Work

Work: The product of displacement and the force in the direction of displacement.

= .Δ

Where

: work, J
: force, N
Δ : ,

Note: If the force at angle ( ) to displacement as shown in the below figure, only force component along
displacement contributes to work.

= .Δ = ( )Δ

Where
:

Example: How much work does the woman do on the crate? Consider the below figure

Solution:

Example: Now the woman is pulling the crate at an angle. If she does the same amount of work as before, how
much force must the woman exert?
Solution:

Energy

Energy: In physics, energy is the quantitative property that must be transferred to an object in order to perform
work on, or to heat, the object.
• Energy is a conserved quantity; the law of conservation of energy states that energy can be converted in form,
but not created or destroyed.
• Many forms of energy exist electric, atomic, chemical, kinetic, potential, and so on.

There are important principles that concern all forms of energy.

1. There is a relationship between work and energy. For instance,

if you do work by kicking a stationary soccer ball, you
increase a form of its energy called kinetic energy, the energy
of motion.

2. Energy can transfer between objects. When a cue ball in the

game of pool strikes another ball, the cue ball slows or stops,
and the other ball begins to roll. The cue ball's loss of energy is
the other ball's gain.

3. Energy can change forms. When water falls over a dam, its
energy of position becomes the energy of motion (kinetic
energy). The kinetic energy from the moving water can cause a
turbine to spin in a dam, generating electric energy.

4. Energy is a scalar. Objects can have more or less energy, and

some forms of energy can be positive or negative, but energy
does not have a direction, only a value. The joule is the unit for
energy, just as it is for work. The fact that work and energy
share the same unit is another indication that a fundamental
relationship exists between them.

Kinetic energy: The energy of motion.

• It is the energy of motion.
• It is proportional to mass and the square of the speed.
• Objects never have negative kinetic energy, only zero or
positive kinetic energy.
1
=
2
: Kinetic energy, J
: ,
: , /

Example: What is the kinetic energy of the arrow? Consider the below figure.
Solution:
 Work-kinetic energy theorem
Work-kinetic energy theorem: The net work done on a particle equals its change in kinetic energy.

=∆

where

: ,
∆ : ,

Ø Initially, the ball is stationary. It has zero kinetic energy because it has zero speed. The foot applies a
force to the ball as it moves through a short displacement. This force accelerates the ball. The ball now
has a speed greater than zero, which means it has kinetic energy. The work-kinetic energy theorem
states that the work done by the foot on the ball equals the change in the ball's kinetic energy. In this
example, the work is positive (the force is in the direction of the displacement) so the work increases
the kinetic energy of the ball.

Ø According to the right picture, a goalie catches a ball kicked

directly at her. The goalie's hands apply a force to the ball,
slowing it. The force on the ball is opposite the ball's
displacement, which means the work is negative. The
negative work done on the ball slows and then stops it,
reducing its kinetic energy to zero. Again, the work equals
the change in energy; in this case, negative work on the ball
decreases its energy.

Note
Ø Positive work on an object increases its kinetic energy.
Ø Negative work on an object decreases the object's kinetic energy.

Example: What is the soccer ball's speed immediately after being kicked? Its mass is 0.42 kg. Consider the below
figure
Solution:
 Derivation: work-kinetic energy theorem
Ø In this section, we show that the net work done on an object and its
change in kinetic energy are equal by using the definition of work
and Newton's second law.
Ø We will again use the illustration of a soccer ball being kicked and
model the ball as a particle. The ball starts at rest and we assume
the force applied by the foot equals the net force on the ball, and
that the ball moves without rotating.

Sample problem: work-kinetic energy theorem

 Example: Four bobsledders push their 235 kg sled with a constant force, moving it from rest to a speed of 10.0 m/s
along a flat, 50.0 -meter-long icy track. Ignoring friction and air resistance, what force does the team exert on the
sled?
Solution:

Ø We assume here that all the work done by the

athletes goes to increasing the kinetic energy
of the sled.

Power
Power: Work divided by time; also the rate of energy output or consumption.

=
∆

: , , /
: ,
∆ : ime, s
Ø The unit of power is the watt (W), which equals one joule per second.
Ø Power is a scalar unit.
Ø Power can also be expressed as the rate of change of energy. For instance, a 100 megawatt power plant
supplies 100 million joules of energy to the electric grid every second.

Example: Applying a force of 2.0 × 105 N, the tugboat moves the log boom 1.0 kilometer in 15
minutes. What is the tugboat's average power?
Solution:
 Example: Applying a force of 2.0 × 105 N, the tugboat moves the log boom 1.0 kilometer in 15
minutes. What is the tugboat's average power?
Solution:

Potential energy
Potential energy: Energy related to the positions of and forces between the objects that make up a system.

