel, so that they do not rust. This is good for springs that are used in damp conditions or used in the food industry. Other springs may be chrome plated. ‘Music Wire and Ol Tempered (OT) Wire are the most common type of steel used for springs. They are both made of carbon steel, but with different amounts of carbon. Each wire is good for different uses. Table 2 compares these two materials 12 TecQuipment id'SM110 Spring Testing Apparatus Hooke’s Law In 1676, a British scientist - Robert Hooke discovered the relationship between force and extension in a wire: Extension is proportional to the force or tension in a wire if the proportional limit is not exceeded. This gives the equation: ea Mathematically, this also says that the force is equal to a constant (k) multiplied by the extension: F=exk (2) Modulus of Rigidity or Shear Modulus (G) {A spring depends on the properties of the wire that makes it. The wire has tensile and elastic properties that decide how well it bends and stretches and returns to its original shape. Before you stretch a wire, it is important to know its linear elastic properties. However, the wire in a spring is not stretched, itis actually twisted, so its torsional and shear properties are more important. ‘The Modulus of Rigidity is a measure of the rigidity of the material (wire) used to make the spring. It is a ratio of the shear stress and the shear strain, where the stress and strain is parallel to the material: Shear Stress 4 Shear Strain Ax7h (3) Nore & This is similar to Young's Modulus, but Young’s Modulus is for linear stress and strain - not shear stress and stain. Extension ‘Spring Rate’ (S or k) Spring rate (S) is the most important property of a spring. Its also called the ‘spring constant’ (k). The spring rate stays constant for the spring as long you use it within its maximum limits. If a spring is old and fatigued or someone has used it outside its maximum limits, then its properties and spring rate will change. You can calculate the spring rate of a new (unused) spring from its dimensions, as shown in Equation 4. if all the dimensions are kept in mm, it gives a ratio of the force applied (in Newton) and the extension (in mm). a (N/mm) (4) jn Stiffness (5 or k) If you plot a chart of extension (in mm) against the load (force in Newton) on the springs, the inverse of the gradient of the chart will give the spring stiffness (S). Note: to find the inverse of the gradient, simply put the difference in horizontal axis values over the difference in vertical axis values. See Figure 8. User Guide 16 TecQuipment Li‘SM110 Spring Testing Apparatus Extension (mm) Force (N) Figure 8 Chart of Spring Stiffness Extension Spring Initial Force or ‘Initial Tension’ Extension springs have tightly packed coils that already have a built-in force or Initial Tension that holds the coils tightly together. Before the spring starts to extend, you must apply an initial force to overcome the initial tension. This is also known as ‘pre-tensioning’ or ‘pre-loading’ the spring. When you have overcome the initial tension, the spring will extend proportionally (see Figure 9). Also note that you can find a spring's initial tension value by simply extending the linear part of its force/extension chart down to the horizontal axis. Extension (mm) 0 aA Force (N) Initial tension Figure 9 Actual Extension and Force Chart, Including Initial Tension TecQuipment Lid ” User Guide‘SM110 Spring Testing Apparatus Force and Extension ‘As shown by Hooke’s law, force is proportional to extension. The force needed to extend the spring to a length is a multiplication of its extension and a constant (the spring rate). Feexs () However, due to the initial tension, the accurate equation is: F = (exS)+F, (6) ‘You must always allow for this initial force in any absolute force and extension calculations with extension springs. From this equation, you can re-arrange it to predict the total extension for a given force on an extension spring (Equation 7). You can also use a simple equation (8) to find any increase in extension, provided that the spring is already loaded past its initial tension. Extension (¢) ~”) Extension (e) (when spring is already pre-loaded past initial tension) = £ (8) Newton’s Third Law and Series Springs In 1687 a British scientist, Sir isaac Newton published a paper that described his famous ‘three laws of motion’. The third law states that: Action and reaction are always equal and opposite This also applies to springs. ‘When you apply a pulling force to a single spring with one end fixed, the spring tries to pull against the fixed end with a force equal to the pulling force. The fixed end does not move, so the spring has to store the energy. It will release the energy as a force in the opposite direction to how it was applied. The released force will be equal and opposite to the applied force. However, if you connect two springs together in series (end to end), with one end of the springs fixed, then any force that you apply to the free end is stored by both springs. From this, you would expect the force to be shared and the springs to divide the energy from the force. However, each spring stil extends just as far in series as it does by itself with the same load (force). Figure 10 shows this, i spring A extends by 20 mm due to a 1 N force and spring B extends by 40 mm due to a 1 N force, when they are connected in series and pulled by a 1 N force, the total extension will be 60 mm and not an average or fraction of 60 mm as expected, User Guide 18 TecQuipment Lid'SM110 Spring Testing Apparatus Parallel Springs Where two springs share the load in parallel (side by side), they share the force. The force is divided between the two springs, so each spring extends less than it would if it were by itself with the same load. The two springs together create a single spring with less extension, but a much higher spring rate. {tis normal to use two identical springs in parallel, so this theory assumes that NOTE pr |") the two springs are identical, This also gives simpler equations. Spring A Spring B Spring A and B comm somm 1N N 1N y v Figure 11 Two Springs in Parallel For spring A Force in Spring A (/.,) = Extension (c,) of Spring A x Spring Rate (‘.,) of Spring A Fy 4x5, For spring 8 Force in Spring B (/';) = Extension (c,) of Spring B x Spring Rate (;) of Spring B Fy = eg*Sq TecQuipment Lid 2 User Guide‘SM110 Spring Testing Apparatus Force (i) = Extension (e;) of Spring B x Spring Rate (S;,) of Spring B FE and eg = £ a" 5, F = egxs For both springs Force (F) = Overall Extension (c,) x Overalll Spring Rate (S,) of both Springs Overall Extension And ey tey Ore, = So: And the force is equal so, (9) NoTE & For easlr maths, these equations ignore the ital tension. User Guide 20 TecQuipment Lis'SM110 Spring Testing Apparatus Parallel Springs Where two springs share the load in parallel (side by side), they share the force. The force is divided between the two springs, so each spring extends less than it would if it were by itself with the same load. The two springs together create a single spring with less extension, but a much higher spring rate. NOTE It is normal to use two identical springs in parallel so this theory assumes that the two springs are identical. This also gives simpler equations. Spring A Spring B Spring A and B COMM. Figure 11 Two Springs in Parallel For spring A Force in Spring A (F-,) = Extension (c,) of Spring A x Spring Rate (S,) of Spring A = e4xS, For spring B Force in Spring B (F/;) = Extension (¢,) of Spring B x Spring Rate (S;) of Spring B Fy = egxSp TecQuipment Lid a User Guide'SM110 Spring Testing Apparatus For both springs Forces (Fy + Fy) = (S, x04) + (Sp X ep) Total Force (F,) = (F, + Fs) Overall extension for parallel springs is equal the sum of the inverse of each individual spring by themselves, so: ue uty However, when connected directly in parallel, the overall extension is the same as the extension in each each spring, so: = 8-65 So, for the parallel arrangement: F 47 eSy and (54+ 5p) So: (S455) ‘And total strain rate for the two springs is equal to the total force divided by the overall extension: F a 11, jz an So, the total strain rate is equal to the sum of the two strain rates: * (12) To find the overall extension, simply re-arrange equation 11 to give: (13) NOTE & For easier maths, these equations ignore the initial tension. User Guide 2 TecQuipment Lid'SM110 Spring Testing Apparatus Experiment 1 - Hooke’s Law, Spring Rate and Initial Tension Aims To find the stiffness or ‘spring rate’ of a spring and compare it with theory and manufacturer's data. To prove that Hooke’s Law works for extension springs. To demonstrate and find initial tension by experiment. Procedure 1. Create a blank results table, similar to Table 4. (transparent pointer and hook) Table 4 Blank Results Table 2. Choose one of the sample springs. Use Table 1 of Technical Details as a guide, but for better accuracy, use the measuring instrument (supplied) to measure the outside diameter and wire diameter. Record its properties into your table - especially its maximum weight (this is the maximum, ‘weight that you can use with the spring). TecQuipment Lid 25 User Guide'SM110 Spring Testing Apparatus 3. Fit one end of the spring onto the hook at the top of the equipment. 4, Fit the other hook and transparent pointer to the bottom of the spring, 5. Record the reading on the scale. 6. Note the spring’s maximum weight and divide it into at least ten different weights that you can make from your set of masses (up to the maximum that you can build from the weight sets). For ‘example - if your spring’s maximum weight is 1000 g, you can use ten weights of 100 g. Do not extend the spring more than its maximum extension. This will damage CAUTION ‘ : the spring and your results will be meaningless. 7. Choose the small or large weight hanger (whichever will work best for you) and fit it to the bottom. of the transparent pointer. 8. Slowly add your ten (or more) different weights. As you add each weight, record the reading on the scale. 9. Remove the weights. 10. If you have time, repeat the experiment with other different springs. Results Analysis To complete the table, calculate the force on the spring for each weight that you add, and calculate the extension. The extension is simply the difference between each reading and the first reading that you take. You should note your spring does not start to extend until the force is greater than the initial tension. For each spring, plot a chart of extension (in mm) for the vertical axis against the force (in N). Make sure that both axis start from 0 (zero). Ignore the results where there was no extension and draw a ‘best fit’ line through your other results. These results should give a sloped and straight (proportional) line. This proves that Hooke's Law works for the spring - force is proportional to extension. Extend your line down to cross the horizontal axis. The force value where your line crosses the horizontal axis should be similar to the initial tension value given in the Technical Details section of this guide. However, this method gives a more accurate value than the manufacturer's value of initial tension. Measure the inverse of the gradient of your line. It should be similar to the spring rate value given in the Technical Details section of this guide. Carefully count the amount of active coils in your spring. Use the dimensions of your spring and Equation 4 to calculate the stiffness (spring rate) of your spring. Your answer should be similar to that from the gradient of your graph and the value given in the Technical Details section of this guide. What do think would cause any errors in your results? User Guide 28 TecQuipment ia‘SM110 Spring Testing Apparatus Experiment 4 - Two Springs in Series Aim To show the effect of two springs in series, Important Note To give simple equations, the theory for the springs in series ignores the initial tension. Therefore, this experiment procedure gives results that do not depend on the intial tension, so that you can properly compare actual results with theory. Procedure 1. Create a blank results table, similar to Table 6. ‘Actual Spring Rate (From Experiment) Calculated Overall Spring Rate Extension for unit of force | Table 6 Blank Results Table 2. Use Table 1 from Technical Details to choose two springs that have different spring rates but the same initial tension and a maximum load of more than 1 kg (you get best results from springs with low spring rates and large extensions). TecQuipment recommend the 12.7 mm diameter, 50.8 mm and 76.2 mm length springs. 3. AS in Experiment 1, test each spring to find its actual properties. in your results table, enter the spring rate found from your experiment. 4. Now use one of the extra hooks supplied to link the two springs together in series, 5. Treat the series springs as one long spring and re test it as in Experiment 1. Enter the spring rate found from your experiment. Results Analysis Plot all three sets of results onto one chart and compare the slopes. Use Equation 9 (page 20) to calculate the overall spring rate of the series springs from the spring rate of each of the single springs. Compare it with your actual spring rate. From your results find the unit value of extension for force on each spring (A, B and A+8). To do this, choose a section of your results for all three springs, where their lines are proportional for a known TecQuipment Lid at User Guide‘SM110 Spring Testng Apparatus change in force (see Figure 13). Find the change in extension for each spring over this known change in force. Divide the change in extension by the known change in force to find the unit extension, 0 Force Figure 13 Extension for Unit of Force Compare the extensions of the springs. Is the extension of the two series springs equal to the sum of the extension of each single spring? How does the initial tension of the series springs compare with that of the single springs? What results would you get if the two springs had two different initial tension values? User Guide 32 TeeQuipment Ld'SM110 Spring Testing Apparatus Parallel Experiment 5 - Two Springs Aim To show the effect of two springs in parallel Important Note To give simple equations, the theory for the springs in parallel ignores the initial tension. Therefore, this experiment procedure gives results that do not depend on the initial tension, so that you can properly compare actual results with theory. Procedure . Figure 14 Setup For Parallel Spring Tests TecQuipment Lid 33‘S110 Spring Testing Apparatus 1. Create a blank results table, similar to Table 7. (se [eT ae a | ‘Actual Spring Rate (From Experiment) Calculated Overall Spring Rate Extension for unit of force Table 7 Blank Results Table 2. Your sample springs include two identical springs - 12.7 mm diameter. 3. As in Experiment 1, test each spring to find its actual properties. In your results table, enter the spring rate found from your experiment. 4. Now use the two parallel hanger plates (supplied) to link the two springs together in parallel (see Figure 14). 5. Treat the parallel springs as one spring and re test it as in Experiment 1. Enter the spring rate found from your experiment. Results Analysis Plot all three sets of results onto one chart and compare the slopes. Use Equation 12 (page 22) to calculate the overall spring rate of the parallel springs from the spring rate of each of the single springs. Compare it with your actual spring rate. Extension 0 Force Figure 15. Extension for Unit of Force User Guide 34 TecQuipment Lit