CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter is devoted to reviewing the relevant theoris underlying the

present as well as the researach that deal with reading comprehensions which

include 1)definition of readinng comprehensions, 2)teaching Reading, 3)

technique and 4) Assesment of reading 5)Strategies Of Reading 6)Previous of

research

2.1 READING

2.1.1 Definition of Reading

Reading is essentially a form of cummunication between researcher and

reader which is mediated through a written text. A message or an idea is then

communicated in the form witten text (Sulistyo, 2011). Reading is essential (Ogle

and Blachowicz, 2008) for its process by which people gain formation and ideas

are from books, manual, letter, contracts, advertisement, and a host of other

materials. Grabe and Stoller ( 2002:9 ) thin that reading is an ability to draw the

meaning from the printed page and interpret this information appropriately.

From those explanation can be concluded that reading is one of the four

language skills which take much portion of time in teaching and learning process.

Reading is also an important skill for both English as Second Language and

English as a Foreign Language. For English teacher , it is very important to get

the students to read English text. Then reading comprehensions is a process that

makes readers understand a text and for which theys use two skills related to

cognitive abilities,language comprehensions and language decoding.

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2.1.2 Definition of Reading Comprehensions

Reading comprehension is considered to be the most important thing in the

reading process and it is the center of the whole reading process. Besides, some

expert thing that Reading Comprehensions is much more than decoding. Reading

comprehension is resulted when the reader knows which skill and strategies are

appropriated for the type of text, and understand how to apply them to accomplish

the reading purpose.

2.2 Teaching Reading

Kimbly and Garmezy in Brown (2001:7) define that teaching is an

activating to show or help someone to learn how to do something, give

instructions, guide in the study of something, provide with the knowledge, cause

to know, understand knowledge and give new knowledge. Brown (2001:7) also

says that ”teaching cannot be define a part from learning. Teaching is guiding

and facilitating learning, enabling the learners to learn, setting the condition for

learning”. Mean while learning is getting the knowledge or the acquisition of the

knowledge. From the definitions above, we can get the definitions what teaching

is, it is helping, facilitating, and giving instructions how to learn and get

something.

1) Teaching Reading Comprehension

In teaching reading comprehension, the teacher needs some strategies to

make the students comprehend the reading texts. According to Brown (2001:

306-311), the following are ten strategies which can be applied in the teaching

reading comprehension in the classroom:

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a) Identifying the purpose in reading

By knowing the purpose of what the reader reads, the reader can throw the

unwanted distraction or information. By doing this, students will know what

information they want to know in reading the texts, (Brown, 2001: 306).

b) Using grapheme rules and patterns to aid in bottom up decoding (especially

for the beginning level learners)

c) Using efficient silent reading techniques for relatively comprehension

(for intermediate to advanced levels)

In advanced learner, a teacher can apply reading fast to reduce time

consuming in reading. Readers do not need to pronoun a words and do not need

to know the meaning of every word but the comprehension of the text is more

important, (Brown, 2001: 306).

d) Skimming the text for the main ideas

Skimming is one of the most valuable reading strategies for learners.

Skimming consists of quickly running one’s eyes a cross a whole text ( such as

an essay, article , or chapter) to find out what the text tells about or to find out

the main idea of the text. Skimming gives readers the advantages of being able to

guess the purpose of the passage, the main topic, or massage, and possibly some

of the developing or supporting ideas (Brown,2001: 308).

e) Scanning the text for specific information

Scanning is quickly searching for some particular piece or pieces of

information that the reader needs in reading a text. Scanning exercises may ask

students to look for names or dates, to find a definition of a key concept, or to list
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a certain number of supporting details (Brown, 2001: 308).

f) Using semantic mapping or clustering

Readers can resume the long string of ideas or events by grouping the

important key of the word they get from the reading. The strategy of semantic

mapping, or grouping ideas into meaningful clusters, helps the readers remember

the contents of the text (Brown, 2001: 308).

g) Guessing when you are not certain

Brown (2001:309) states that guess is an extremely broad category.

Learners can use guessing to get advantages such as:

(1) guess the meaning of a word,

(2) guess grammatical relationship (e.g a pronoun reference)

(3) guess a discourse relationship,

(4) infer implied meaning (“between the lines”),

(5) guess about a cultural reference, and

(6) guess the content of the massages,

2) The Principles of Teaching Reading

In teaching English, a teacher as the center and facilitate or to the

students in the classroom needs to prepare some teaching strategies and

principles to teach the students so that they can understand well what the teacher

teach in the classroom.

According to Richards and Renandya (2002:16), there are ten teaching

principles that may be appropriate in teaching reading that is summarized below:

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a) Lowering Inhibitions

In the classroom, students need some activities to decrease their difficulties

in studying English. The teacher can apply these activities, those are : playing

guess and communication games, doing role-replay and skits; sing a songs, using

group work, laughing with the students, having them share fears in small groups.

b) Encouraging risk-taking

When students feel afraid in making mistakes in studying some efforts can

be applied in the classroom, those are : praising students for making science

efforts to tryout language, using fluency exercises where errors are not corrected

at that time, giving outside-of-class assignments to speak or write or to tryout the

language.

c) Building students’ self confidence

A teacher needs to build the students’ confidence in studying English

because self - confidence is one of the important factors which influent the

students’ success in studying English. To do that, a teacher should tell students

explicitly (verbally and nonverbally). The teacher should ask them to make lists

of their strengths of what they know.

d) Helping students develop intrinsic motivation

Developing intrinsic motivation can help students improve their

achievement in studying English. Some efforts that can be done by the teacher

are reminding students explicitly about there wards for learning English,

describing students that many jobs requires English, playing down the final

examination in favor of helping students to see rewards for themselves beyond

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the final exam.

e) Promoting cooperative learning

In the classroom, teacher explains that cooperative learning in the class is

more important than competition between the students. Some activities can be

done in cooperative learning are directing students to share their knowledge in a

group, asking the Students to think of them selves as a team so that the students

who have a good ability in learning can help the students who do not have it.

f) Encouraging students to use right-brain processing

In the classroom, teacher learning is not only doing exercises and decide the

right and the wrong answer but the teacher also needs some activities to develop

the students’ creativity in learning English. Some activities which can be done

are using movies and tapes in class, doing skimming exercises, doing oral

fluency exercises where the object is to get students to talk or to write alot

without being corrected.

g) Promoting ambiguity tolerance

Making the classroom enjoyable and comfortable can make the students

interested in studying English. Some activities can be done are encouraging the

students to ask you and each other, questioning when they do not understand

something.

h) Helping students use their intuition

Making the students do not depend on to the teacher is a good way to

building their intuition. Some strategies can be done by the teacher are praising

the students for good guesses, doing not always give explanation of errors.
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i) Getting students to make their mistakes work for them

Teacher does not need to correct and always explain why the students make

errors in their learning. Asking the students to do self-learning activities are the

good way for them. Some activities can be done are recording students’ oral

production and getting them to identify their errors, letting students catch and

correct each other’s errors, encouraging students to make lists of their common

errors and to work on them on their own.

j) Getting students to set their own goals

Setting the students’ own goals is a good way to improve theirs Study. The

activities are asking them to make list of what they will achieve on their own

particular week, getting students to make specific time commitments at home to

study the language, and giving “extra credit” work.

These are the ten principles which can be implemented in the teaching

reading in the classroom. Teacher can select one or two appropriate principles as

the need of the students because the appropriate principle influences the students’

achievement.

3) Components in Teaching Reading

a) The goals of the learning

There are two goals can be achieved by the students, Those are long-and

short - term goals. According to Brown (2001:53), long-term goals may include

the mastery of English, the passing of an exam (at the end of the year), the

possibility of a better job in the future, etc. Short-term goals, on the other hand,

might be the learning of a small amount of new language, the successful writing
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of an essay, the ability to part take in a discussion or the passing of the progress

test at the end of the week.

b) Teacher

According to Allen (cited in Brown, 2001:429), there are some

characteristics of good language teachers. Firts the teachers should love and

comprehend English language such as listening, speaking, reading, and writing.

Second, they understand and use a wide variety of techniques. Next, they give

optimal feed back to students, use appropriate principles of classroom

management, adapt text book material and other audio creatively, enjoy people,

and show enthusiasm.

In a classroom, teachers’ roles can influence activities. It means that the

teachers change from one activity to another. If they are fluent at making these

changes, the effectiveness as the teachers is greatly enhanced. These are roles of

a teacher:

(1) Controller

Teachers as controller are always needed in the class activity when the

teacher teaches the students. A controller determines what the students do, when

they should speak, and what language forms they should use (Brown, 2001:167).

In addition, Harmer (2007:58) states that a controller takes the roll, tells the

students things, organizes drills, and reads aloud

(2) Organizer

Teachers should be good organizers. It means that the teacher should

organize the students to do various activities. This often involves giving the
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students information, telling them how they are going to do the activity, putting

them into pairs or groups, and finally closing things down when it is time to stop

(Harmer, 2007: 58).

(3) Observer

In a classroom, teacher does not only teach the students but also observes

them. It is aimed to give them useful feed back. In the classroom observation,

the teachers watch students’ learning process order to judge the success of

different materials and activities. The teachers can make changes in the future if

the activities are not appropriate to the students’ needs (Harmer, 2007: 62).

c) Students

Students can learn language well, get good mark, pass exam if they

study hard and have motivation. Brown (2001:72) states that motivation is the

extent to which you make choices about (a) goals to pursue and (b) the effort you

will devote to that pursuit. It means that motivation is people’s desire to achieve

goal.

d) Interesting activities and materials in the class

The students tend to study and involve in the reading class when they get

interesting activities and interesting subjects that they learning the class

(Brown,2001:53).

e ) Media

Media are supporting materials that can motivate students and can

effectively explain and illustrate subject content. His concern is on the use of

materials in order to make the students motivated to learn something and to make
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clear the content of a subject. Here media can be anything, material and non-

material, physical, and non-physical, those are useful to support the

communication and interaction in the teaching learning process.

2.3 ReadingTechnique

Many techniques can be applied on teaching reading such us KWL,

SQ3R,Jigsaw ,STAD etc. But the researcher just using two technique such as

Jigsaw and SQ3R.

2.3.1 SQ3R

SQ3R is a learning strategy of the teaching reading which consists of five

steps, theyare survey, question, read, recite, and review which really appropriate

to be used as a reading method ofthe social science text (Abidin 2012)

SQ3R stands for Survey, Questions, Read, Recite, and Review. It is a

proven technique to sharpen textbook reading skill. SQ3R helps make reading

purposeful and meaningful, so that we can use our time most effectively

(Stanly, 2005).

According to Soedarso (2010: 59-60) before reading our first survey of

reading is to get a general idea of what we read. Then by asking questions to

ourselves that the answer we expect is there in the reading will be easier to

understand the readings, and then by trying to express the main points of

importance, we will retain and remember it longer. Advantages of SQ3R Method

is in the early stages of learning, the main is often to present and practice a body

of lexis, grammatical forms and language forms and language functions.

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According to abidin (2012) there are explain about SQ3R mode detail.

1)Pre Reading

a. Survey

Students are asked to research the title, picture and also made a summary about

the paragraph. At thisstage, the students conduct to read the title and the main idea

to give the reader a broad overview of thecontent and structure of the reading

passage.

b. Question

After researching the literature, at this stage students should use the information

which is obtained fromthe title and the main idea to prepare questions. Questions

were compiled from the literature should betaken when students read the

composition as the composition of the discourse.

2) While Reading

a) read : In this stage, students should find the location of answering the questions

that have been made. Inthis case, reading does not mean looking at each word or

line in a paragraph. At this stage, studentsshould apply skip reading activities,

reading slowly, and repeating the reading materials that isneeded for answering

the questions.

b) Recite

The students should find the answer for each question, students must prepare a

summary of thecontent of the reading based on the answers which are made by

using students' own language.

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3) After Reading

a. Review

At this stage, students are asked to look back and compare the reading by writing

the actual reading material if there is a fault, the students must improve his writing

according to the contents of thereading material. From the explanation above

SQ3R stands for Survey, Questions, Read, Recite, Review. It can be improve

reading skill.

2.3.2 Jigsaw

Jigsaw is a techniquethat is very famous in cooperative learning which

was first developed in the early 1971 by Elliot Aronson, hence this technique is

developed by some experts to between added version, those are jigsaw II that

developed by Slavin in 1989 and jigsaw III that developed by Kagan in 1990 and

many other.

According to Dumas (2003), cooperative learning involves small

heterogeneous teams, usually of four or five members working together towards a

group task in which each member is individually accountable for part of the

outcome. Besides According to The Master Teacher (2010), the steps of jigsaw

reading with some modification can be seen as follows:

(1) Divide students into the

heterogeneous group of 4 to 5 that is diverse in ability. This group is called Home

Group

(2) Appoint one most mature student from each group as a leader
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(3) Prepare the text and a graphic organizer, likes chart or table as the students’

worksheet

(4) Give the text to the students, the text is formed as text pieces.Distribute the

copies of the individual task worksheet and the group taskworksheet

(5) Assign students to learn their own part and do the tasksresponsibly. They have

to finish the individual task first, then they can finish the group task later

(6) Next, ask students to share and discuss their own segment totheir group mates

cooperatively. After students in each group work together to thoroughly

understand the information, be sure to check for the comprehension;

(7) Make the new temporary groups, that is the Expert Group. There will be the

expert of their own text from their Home Group in this new Expert Group

(8) Inthe Expert Group, the students take turns teaching their new group mates

anddiscussing the main point about their text

(9) Bring the students back into theirHome Group. Ask students to discuss and

share the point that they have gotten in their previous Expert Group

(10) Float from group to group, observing the process and

(11) At the end of the session, give an assessment on the material sothat students

quickly come to realize that these sessions are not only for fun and

game but really valueable.

According to Mc. Groarty (1998) as cited by Oslen and Kagan (1992:2)

there are six advantages of cooperative learning for students

1) Cooperative learning increases frequency and variety of target language

practice through interaction among students

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2) It enables students develop their cognitive and second language

3) It may include agreater variety of curriculum material to stimulate

language and concept learning

4) It give opportunities to integrate language with the content

5) It offers freedom for teacher to master new prifessional skill.

From the explanation above jigsaw is kind of cooperative learning, jigsaw

also a simple technique. than jigsaw technique use in small group consist of six

person, cooperative and responsible to present the task for each member.

2.4 Assesment of Reading

Good reading comprehension is the ultimate goal of reading instruction at

all grade levels and for all children, including with learning disabilities. Accurate

assessment of reading comprehension is necessary to know if the goal is being

met, to identify children who need remediation, and to help plan future

instruction.

According to Swerling L (2006) assesment of reading comprehensios

consist of Existing tests of reading comprehension, Concerns about existing tests,

What can practitioners do. Brown (2001) says that several types a reading

performance are typically identified and these will serve as various of assesment

of reading task such as perceptive, selective, interacitive, extensive.

According to Grabe W (2009:353) Assesment has been categorized in

terms of (a) norm-reference and criterion reference testing ; (b) formative and

sumative assesment; (c) formal and informal ;(d) proficiency achievement,

plaacement,and diagnostic assesment. In this research the researcher used

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assesment of clasroon learning. Assesment of reading can be improvement in

clasroom. Assesment of of class room learning used task the reflect the material

taugh in class and the skill practiced. The typically , the teacher, teacher group or

curriculum group develope these test and responsible for deciding what represent

a measure of succes.

Teacher also has several multiple opportunities to asses students learning

such as : unit test, quizzes post reading etc. In other hand informal and alternative

asssesment option are central for the effective assesment of learning. Assesment

of learning can be either normative or criterion based two testing purpose to

know lead to somewhat different test and scoring.

2.5 Strategies of Reading

Brown (2001: 306) describes the strategies for reading comprehension.

Those are identifying the purpose in reading, using graphicrules and patterns,

scanning the text for specific information, usingsemantic mapping or clustering,

analyzing vocabulary, distinguishingbetween literal and implied meanings, and

capitalizing on discoursemarkers to process relationshipFurthermore, according to

the Bloom’ taxonomy there are sixlevels of cognition which can be applied to the

reading comprehensionlevel. Table 1 below describes each of the cognitive level

of readingcomprehension proposed by Bloom based on Anderson and

Krathwohl(2001) revision.
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Table 2. 1: Bloom’s Taxonomy of the Cognitive Levels

Category Name Expected Cognitive Levels Key Concepts

1. Remembering Recalling or recognizing Memory,knowledge,

information, ideas and principles in repetition,description

the approximate form

2. Understanding Interpreting, exemplifying,classifying, Explanation,

summarizing, inferring,comparing, comparison,

explaining illustration
3. Applying Executing and implementing data Solution,

and principles to complete a problem application and

task with a minimum of directions convergence

4. Analyzing Differentiating, organizing and Logic, induction

attributing the assumption,hypothesis, and deduction,

evidence, conclusion andstructure of a formal reasoning

statement or a question with an

awareness of the thoughtprocess

5. Evaluating Checking and Critiquing on a Judgment,

basis of specific standards and criteria selection

6. Creating Generating, planning and Divergence,

producing productive

ideas into a product, plan or proposal thinking and

novelty

2.6 Previous of Research

The research taken as the support study is the The Effect Of SQ3R

Method On The Students’ Ability InReading Comprehension. Experimental

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research design is used as the researchmethod. The research took place at MTS

AMIN DARUSSALAM MEDAN.There were 2 classes chosen as the sample with

32 students in each class. Theclasses were divided into two groups namely

experimental and control group. Theexperimental group taught by using SQ3R

method and the control group wastaught by using conventional method. The

instrument used to collect the data with multiple choice tests, which divided as pre

test and post test. The result ofthe research was analyzed by using t-test formula.

The result showed that t-testwas higher than t-table ( 3,93 > 2,00 ) at the level of

significant 0,05 with degreeof freedom (df) 60. It means that hypothesis

alternative (Ha) is accepted whichshows that SQ3R method significant ly

improves the student’s readingcomprehension.

Then, the second previous study of Research from Karwono and Yuliani

Tri with the tittled “ the effectiveness of using Jigsaw and SQ3R technique in

instruction toward students reading comprehensions of narative text at the eisght

grade of junior high school state Metro Academic Year 2011/2012. With the

result the reseach design was experimental. It used control group and

experimental group. The research took 48 students from total population as the

sample, 24 students as experimental group and 24 students as control class that

matching based on students initial capability.the research also used t test formula,

t test 3.17 t table 2.70 it mean that t test higher than t table. So jigsaw technique is

more effective than SQ3R.

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The third previous research from Rizka Awwalliya, Endang Asiri Ahmad

(2017) with the tittled the Effectiveness of Using SQ3R to Teach Reading Skill.

with the research showed that the students using SQ3R reading comprehensions

strategy perfomed reding activities better than those who did not. From the

research teacher can use the strategy to make the reading process less difficult and

more interesting. Brown (2001:375) stated that SQ3Rcan serve a general guide for

a reading class. According to Maryat (2009) stated that SQ3R technique can

improve the students reading comprehensions of both literal and inferential.

Meanwhile according to Rohmah (2012) SQ3R in more affective to increase

reading achievement. Based on the finding of the research conducted by the

previous of research , it can be conclude that SQ3R is effective technique to

improveing the students ability.