∆ = ∆ℎ

∆ : ,
: ℎ ,
∆ℎ: ,

Ø Gravitational potential energy is due to the gravitational force between the bucket and Earth. As the
bucket is raised or lowered, its change in potential energy (ΔPE) equals the magnitude of its weight, mg,
times its vertical displacement, Δh. The weight is the amount of force exerted on the bucket by the Earth
(and vice versa).
Ø A change in PE can be positive or negative. The magnitude of weight is a positive value, but change in
height can be positive (when the bucket moves up) or negative (when it moves down).

Ø In the diagrams to the right, it is convenient to say the system has

zero PE when the bucket is on the Earth's surface. This convention
means its PE equals its weight times its height above the ground,
mgh . Only the bucket's distance above the Earth, h, matters here; if
the bucket moves left or right, its PE does not change.

= ℎ
=0 ℎ ℎ=0

Example: What is the bucket's gravitational potential energy? consider the below figure.

Solution:
 Solution:

Work and gravitational potential energy

Ø Work equals change in potential energy.

Ø Work done against gravity.

=∆

: work done against gravity

∆ : potential energy of system.

Ø The system we consider consists of two objects, the bucket and the
Earth, illustrated tothe right. The painter applies an external force to
this system (via a rope) when she raises or lowers the bucket. The
bucket starts at rest on the ground, and she raises it up and places it on
the scaffolding. That means the work she does as she moves the bucket
from its initial to its final position changes only its gravitational PE .
The system's kinetic energy is zero at the beginning and the end of this
process.

Ø As she raises the bucket, the painter does work on it. She pulls the bucket up against the force of
gravity, which is equal in magnitude to the bucket's weight, mg. She pulls in the direction of the
bucket's displacement, Δh. The work equals the force multiplied by the displacement: mgΔh . The
paint bucket's change in gravitational potential energy also equals mgΔh. The analysis lets us reach an
important conclusion: The work done on the system, against gravity, equals the system's increase in
gravitational potential energy.

Ø Earlier, we stated the work-kinetic energy theorem: The net work done on a particle equals its change
in kinetic energy. Here, where there is no change in kinetic energy, we state that the work done on a
system equals its change in potential energy.
Ø Are we confused? No. Work performed on a system can change its mechanical energy, which consists
of its kinetic energy and its potential energy. Either or both of these forms of energy can change when
work is applied to the system.
Ø As the painter does work against the force of gravity, the force of gravity itself is also doing work.
The work done by gravity is the negative of the work done by the painter. This means the work done
by gravity is also the negative of the change in potential energy.
Ø Imagine that the painter drops the bucket from the scaffolding. Only the force of gravity does work on
the bucket as it falls. The system has more potential energy when the bucket is at the top of the
scaffolding than when it is at the bottom, so the work done by gravity has lowered the system's PE:
the change in PE due to the work done by gravity is negative.

= ∆
 the change in PE due to the work done by gravity is negative.

= −∆
: work done by gravity
: potential energy of system.

Sample problem: potential energy and Niagara Falls

Example: In its natural state, an average of 5.71 ×106 kg of water flowed per second over Niagara Falls,
falling 51.0 m. If all the work done by gravity could be converted into electric power as the water fell to the
bottom, how much power would the falls generate?
Solution:

Work and energy

Work on system equals its change in total energy.
Ø We have discussed work on a particle increasing its KE, and work on
a system increasing its PE. Now we discuss what happens when work
increases both forms of mechanical energy.
Ø Because we are considering only KE and PE in this chapter, we can
say the net work done on an object equals the change in the sum of its
KE and PE.
=∆ +∆

Ø Positive work done on an object increases its energy; negative work

decreases its energy.
Example: A cannon shoots a 3.20 kg cannonball straight up. The cannon's barrel is 2 m long, and it exerts an
average force of 6250 N while the cannonball is in the cannon. Determine the cannonball's velocity when it
has traveled 125 m upward? Neglect air resistance.

Solution:

Conservation of energy
Conservation of energy: The total energy in an isolated system remains constant.

Examples of Conservation of Energy

Ø Water can produce electricity. Water falls from the sky, converting potential energy to kinetic energy. This
energy is then used to rotate the turbine of a generator to produce electricity. In this process, the potential
energy of water in a dam can be turned into kinetic energy which can then become electric energy.

Ø When the car hit the road sign, the sign fell over. The energy was transferred from the moving car to the
stationary sign, causing the sign to move. No energy was lost in the transfer.

Law of Conservation of Energy

Ø The law of conservation of energy can be expressed

mathematically, as shown in the below Equation.
=
+ = +
E: total energy
KE: kinetic energy
PE: potential energy

Ø The equation states that an isolated system's total energy at any final point in time is the same as its total
energy at an initial point in time. When considering mechanical energy, we can state that the sum of the
kinetic and potential energies at some final moment equals the sum of the kinetic and potential energies
at an initial moment.

Sample problem: conservation of energy

Example: Sam is at the peak of his jump. Calculate Sam's speed when he reaches the trampoline surface.

Solution: