5.1 INTRODUCTION 5.11 Definition of Design Design can be defined as the activity involved in producing the drawings (or 3-D computer models), specifications and other data needed to construct an object, in this case a ship. ‘The purpose of this chapter is to describe the process fol- lowed in creating a ship design, in full recognition of the fact that the process varies, to some extent, depending on the type of ship being designed and the personal prefer- ‘ences of the design team leaders. It is also true that, as this chapter is written, the design process is being scrutinized, and in some cases modified, with a frequency and intensity never before experienced. This is primarily the result of the ‘opportunities presented by the accelerating advance of com- puter technology. coupled with the competition of the global marketplace, which causes all enterprises to constantly re- view their processes with an eye to improving efficiency. ‘Thus, there is no single ship design process today and the generic, typical process described here will certainly ‘change somewhat in the years to come. What will not change significantly, itis believed, are: + The objectives of the design process, + The need for the designer to understand the shipowner's, requirements and, at the same time, to help the shipowner to refine his requirements, (See Chapter 7 ~ Require- ments Definition), + The time and resource constraints imposed on the process, * The fact that both art and science are reflected in the Chapter The Ship Design Process Peter A. Gale process (albeit that the role of science is steadily grow- ing at the expense of art), and + The fact that creativity and teamwork will alwa comerstones of the process. ss be ‘This chapter covers both naval and commercial ships. ‘Where appropriate the differences are described, However, to do this for every aspect throughout the chapter would have resulted in a very complicated text. It was decided to take the high road; that is, the greater level of design in- volved in naval ships has been described. It should be noted that for most commercial ship designs the clear definition and use of the design phases become blurred and that the design phases omit many of the described steps. This is only possible, however, for shipyards with good current ship design and construction experience. For com- ‘mercial ship types that are new to a shipyard or are of high complexity, such as cruise ships, more design phases, phase content and scope will be required and may approach the level applied to naval ships (see references | and 2 for typ- ical commercial ship design practice). 5.1.2 Objectives of Design ‘The primary objective of the design effort, besides creating the information needed to build the ship, is to satisfy the shipowner’s requirements at minimum cost. A ship's life cycle cost includes the design, construction, and operating and sup- port (OS) costs. For designs that incorporate new tech- nologies [and hence research and development (R&D) costs} and/or significant disposal costs, these also must be included.BREE EE EH EEE EERE Ce ee rrr 52 Ship Design & Construction, Volume 1 ‘One of the responsibilities of the ship designer is to make the shipowner aware of design options that might increase acquisition cost but accrue even greater savings in O&S Costs over the ship's life cycle, There are other design ob- Jectives as well. The specifications required to test the com- pleted ship and demonstrate that it indeed meets the shipowner's requirements must be developed, Regulatory body and classification society requirements must be satis fied. (Sec Chapter 8 ~ Regulatory and Classification Re- quirements.) Beyond these objectives, the designers must make every effort to create a ship that the shipowner will be pleased with. This means that it must be safe, reliable, and as economical, to operate and maintain as possible, within the constraints imposed by technology and the shipowner’s budget. 5.1.3 The Nature of Design Ship design is an iterative process, especially in the early stages. (See Chapter i - Parametric Design.) The ultimate result is postulated and then analyzed and modified. The modified result is re-analyzed and so on until all requirements are satisfied. The reason for iteration is that ship design has 50 far proven to be too complex to be described by a set of Payload (argo, mission systems) Hull form and hullsize | {principal dimensions) Space and Arrangements Weights and Centers Freeboard and Trim equations, which can be solved directly. Instead, educated guesses are made as to hull size, displacement, etc. to get the process started and then the initial guesses are modified, as better information becomes available. The design spiral, first described in reference 3, has been used to characterize the design process. Figure 5.1 is one of many possible ver- sions of the characterization, In this visualization, the ship designers’ move through the design process in a sequential series of steps, each dealing with a particular synthesis ot analysis task. After all the steps have been completed, the design is unlikely to be balanced (or even feasible). Thus a second cycle begins and all the steps are repeated in the same sequence. Typically, a number of cycles (design iterations) are required to arrive ata satisfactory solution. Anyone who has ever participated in a ship design knows that this char- acterization leaves much to be desired. In practice, the process is not sequential, unless the design is developed entirely by ne person. Even then, the steps often will not be performed ina preseribed order but rather the naval architect will jump from one spotto another on the spiral, as knowledge is gained and problems are encountered. In fact, the design process in the early stages is rather un- Predictable. Once a baseline concept has been identified and defined in sufficient detail for it to be understood and used Construction Operations & Support_| ‘Auxiliary Machinery and Electric Plant [Propulsion | Plant [Sey Figure 51 Design SpiralChapter 5: The Ship Design Process 53 by the principal design disciplines, for example, structures, propulsion, electrical, general arrangements, weight esti- ‘mation, etc,, then design work in these principal disciplines will generally proceed in parallel, as shown in Figure 5.2. For each discipline, a series of tasks must be performed and there is usually a preferred sequence for the tasks. AS each task is completed, the products of the task can be shared with the other members of the design team. This may sound rather orderly. In fact, major problems are identified in the course of design and the act of resolv- ing these problems typically perturbs the design effort in a ‘umber of design disciplines, requiring restarts or reworks of tasks previously completerl. The number and severity of the problems identified are generally greatest early in de- sign; they tend to decrease in both respects as the design is developed in greater detail. ‘A major design effort is planned so that formal updates of the design baseline occur at regular intervals. At these milestones, the current bull form and general arrangements are formally issued to the other members of the team and they are directed to shift to these configurations in their sub- sequent work. ‘Today, the current configuration is likely to be a 3-D Baseline 1 Configuration External Configuration System Design Total Ship Analysis (weight, stability, cost, etc.) aot P| te beet ent | eee! ten oe eet eee ee 4 computer model that all design team members have access toby means of a network, but that can only be updated with the approval of the team leader. When a major problem is ‘identified soon after a baseline update, the design team must decide how to approach its resolution and, when a solution hhas been found, whether to issue an unscheduled baseline update immediately or to wait until the next planned update, ‘The downside of waiting is that additional work will have to be done, The downside of an immediate update is that in some disciplines, the work stop/restart may delay the di covery of another major problem just around the comer. 5.14 The Design Environment Ship design takes place within a surrounding environment that can have a significant effect upon the process. Factors in this environment include: + economic trends, * current and pending government policies and regula tions, * the status of international regulations on matters such as pollution control, Baseline Baseline 2 3 Figure 52 Design Development ProcessEEE Ee ere arn rnrninieT 54 Ship Design & Construction, Volume 1 * the breadth and depth of the vendor base for major equip- ment items, * the management of the organization within which the de- sign team works and to whom it reports, be that organ- ization a shipyard or a design agent, and * the prospective shipowner—his foibles, preferences, ‘modus operandi, ete. For naval and other government ships, additional factors come into play. including the congressional budget process, the terms in office of key lecision makers in the Executive Branch and Congress, and political considerations, Projected economic trends not only affect the viability of proposed shipbuilding program, but also affect the trade- Off studies and design decisions within the design effort it- self. An example is how the projected cost of fuel will affect the decision on propulsion plant type and prime mover. The double hull tanker rules, which resulted from the OPA 90 kegislation, are a good example of the impact that pending ‘goverment regulations can have on ship design. How will top management interact with the design team? How frequent and how detailed do they want status briefs to be? To what extent do they wish to participate in design decisions? The last three questions apply to the prospective shipowner as well. Good relationships between the design team, the shipowner-to-be and the design team’s manage- ment can foster mutual understanding, speed up the design Process by getting critical design decisions made more Quickly, without second guessing, and produce a better prod- uct with less stress. Poor relationships between the design (cam and either of these two groups can cause high stress, bumout and, ultimately, s poorer product, 5.15 Design Participants ‘One person can develop the design for a relatively small, ‘mple ship but typically ship design is a team effort, The team size will generally grow as the design is developed in Progressively greater detail. Fora small, relatively straight- forward ship design, the team size might start at one and ultimately increase to five or six. For a large, complex war- ship, the design team size might start at 25 to 50 and ult mately grow to many hundreds, assuming that the combat system design integrators are included, Core team members will always include naval archi- {ects, marine engineers and designers with CAD skills for 3-D modeling using the computer. Steuctural, mechanical, and electrical engineers are also typically represented, Ship. yard personnel with expertise in ship construction and pro- Guction planning are needed, as are equipment vendors with specialized expertise regarding the systems and equipme they offer. Even commercial ship desizns may require oth specialized expertise, for example, computational fluid d namics (CFD) analysis, finite elememt structural analys (FEA), propeller design, acoustic analysis, reliability anal sis, or human factors engineering. which might be obtaine Via consultants. Ifthe new ship is to be certified by a cla sification society, liaison with that society is establishi carly in design. Hydrodynamic model testing is still 1 ‘norm during the pre-contract naval ship design process, b ‘ot for commercial ships, and representatives of the selects ‘model basin can provide invaluable assistance tothe desig tcam, Itis essential that cost analysis expertise be represent on the team; one or more shipowners representatives a1 also important team members. 516 Design Tools Ship designers rely upon extensive databases for previow designs, together with lessons learned from operational ex Perience with the ships built 1o those designs. (See Chap ter 11 ~ Parametric Design.) Increasingly, such data is hel in the computer, in a form, which is readily accessible an asily manipulated to suit the needs of the designer. The de Sign team uses a myriad of other design tools. These tool generally exist in the form of computer software used t model the ship geometry or perform analyses of variou types. (See Chapter 13 - Computer Based Tools.) Increas ingly, these ship design and analysis tools are being linkex into integrated design systems, These systems can speed u) the design process by eliminating much of the time and ef fort spent moving between individual computer program: that are not efficiently linked. More often, use of these so- Phisticated systems does not save time but instead permits the designers to explore more alternatives in greater detai in the time available, 5.4.7 Design Standards Design standards, asthe term is used here, refers to a broad category of second tier design, construction, inspection, and/or test requirements which are normally imposed on « new design. They are distinctly different from the ‘Shipowner's Requirements, which are typically top-level Performance requirements, such as. cargo capacity, speed, and endurance. If the ship is to be classed, the rules of the designated classification society are a form of design stan dards. There are national and international regulations pes taining to maters such as personnel health and safety, safeChapter 5: The Ship Design Process 55 navigation, and pollution control. These regulations are a form of design standards. Shipowners with large fleets will typically have design standards of their own, For example, a shipowner might specify the use of a ccrtain propulsion prime mover to achieve standardization within his fleet. Government agencies such as the U.S. Navy, NOAA and the U.S. Coast Guard have standards or preferences that they apply to designs for new ships that they will operate. Design standards, as defined previously, can have a signif icant influence on a new design, and even on the design process itself, For this reason, it is very important for the design team to identify all the applicable design standards at the beginning of the design effort. Failure to do this can result in major problems downstream, including delays, wasted design effort and added expense. isfy a purpose and this is usually defined in the Shipowner's Requirements. While the shipowner's requirements are not really constraints they set the boundaries for the design Constraints apply to every ship design, both the process ‘and the product. Time and cost are nearly always constraints, applied to both the design itself and the delivered product: the ship. Other examples of design process constraints might be the unavailability of sufficient skilled design personnel or required computer software, hardware, or network ca- pability, Physical constraints might be applied to the design it- self for any one of three reasons: the need to build the ship ina specific shipyard and then get itto sea, the need to main- tain the ship during its service life, and the need for the ship to visit specific ports. Assigned Weight Attribute Cargo carrying capacity Acquisition Cost Energy conservation Manning reduction Reliability Minimurn risk Standardization Figure 53. Example uf Ship Design Philosophy = 10 points points 5 points Frequently, drydock, pier, harbor or canal limitations cre- ate constraints, Hull dimensions and air and water drafts are affected most frequently. Bridge or overhead cable heights may limit air draft, the height of the uppermost point on the ship above the water surface. Harbor or canal channel depths often establish the limit on water draft, more properly the navigational draft, or this limit may be set by the sill height in drydocks to be used to maintain the new ship. Hull length and/or beam might be limited by canal lock, drydock, or building way dimensions. The available length at piers the ship will moor to might also limit hull length. These are just some examples of operational considerations that can im- pose physical constraints on a new ship design, 5.1.9 Design Philosophy A design philosophy is a weighted list of desired design/ship attributes that is used in the evaluation of design alterna- tives. Examples of such attributes include: * first cost, * operating cost, + manning + producibitity, + operability, * maintainability, + reliability, + mission capability, + sustainability, * supportability, and + tisk (cost, schedule and technical) Each attribute should be measurable in clearly defined Units; the shipowner should agree to them all. The design philosophy is a guide used by the members of the design ‘team as they perform trade-offs and evaluate design alter- natives during design development. The need for a design philosophy increases when the number of design participants, is large and/or when the design team is physically (geo- graphically) separated. A risk in large design teams is that individual members of the team might apply their own per- sonal priorities as they evaluate design alternatives and make decisions. The design philosophy is an attempt to keep all team members marching to the same drummer as they make design decisions. Figure 5.3 is an example of a design phi- losophy that might be used during a new ship design. In practice, the design philosophy is tailored to suit the specifics of each trade-off study to which it is applied. Not all elements of the philosophy apply to cach trade-off de- cision and many trade-offs will require unique performance measures to be evaluated.5-6 Ship Design & Construction, Volume 1 5.1.10 Degree of Uniqueness New designs cover the gamut in terms of their uniquenes: Some new designs are very similar to existing ships ‘modest changes. for example, somewhat more or less propul- sion power or payload. Other designs reflect significant changes from current practice in specific respects, the propulsion plant type might be an example, but in all other respects they are not unique. At the extreme, and quite rare, is the design that is very different from anything considered before. The rare unique design is not only an exciting chal- lenge for the naval architect but it affects the approach to early stage design as well. For designs that are well understood, that is, similar to what has been done in the past, the design team will have access to a multitude of data for similar ships. This data can bbe used in carly stage design to make quick and reasonably accurate estimates of the principal characteristics (Chapter 11 — Parametric Design) and costs of alternative concepts for the new design. This may be done using ship synthesis models, discussed in Chapter 14, that contain estimating relationships derived from parametric analyses of the body of data on existing ships. The parent ship approach may also be used if the database contains one or more ships that are sufficiently similar to the desired new design, In any ‘case, the large body of existing data pertinent to well un- ‘derstood designs simplifies early stage estimating and makes it possible to readily examine the effects on performance and cost of a large number of primary design parameters, for example, speed, endurance, payload, etc, ‘On the other hand, for the unique design, the database on existing ships is of litte or no value, The naval architect ‘must fall back to reliance on first principles to laboriously develop a small set of point designs, that is, conceptual de~ signs that cover the ranges of the primary design variables, of interest. More technical experts will have to be brought into develop these point designs and they will generally have to develop more design detail than is typical in the initial design phase. An example would be the development of a point design for a high-speed multi-hull with a unique hull form. The estimate of required propulsion power is critical to sizing the hull and estimating its cost. Power at the re~ quired top speed is, in turn, a function of the full load dis- placement. Lacking weight data on similar designs, in order to get a reasonable weight estimate, a considerable effort might have to be expended on an initial structural design. ‘This, in turn, might require a major effort to assess the an- ticipated hydrodynamic loads on the structure. The point de~ signs, once they have been developed, can be used as parents, to explore the effects of parametric variations in other, sec- ond order parameters. For the unique design, early stage design progress is slower, more difficult, and the design te- sults are much less certain, that is, there is a higher degree of risk in the results of early stage studies of unique de- signs. This uncertainty can be partially compensated for by the use of larger design margins as discussed in Section 5.7. 5.2 DESIGN PHASES ‘The design process is subdivided into phases. One reason for this is that the nature of the work done, the design skills required, the number of persons participating in the design effort, the level of detail of the design deliverables and other features of the design process change over time as a design is developed. Design management is facilitated ifthe effort divided into phases separated by intervals, which permit. design reviews to occur, along with planning and prepara~ tion for the next design phase. Another reason for phasing a design effort is the major milestones in the typical ship development process. An example of such a milestone would be the point at which the budget for the new ship must be established. Another typical milestone would be the point ‘at which specifications and drawings must be completed to solicit shipyard bids for the detail design and construction effort. Note that this milestone might not apply in every case; for example. if a ship design were being developed (on speculation by a shipyard. ‘The number of design phases and the names applied to them vary and this is a source of confusion, For this dis- cussion, the approach developed in the early 1980s as part of the IHI Technology Transfer, and defined in references 1 and 2, which divided the design and engineering effort into Basic Design and Product Engineering, is used. Basic Design is further subdivided into four phases, des- ignated as follows: 1. concept design, 2. preliminary design, 5. contract design, and 4, functional design. ‘The latter two phases are often referred to collectively as the “System Design Phase.” Product Engineering is subdivided into two phases: 1. transition design, and 2. workstation/zone information preparation During Basic Design, the ship is designed in its entiret ‘ona system-by-system basis. During Product Engineering, the ship design is translated into a form suitable for mod- ‘ern production techniques and necessary additional infor- mation is developed. Some experts consider Functional Design to be part of Product Engineering but it has been in-Chapter 5: The Ship Design Process 57 INCREASING DETAIL CONTRACT CONCEPT WORKSTATION: ZONE INFORMATION PREPARATION BASIC DESIGN PRODUCT ENGINEERING Figure 54 Ship Design Phases cluded here in Basic Design since it remains systems ori- ented. The first three phases of Basic Design must be com- pleted before the award of a contract for detail design and construction. Note that the traditional detail design phase has been divided here into three phases, namely, functional design, transition design, and workstation/zone informa- tion preparation. Modem techniques for modular ship construction per- sit extensive pre-outfitting and pre-testing of ship blocks Prior to ship assembly. This improves efficiency and saves cost by reducing on-way or in-dock time during ship as- sembly and by maxiniizing the amount of advance work done in better working conditions at vendors” facilities or in enclosed buildings at the shipyard. Use of these tech- hhiques increases the time required for detail design as well as the level of detail and completeness of the detail design package, which is now up to 20 to 30% larger than in the ast. Another effect has been to largely eliminate the tradi- tional overlap between detail design and ship construction. ‘The current philosophy is to resolve problems in the detail design package before cutting steel. The extra time and ef- fort spent on detail design is more than recovered by a more efficient construction effort, as can be seen by very flat lear ing curves for multiple ship construction in Japanese shi yards. That is the benefits of learning are obtained because mistakes and rework on the first ship are eliminated by bet- ter and completed design. Figure 5.4 depicts the design phases and the increase in detail as a design progresses. 521 Concept Design This first design phase, referred to herein as Concept De- sign (CD), is sometimes referred to in the naval ship world58 Ship Design & Construction, Volume 1 as the Cost and Feasibility Study phase, or simply the Fea- sibility Study phase. The principal objective of this phase is toclarify the shipowner's requirements, that is, the ship's mission and principal required performance attributes, which, reflect the desired balance between capability and afford- ability, (See Chapter 7 ~ Requirements Definition.) Another objective is to develop a concept design, which satisfies the requirements, as well as a cost estimate and a risk assessment, From the designer's point of view, the ob- jective during this phase is to work with the shipowner to understand and define the ship’s mission, that is, to help the, shipowner decide what it is that he needs and can afford. ‘When this has been done, a concept design is developed which reflects this mutual understanding, Atthe outset, the shipowner will know that he has aneed. for anew, converted or modified ship and will know in gen- eral what functions the ship must perform. However, the shipowner often will not know specifically what the per- formance requirements are for speed, fuel endurance, cargo capacity, ec. If the shipowner does have some specific val- tues in mind for these variables, the shipowner may not know whether they are compatible with the budget. Thus a sys- tems analysis is required which couples mission analysis, with economic analysis. Ranges of each of the key ship pa- rameters are explored in a systematic way, ship feasibility studies are developed for attractive combinations of the pa- rameters, the cost and performance of each total-ship al- ternative is estimated, a cost-benefit analysis is performed, and feedback is obtained from the shipowner as to his pref erences. ‘Typically several cycles of synthesis and analysis are performed, punctuated by interactions with the shipowner, during which the range of options studied is progressively narrowed. Through this process, a consistent set of per- formance requirements is established, which can be satis- fied by a practical ship design solution and is within the shipowner’s budget. ‘The role ofthe design team isto perform parametric stud- ies that sketch out the design altematives of interest in suf- ficient detail that the cost (capital and operating), performance, and risks (cost, technical and schedule) of each ‘can be assessed and compared. The alternatives are often re~ ferred tas feasibility studies because the feasibility of each postulated combination of the major design requirements must be established, that is, is there a viable design solution for each case? Where there isn't, that combination of re- ‘quirements can be rejected. Where there isa viable solution, that solution can be input into the cost-benefit analysis. ‘Because performance, cost and risk are being compared, among the alternatives, relative accuracy and consistency ‘among the alternatives is stressed rather than absolute accu- racy. Collectively, the set of alternatives must illuminate the capability versus cost versus risk trade-offs of interest to the ipowner. At the conclusion of this process, the mission of, the new ship will have been defined along with the principal ship performance requirements, that is, required ship capa- bilities. In addition, a feasibility study will have been created ‘which represents an initial solution to the stated requirements. Normally, near the end of the phase, this feasibility study is developed in greater detail to become a concept design. This is done to reduce risk, improve the cost estimate, refine and validate the most important derived ship performance re- uirements, and establish a baseline for the start of prelimi- nary design and its major trade-off studies. The products of a typical naval single feasibility study and a concept design are listed in Tables 5.1 and 5.11, respectively. Figure 5.5, based on a figure in reference 4, classifies all seagoing ships in two broad categories: transport and non- transport, with three and four sub-categories, respectively, ‘The above process description generally applies to all of the sub-categories, TABLES. Feasibility Study Products (U.S. Naval and Government Ships) Feasibility Study Report, documenting the following: Essential performance requirements Principal hull dimensions and hull form coefficients (Cp, Cx) Area/volume summary Configuration sketches: inboard profile and main deck plan Payload definition, for example, space, weight, critical dimensions, adjacencies, required support services Description of mission-critical systems and features Weigh/KG estima Propulsion plant type, installed power, and number of propulsors Installed electric generating capacity List of major equipment Manning estimate ‘Speed/power estimate Endurance fuel estimate Intact stabitity check Estimates of critical performance aspects, as required, e.g. radiated noise or seakeeping, Cost estimate 1-digit level ‘Technical risk assessment and risk management planChapter 5: The Ship Design Process In the case of ships designed to transport bulk or gen- eral cargo from point to point as elements of a larger trans- Portation system, analyses of the overall system, including its land-based elements, are typically performed. For the ship portion of the system, the fundamental decisions to be made are: number of ships, payload (carrying capacity, in both weight and cubic terms), and speed. Computer mod- els are applied to simulate the operation of a single ship or aan entire leet, Such models range in complexity from sim- ple deterministic models to complex time domain simula- tions. They generally incorporate simplified design models, with the ability to quickly generate ship characteristics cor- responding to various combinations of payload and speed. ‘The models estimate the capital and operating costs for each alternative. Optimization techniques can be applied to the ‘major variables to compare alternatives and search for the optimum or graphical output of performance metrics can be shown for the study option space se that a human deci- sion-making selection can be made. Itis more difficult to apply the classical systems analy- sis techniques to ships in the non-transport categories. For the latter types, the number of critical mission characteris- tics is generally greater and the ability to analyze and com- pare mission performance as related to these characteristics is more difficult. For example, itis more difficult to predict the ability 10 detect and catch fish than itis to predict the speed of a transport ship. In a multi-mission warship, ativ- TABLE 5.1 Concept Design Products (U.S. Naval and Government Ships) Concept Design Report, documenting the following Performance specification (initial draft) Body plan and appendage sketch Area/volume summary Concept general arrangement drawings (space blocks allocated by function) ‘Topside arrangement sketch Payload definition Description of mission-critical systems and features ‘Weight estimate Concept midship section Propulsion plant description Machinery arrangement sketch Blectric load analysis and generated selection Simplified one line diagrams Master Equipment List (MEL) Speed-power curve ‘Manning estimate Endurance fuel analysis Estimates of critical performance aspects as required Cost estimate ‘Technical risk assessment and risk management plan settroceted shes — an areas seg Tanspon in f r t T T use aor reser Inde Save nttay ker cove ease I 1 Coen Yer cs Kedreker Caer Tet] [ov] [eer] Pow) [Feo] [Gate Soph Yel Deeper T rT Lee] [tte resi rane curanier = caged Gone ig Gas | Carer Sache OIRO Crenbost Submarine cents retusa sage ee Dhing Super Amphot ontnaton Reto patent oestS.080 Sirgesho Super Shs Tring ipet 5-10 Ship Design & Construction, Volume 1 ing at a single figure of merit is challenging since it is gen- erally scenario dependent. 522 Preliminary Design Design work, for the specific ship, begins in earnest in the Preliminary design phase and the size of the design team and the cost of the design effort take a big jump. The fol- lowing are the objectives of this phase: + validate the top level ship performance requirements and develop second tier requirements, + establish ship size and overall configuration, + select major ship systems, + quantify ship performance, + reduce or eliminate major technical, cost and schedule risks, * refine capital and operating cost estimate, and + develop draft version of the Build Strategy (see Chap- ter 14 Design/Production Integration). Since the eventual cost and performance of the new ship will be established largely by the end of the preliminary de- sign phase, the work done during this phase is very impor- tant, A feasibility study or concept design that satisfies the performance requirements developed in the previous phase will be available and this forms the starting point for the preliminary design effort. During this phase, formal trade- off studies are performed on design issues that will have a major effect on ship size, overall configuration, perform- ance, cost or risk. The study of issues that do not have a major impact on these parameters should be deferred to the fol- lowing phase. Failure to do so can waste resources and vert the attention of the design team, ‘Some examples of pertinent issues for trade-off study in this phase are: * hull proportions (L/B, B/D, ete.), * hull shape (transom vs. cruiser stern, bow bulb vs. no bulb, topside flare vs. tumblehome, etc.), * general arrangement, * propulsion plant type (low speed diesel, medium speed diesel, gas turbine, integrated electric, etc.) (Often ad- ‘dressed in Concept Design phase), * deckhouse size and locati + mission-critical payload features, (hardware components, space allocation, arrangement, etc.) + hull structural configuration, and + crew size, a, ‘The ship impacts of some issues studied in this phase will be so large that whole ships must be wrapped around the candidates being studied in order to get valid assessments. of total ship impacts. These whole ship alternatives may be developed at the feasibility study level of detail or may re- Quire greater detail. An initial design baseline is established «early in the design phase to serve asa point of reference for the trade-off studies. This initial baseline is generally the concept design created at the end of the previous design phase. Usually the design baseline is updated several times before the end of the preliminary design phase so that the results of major trade-off studies can be incorporated as they are completed. The preliminary design is developed beyond the initial concept design in all technical areas, regardless of whether they are subject to formal trade-off studies. In design areas ‘not subject to the investigation of design alternatives, a rea- sonable baseline concept is selected and defined to the ap- propriate level of detail. For many ship systems, this is the identification and approximate sizing of major system com- ponents and the development of a simple one-line diagram of the system, System alternatives will be studied in the fol- lowing phase. ‘The Build Strategy for the ship (5,6), reflecting zone construction, is drafted during this design phase, if not ear- lier. Production considerations are reflected in the design work to the extent practical. For example, in the develop- ‘ment of the hull form and superstructure configurations and defining the locations of decks and bulkheads within the ship, maximum use is made of flat plates and readily formed shapes. If a shipbuilder is developing the design, the ship- yard production specification (Shipbuilding Policy), which defines the design processes and production methods and processes to be used to build the ship, must be developed during this phase, if it does not already exist. This specifi- cation will influence the contract design effort and the par- allel completion of the build strategy. If the design team does not know which shipyard will build the ship (as in the ‘case of a build competition), the Build Strategy may have to be generic, thats, suitable for all potential shipbuilders, ‘Major emphasis is placed on predicting performance to Validate that the stated performance requirements have been satisfied. These predictions might include ship speed, sea- keeping, station keeping, ability to traverse along a defined track line, acoustic performance, cargo on-/off-load rates, or the ability to perform critical missions in a seaway, as typical examples. If the hull form is unusual and hydro- dynamic performance is of critical importance, limited ‘model testing may be done to validate performance esti- mates. More often, model testing is deferred to the fol- lowing phase. Risk identification and reduction is another area of em- phasis. Major risks must be identified and altemative ways to reduce them explored. These generally include fallback design options with lower risk but less performance, The Objective is to reduce the risks associated with the completed Neen eeeChapter 5: The Ship Design Proc preliminary design to low or, where this is not possible, to develop a clear and detailed pian to accomplish this by the cend of the next design phase. This must be accomplished be- fore the next design phase is entered. The products of a typ- ical preliminary design are listed in Table 5.10. Note that the preceding discussion has assumed that a new ship is being designed. Frequently ship conversions or modemizations are also evaluated as possible solutions to the shipowner’s requirements during this design phase. 523 Contract D The principal objectives of the contract design phase are: * confirm ship capabitity and cost to the prospective ship- owner, + provide a meaningful and accurate bid package for ship- builders, and. * provide criteria for shipowner acceptance of the ship. Extensive additional engineering effort is required to achieve the first objective. Emphasis is placed on the de- velopment and refinement of ship systems across the board. Trade-off studies deferred from the previous phase due to their lesser ship impacts are now performed. The technical portion of the bid package is developed by the design team and consists of a ship specification, drawings, and other ship descriptive data, for example, the weight estimate, For each ship system, the following tasks must be per- formed: + derive lower tier performance requirements from the higher level ship performance requirements, + develop and evaluate alternative system concepts (where this has not been done in the previous phase), + make system selections, + complete engineering work on the selected system, and, finally, + develop system specifications and drawings. ‘The ship hull form, including appendage definition, and general arrangement are further refined, Formal configura- ion control is often invoked near the mid-point of this de~ sign phase. Arrangement drawings are developed for many of the ship’s internal spaces and for topside system instal- ations, for example, anchoring and mooring, boat ha ommunications and navigation, and helicopter faci As the ship systems are designed, careful attention is paid to the integration of the ship systems and their human. »perators and maintainers. As part of this effort, for naval hips, the ship manning requirements are refined and train- ng requirements are defined. Reliability, maintainabi ind availability (RMA) analyses are performed, as are stud- es and design work related to the ship's maintenance and S-ll TABLESIIII Preliminary Design Products (U.S. Navai and Government Ships) Preliminary Design Report, documenting the following Performance specification Lines drawing and appendage sketch Area/volume report (req'd vs. actual) General arrangement drawings (to individual compartment level) Topside arrangement drawing Line of sight analysis Payload definition Descriptions of principal ship systems and features Weight report (3-digit level, KG and LCG) Structural midship section Preliminary scantling drawings Propulsion system analysis Machinery arrangement drawings Shafting arrangement Preliminary propulsor design Electric load analysis HVAC load analysis One line diagrams Typical space arrangements Deck systems arrangements ‘Ship control and communications systems analysis Preliminary Master Equipment List (MEL) Preliminary ship manning analysis Stability analysis, intact and damaged Speed-power curves Endurance fuel analysis Seakeeping and maneuvering analyses Model test plan Other performance estimates, as required, for example, radiated Preliminary availability analysis (Ao) Maintenance concept ‘Supportability concept ‘T&E plan (draft) Preliminary safety analysis Build strategy (draft) Shipyard production specification (Shipbuilding Policy) Cost estimate ‘Technical risk assessment and risk management plan5-12 Ship Design & Construction, Volume 1 support requirements, often referred to as Integrated Lo- gistics Support or ILS, ‘The ILS effort addresses issues such as: * the ship maintenance philosophy (for example, what ‘maintenance work will be done at sea by the ship's crew ‘ys. work done in port by shore-based personnel), * the repair parts required to be stowed aboard shi * parts commonality and interchangeability between ships, * re-supply of the ship with stores and repair parts, * approach to ship configuration control and the tracking of maintenance actions, * the required shore-based facilities for ship support in- cluding spare parts stowage and maintenance facilities, and * planned maintenance strategy and schedule (restricted availabilities, overhauls, and dry dockings). ‘The Build Strategy drafted during preliminary design is validated and approved during this phase (5). It includes the design and engineering plan, and the block and zone def- initions to be employed during ship construction. The ship production plan is also developed. It includes the key event schedule and the selected approaches to advanced outfitting and ship assembly and construction. ‘Technical specifications required for the advanced or- dering of long lead equipment and materials are developed, All aspects of ship performance are analyzed and the stated performance requirements validated. A full program of hy- drodynamic model tests is typically performed for naval ships, some of which support the propeller design, which is also typically developed in this phase. Final tests of the design propeller mounted on the final hull model may not be completed until the following phase, however. Traditionally, critical ship systems and spaces such as the anchor handling system and the navigation bridge were modeled using small or full-scale physical mockups to en- Sure correctness and to permit review by the shipowner. Today, however, 3-D models with simulation and walk- through capabilities, developed by computer, are replacing Physical mockups. If land-based testing will be required for essential elements of the ship, these tests and the associated site requirements will be defined during the subsequent Functional design phase. The ship specification is perhaps the most important product of contract design (see Chapter 9 - Contracts and Specifications). The specification is, of course, essential if the shipowner plans to have shipbuilders bid for the detail design and construction task. However, even if a shipbuilder is developing the design, the specification is required in ‘order to acquaint others in the yard with the work required and to arrive ata valid estimate of the anticipated build cost. ‘The ship specification typically isa mix of performance and how to specifications, the latter reflecting the shipowner’s preferences and the shipbuilder’s preferences if the speci- fication is prepared by the shipbuilder. It includes the test and trials requirements for the new ship, as well as accept- ance criteria for each test and trial requirement. These cri- teria must be met for the shipowner to accept the ship, The ship specification also contains requirements for the docu- ‘mentation that must be delivered with the ship, documen- tation necessary to properly support the ship throughout its life. Because of the importance of the ship specification and the drawings referenced in it, it is. carefully reviewed prior to the completion of the design phase. In the review process, specifications and drawing integration is emphasized, toen. sure that there are no conflicting requirements between sec- tions of the specification and/or the various drawings. Obviously, the specification language must be unambigu: ous. Table 5.LV lists products that may be included in a con- tract design. 5.2.4 Functional Design ‘This design phase, and the other two that follow, are only briefly described herein, See references J, 2, and 7 for ad- ditonal detail and other references. During Functional Design, the Contract Design is de- veloped further to complete the design on a system-oriented basis. The products of a typical functional design are listed in Table 5.V. All design calculations and configuration def- inition are completed and all design decisions still out- standing are made. Detailed naval architectural calculations are performed, including structural and vibrations analyses. The sizing of all structural scantlings is completed. All bull outfit is de~ fined in detail, including the complete definition of all ma- terial, All marine engineering and electrical design calculations are completed, as are system arrangement draw- ings and diagrams. System arrangements (drawings or computer models) are prepared for systems such as the mooring system that do not lend themselves to diagrams, Sized distributive sys- tems are shown on the system plans. The completed di grams for piping, electrical and HVAC show pipe, cable and vent duct sizes, cable types, bills of material and sys- tem routing in assigned wire ways or system corridors. ‘Typical sections are indicated for pipe and vent duct runs. The first revision of the budget control list is issued, ‘which advises all concemed of updated material quantities and weights, Manufacturing drawings are prepared for all Jong-lead-time items that are to be built by the shipyard. Pur- ‘chase technical specifications not developed earlier are com- pleted, Shipowner and regulatory body comments on and approvals of the completed design are obtained. Vendor se-TABLE SIV Contract Design Products (U.S. Naval and Government Ships) Ship specification Lines drawing Appendage drawing General arrangements (outboard profile, inboard profile, all decks and holds) Topside arrangement Capacity plan Weight report (3-digit level, KG and LCG, 20-station weight distribution, ayradii) Structural design criteria manual Midship Section ‘Steel scantling drawings (decks, bulkheads, shell expansion, typical sections, deckhouse) Machinery control system diagrams Propulsion and auxiliary machinery arrangement drawings (plan views, elevations, and sections) Propulsion shafting arrangement Propeller design Electric load analysis Electric power and lighting systems - One fine diagrams Fault current analysis, Navigation system diagram HVAC load analysis and design criteria Ventiation and air conditioning systems diagrams Piping systems analysis Diagrammatic arrangements of all piping systems Fire control diagram by decks and profile Mechanical systems arrangements, for ‘example, deck, hull and ship control systems Living space arrangements (berthing, ‘messing, sanitary, recreation, etc.) ‘Commissary space arrangements Pilot House, Chart Room, and other ‘working space arrangements Interior communications system diagram Master Equipment List (MEL) Preliminary ship manning document Pollution control systems report Loading conditions Floodable length curves ‘Trim and stability booklet Damage stability analysis Endurance fuel analysis Hydrodynamic model test results, for example, resistance, propeller open Chapter 5: The Ship Design Process S13 water, self-propulsion, maneuvering, seakeeping, etc. and performance assessment reports Stack gas flow analysis Evaluations of other aspects of required performance Availability analysis (Ao) Maintenance Pian ‘Supportability Plan (Crew Training Plan ‘T&E Plan Safety analysis Procurement specifications for long-lead- time and other important outfit components, for example, main propulsion engines, diesel generators, reduction gears. anchor windlass Models and Mockups Cost estimate ‘Technical risk assessment and risk ‘management plan Initial regulatory body review Building plan Budget control list (estimated weight of all required material by material family or cost code) Production plan lection is completed and vendor drawings are approved. Advance equipment and material is ordered. 525 Transition Design During transition design, all design information is transi- tioned from systems to block and zone orientation as com- plete block and zone design arrangements and the ordering and assigning of all materials are completed (7). Drawings and produet models also indicate subdivisions and material- ordering zones. The Shipyard’s Shipbuilding Policy and the Contract Build Strategy will define how the ship will be built; for example, how major machinery items will be loaded, how auxiliary machinery and other components will be fitted, what work will be done on-unit, on-block (before and after turnover), and on-board. ‘The breakdown of each zone into sub-zones is also defined, A virtual prototype of the ship is developed, either on paper or by 3-D modeling in the computer. Zone design composite arrangements are developed from the distribu- tion system routing diagrams developed in the previous phase. The zone design arrangements show all visible items seen from the viewing plane, no matter how small. All el- ements are included. The required zone/unit material quan- tity is also developed. Interference checking occurs as the work proceeds. All working, maintenance, and access re- quirements are checked. Structural design work is completed and structural draw- ings for each block are developed, each with an accompa- ying bill of material. 526 Workstation/Zone Information Preparation During this phase, all drawings, data and other information required by the production and other service departments to construct the ship are prepared. This includes drawings,SSE SESS ES ES EC er 5-14 TABLESV Functional Design Products Hull General arrangement- Compartment and access (C&A) drawings Outboard profile Lines drawing NAA, drawings, for example, hydrostatics, cross curves of stability, docking drawing Block arrangement and list Frame body plan (based on faired lines) Structural block drawings with scantlings Major foundation drawings Welding plan Hull fiting drawings Hull weights, centers, and block lifting data Lists of hull outfit Lists of hull fittings Nameplates and Notices ‘Summary paint schedule ‘Summary deck covering schedule ‘Summary hull insulation schedule Furniture list Plumbing and fixture list Galley arrangement Accommodation arrangement Steering gear arrangement Rudder and rudder stock arrangement Rudder and propeller lifting gear arrangement ‘Anchor handling arrangement Mooring arrangement Life-saving equipment arrangement Hill piping system diggrammatics Purchase Technical Specifications (PTS) ‘Advanced Material Ordering (AMO) Lists Steel List per block ‘Machinery and Piping Machinery arrangement Shatting arrangement ‘Stern tube arrangement Machinery space and wheelhouse control ‘console arrangement ‘Machinery piping system diagrammatics Diesel exhaust arrangement Lifting gear in machinery space Machinery and pipe insulation schedule Unit and equipment foundations Machinery and foundation weights Purchase technical specifications (PTS) Advanced material ordering (AMO) Lists ‘Ship Design & Construction, Volume 1 Electrical Electrical Load analysis One-line diagram ‘Shot circuit analysis List of motors and controllers List of feeders and mains Electrical equipment and installation diagrams ‘Switchboard drawings List of Portable electrical equipment Electrical system weights Purchase Technical Specifications (PTS) ‘Advanced Material Ordering (AMO) Lists HVAC Heating and cooling analysis, HVAC diagram and equipment list HVAC insulation schedule HVAC system weights Purchase Technical Specitications (PTS) ‘Advanced Material Ondering (AMO) Lists Production Planning Block outfitting and erection schedule Zone outfitting schedule Tests and Tals schedule sketches, parts lists, process instructions, and production aids such as templates, marking tapes, and software to control r0- bots doing plate burning/marking and pipe fabrication, The ‘Work required to produce an entire zone is broken down into many work packages, each defining a much smaller task. A. typical guide for work package size is that no more than three workers can complete the work defined by the package in no more than two weeks, or no more than 200 work hours. Production planners size the work packages and either use the information needed by the workers, prepared by Engi- neering and develop it further to complete the package. Only the information needed to complete each work package, in- cluding production aids, is included. Each work package is broken down into separate workstations. Again, the worksta- tion information is complete, the worker needs no other in- formation to complete the job, and no unnecessary information is provided. The workstation information is provided on Ad ‘or letter size sheets and typically consists of sketches and a arts list. The sketches show the work as the worker will see it; upside down, for example, ifthe work is to be done upside down, Structural workstation/zone information is developed for: burning plate, cutting shapes, processing plates or shapes (bending, flanging, or drilling), subassembly construction, as- sembly construction, block construction, and block erection. Block assembly sketches are ‘developed; these permit the de- signer to consider block access requirements during con-Chapter 5: The Ship Design Process S15 struction, Planning and production personne! also jointly de~ velop work sequence sketches. They define in considerable detail how the ship will be put together. Outfit work sta- tion/zone information is developed for shops, assemblies, blocks and zones. For the shops, workstation information for both processing and assembly is developed for hull fittings, pipe, sheet metal, foundation structure, joiner, paint, and elec- tical. Workstation information also is developed for machin- cry installations on units. 5.3 DESIGN PROCEDURE In the preceding section, the design process was described in terms of the design phases that a design normally passes through as itevolves. In this section, the nature of the work done in the early design phases is described in more detail. Again the focus is on naval design. ‘The early design phases are the most mysterious to, and most misunderstood by, those who do not practice the art of ship design. A generic step-by-step procedure is outlined for developing a single ship feasibility study, the first step in the design process, and a single conceptual design. Then, broader aspects of the subsequent design development process are described. Emphasis is given to the trade-off study process, the concept of design baselines and their up- dates, and the design integration process. The reader is re- minded that normally many ship feasibility studies are developed in the process of assisting the shipowner to de- cide on the major requirements for a new ship. Several con- ceptual designs may also be developed as major design altematives are explored. 5.3.1 Getting Started Once the major performance requirements and constraints for a new design have been established, design work can begin. Initial attention is focused on the mission(s) of the ship and its payload (weapon suite) or cargo requirements. These two parameters will have a dominant effect on the size, configuration and key features of the completed de- sign, as well as on the process used to arrive at the design. To illustrate, consider the design of an aircraft cartier, a containership, a buoy tender, and an inter-island passen- ger/cargo ship that must beach itself at ports of call with- out normal pier facilities. ‘The primary payload of the aircraft carrier is its air wing. The primary mission of the carrier isto suppor the air wing: ‘© house, maintain, fuel, arm, launch and recover, and pro- vide command and control functions for the aircraft in the air wing and to care for the pilots and other air wing per- sonnel, Because of the dominant effect of the carrier’s flight deck and hangar on its design, initial design effort will focus oon the flight deck and hangar and their configuration. In the case of the containership, the number of contain- ‘esto be carried is critical. Initial design effort will focus ‘on the arrangement of these containers. How many will be stowed in the hull and how many above the weather deck? Based on the container dimensions, what are appropriate hhold lengths and what are sensible hull beam and depth pos- sibilities based on the number of container rows and levels to be stowed in the hull? In the case of the buoy tender, buoy handling will be ad- dressed first. Will buoys be handled forward or aft of the deckhouse? How will the buoys and their anchors and chains be lifted on and off the vessel? In the case of the inter-island passenger/cargo ship, the required beaching capability is addressed first. What beach slopes are anticipated and how much cargo weight can be brought how close to the shore line for various combina- tions of hull dimensions and fullness coefficients? Once the ship is beached, how will passengers and cargo be moved from the ship to the shore? ‘These examples demonstrate that the design approach is influenced by the ship's mission and payload or cargo characteristics, as well as by the attributes of the ship itself. The ship designer will initially focus on gaining a full un- derstanding of these requirements and characteristics and formulating, in their mind, overall ship concepts and con- figurations that will satisfy them. In doing this, the required ship design speed will be a primary consideration. Many ‘concepts suitable for relatively low speeds will not be fea- sible if the required speed is high ‘The naval architect will also judge whether the design will be weight, volume, or main deck limited. In a weight- limited design, the buoyancy required to float the weight of the ship and its payload establishes the ship's principal dimensions. Ina volume-limited design, the internal space required to accommodate the payload and other ship func- tions establishes the principal dimensions; thus space analysis is of major importance from the outset. For ‘weight-limited designs, space requirements need not be rig- orously addressed in the initial design cycles. In a main deck limited design, the objects to be carried or built upon the deck establish the ship’s length and/or beam. The air- craft cartier is an obvious example. The lengths of most surface combatant ships are determined by the so-called sstack-up length, the sum of the deck lengths required for ‘weapons, sensors, propulsion air intakes and exhausts, avi- ation facilities, anchor handling and mooring equipment, etc. (see Chapter 54 ~ Naval Vessels), Today most ship ‘types are volume-limited,5-16 Ship Design & Construction, Volume 1 532 Feasibility Study ‘The development of a ship feasibility study is the first step in the design development process for naval ships and is often performed by shipowners for complex commercial ships. Four primary physical criteria must be satisfied by any ship design, in addition to the requirement that the de- sign elements must be packaged in a feasible overall ship configuration, These physical criteria are, available inter- nal volume must equal or exceed the total required volume, weight must equal buoyancy, there must be satisfactory in- tact stability, and the installed propulsion power must be ca- able of propelling the ship at the required top speed. ‘These four criteria must be addressed in the initial de- sign process. A typical sequence of steps followed in de- veloping a feasibility study is shown in Figure 5.6. The four primary criteria are noted down the left side of the figure. ‘The stepsin the generic design process are numbered in the figure and are discussed below. Itis important to note that the sequence of steps depicted in the figure is not inviolate. A different sequence is often better suited to a particular design problem. Also, there is an interaction between the analytical process described below and the process used to define the external configuration of the ship. Some designs lend themselves to the very early definition of some features of the external configuration. ‘When this is the case, it can affect the steps in the analyti- cal solution procedure. Regardless of the sequence used, the same solution should be arrived at, if consistent assumptions and decisions are made as the iterative process unfolds. Each step will be described in the following sub-sections. 53.2.1 Principal performance requirements At the outset, three principal performance requirements must be known or assumed. They are, payload (cargo dead- weight and stowage factor), maximum or sustained speed (design speed), and fuel endurance (design voyage distance), Values for these can be found in the different ship type design chapters in Volume IT of this book. In addition, as- sumptions must be made for certain ship characteristics, in- cluding the ship type, hull type, propulsion plant type, principal bull form coefficients, and the design margins to be applied. The effects of varying the latter assumptions can, and often are, explored by performing additional fea- sibility studies, By ship type is meant the overall hull configuration and ‘method of support, for example, conventional displacement monohull, SWATH, planing monohull, catamaran, trimaran, hydrofoil, air cushion vehicle (ACV), or surface effect ship (SES). As the term Aull type is used here, it refers to major features of the hull form: transom vs, cruiser stern, flared Ys. tumblehome topsides, bulbous bow vs. no bulb, ete. Note J. FIXPAYLOND SPEED, FUEL ENOURANCE, MULLTVFE pj PROPULSION PLANT TPE MARGINS ETC 2. ESTIMATE WIGHT ANO YOUUAE OF PAYLOAD (aaa 5 ESTATE TOTAL REQUED VOWUUE 6. STENRAL AND DEORAOUSE ‘AUAL.VOL. > EOD.VOK. i oNsT (20 7 ESTIMATE WEIGHT AND WC te _P rowsr Le VOLUME wacir= avowancy WEIGHT wo] sonst nstatLeo [re | PoweR ecu = INSTALLED POWERING Figure 58 Feasibility Study Process Fe eee caeChapter 5: The Ship Design Process S17 n principle to type. The specific steps followed will vary, espe- cially for the non-displacement ship types. The propulsion plant type might be medium speed geared diesel, low speed directly connected diesel, geared gas tur- bine, or geared fossil fuel or nuclear steam turbine, all con- nected by shafts to propellers in the conventional manner, Electric drive or integrated electric drive plants might be con- sidered, with a variety of generator prime movers. Combined plants such as Combined Diesel or Gas Turbine (CODOG) might be considered as well as various propulsors, includ- ing conventional open propellers, water jets and podded propulsors. To develop a single feasibility study, a single plant type must be assumed. Other propulsion plant alter- natives are often evaluated with the aid of additional feasi- bility studies. For a displacement monohull, the principal hull form Coefficients are the longitudinal prismatic coefficient, Cp, and the maximum section coefficient, Cx. For many com. ‘mercial ships with Cx about 0.98, Cb is used instead of Cp. Together these coefficients establish the block coetticient, Cb. Cp has a major influence on hull resistance and hence powering. Cx has a major effect on the vertical center of buoyancy and on the vertical center of gravity of items stowed low in the hull. Hence it has a significant effect on intact stability. Both coefficients affect the space available in the hull as welt as the buoyancy provided by the hull. Ini al values of these coefficients are selected based on the de- signer's experience and judgment. Alternative combinations of values are often studied later. Design and Construction (D&C) margins, also known as acquisition margins, ace applied to early stage design es- timates to account for unknowns, errors in prediction tech- niques and the likelihood of design changes as the design requirements are refined during design development. Con- struction margins are applied to compensate for growth dur- ig construction. In some acquisitions, the shipbuilder will not be known during the early design stages; nor will the many vendors who will supply equipment. These uncer- tainties also translate into weight and KG uncertainties that are addressed by margins. It is expected that D&C margins will be depleted as the ship design and construction process unfolds. Typical margin categories include weight, KG rise, ship service electric power, HVAC loads, hull resistance, space and accommodations, Design and Construction mar- pins are separate and distinct from service life allowances, which some shipowners require to be provided in a new hip at delivery. The latter allowances are provided in an- pation of growth during the ship's life of attributes such is weight, KG, and required electric power. Appropriate D&C margins and service life allowances must be incor- porated in the feasibility study. The ship designers are re- sponsible for the selection of D&C margins: they must also provide for all shipowner-specified service life allowances. 53.22 Payload weight and volume estimation Payload weight (cargo deadweight) and volume are esti- mated. The definition of payload must be clear and con- sistent with the estimating relationships described later. The term payload as used here refers to weapons and the equipment, supplies and crew to support the cargo and/or other items directly related to the ship's mission. Ship en- durance fuel, fresh water, provisions and other consum- ables are not included. Some might define this payload as consisting solely of variable load items carried to perform. the ship's mission. For ship sizing purposes, however, itis probably best to take a broader view and define payload to bbe any built-in ship systems and spaces that directly sup- Port the ship’s mission, in addition to the variable loads themselves. An example would be the scientific gear and laboratory spaces on an oceanographic research ship, as well as the equipment used to raise and lower the scien- tific gear overboard from the deck of the ship. In this ex- ample, the payload consists of a number of installed systems and shipboard spaces, as well as scientific supplies and equipment that can be loaded onto and off of the ship. Pay- load weight and volume estimation is relatively straight- forward for commercial ships such as crude oil tankers, bulk carriers or container ships where the entire payload is cargo, although variable cargo densities can complicate the task. It is more difficult for payloads that include in- stalled ship spaces and systems, Note that the payload vol- ume, which must be provided within the hull and/or the deckhouse, must be distinguished from payload volume, which will be carried external to the hull envelope, such as containers loaded on deck. 5323 First estimates of principal characteristics Initial estimates are made of hull length, full load dis- placement and installed power. Almost any values can be used for the initial estimates but the closer they are to the final result, the fewer iterations will be required to get to closure, when using the spiral design or similar single point design approach. These estimates are generally based on em- pirical plots or equations derived from a statistical analysis ‘of existing ship data for the particular hull type and ship mis- sion being considered. Displacement might be estimated from a plot of payload weight versus displacement (or Dead- weight Coefficient for commercial ships). length might be estimated from a plot of length vs. displacement, and in- stalled power might be estimated from a piot of power per ton versus Froude number.5-18 Ship Design & Construction, Volume 1 5324 Determination of manninglaccommodations requirements ‘The total number of accommodations to be provided is es- timated. This is generally based ona manning estimate (pro- vided by the shipowner for commercial ships), increased by an allowance for transients and perhaps a D&C margin and/or a service life growth allowance. 5325 Estimation of required volume ‘The total required internal volume is estimated. Initially, this is a gross figure that reflects the payload (cargo) vol- ume plus the volume required for exew living, propulsion machinery (total machinery space volume, including air in- takes, exhaust uptakes, and shaft alleys), tankage, stores, ac~ cess, ship control spaces, voids, and other miscellaneous spaces. For the initial estimate, an empirical plot of total in- ternal volume versus payload (cargo) volume is often used, ‘based on data for ships with similar missions and hull types. More detailed estimates will be made in later iterations. 5326 Sizing of hull and deckhouse ‘The bull and deckhouse are sized to provide the required internal volume. A split between the hull and deckhouse volume is chosen. This might be based on a factor chosen from previous designs, or it might be based on a tentative deckhouse sketch with an associated deckhouse volume. Deducting the estimated deckhouse volume from the total required volume yields the required hull volume. Hull length, beam, depth and block or prismatic coefficient, are adjusted until the necessary hull volume is provided. Em- pirical plots of hull proportions such as L/B, B/D, and L/D for ships with similar hull types and missions are often used as a guide in this process. Extreme proportions will often cad to problems: too great a L/B ratio and too low a B/D ratio could result in deficient stability, and too great an L/D. could result in adverse hull girder strength. Large object volumes with specific minimum dimensions to be accom- modated within the hull, must be considered when select- ing the principal hull dimensions. Examples might be an engine room, a large cargo hold, an aircraft hangar or a mis sile magazine, Large object volumes typically have a ver- tical height that exceeds one normal deck height; they may also have an unusually large length or beam. 5.327 Weight and center of gravity estimates ‘The full load weight and Vertical Center of Gravity (VCG) (KG) are estimated. Lightship weight groups and load items are treated separately. Lightship weight components are ini- tially estimated in major groups, using selected parent ships or empirical plots of data for ships with similar missions and hull types. Hull structural weight might be estimated froma plot of hull stel weight versus LBD/100 (cubic mum- ber), machinery weight might be based on a plot of ma- chinery weight versus installed power for the assumed plant type, ete. Living space outfit is generally a function of crew size while hull outfit might be a function of LBD/100. Light- ship KG is generally estimated by using KG/D factors for the individual weight groups based on data from similar ships. Load items are estimated or computed. The variable portion of the payload weight estimated in Sub-scction 5.3.2.2 is known. Endurance fuel weight can be estimated initially, and then computed once a speed-power curve has been estimated in Sub-section 5.3.2.9. Load KG is esti- ‘mated by assigning KG values to the individual load items based on the naval architect’s vision of the ship configura- tion and data for similar ships. At this point, weight is checked against buoyancy. Since L,B, Cp, and Cx are known, the draft required to float the ship's weightcan be computed. It is too great (navigational draft constraint exceeded or freeboard too low, based on ei- ther required regulatory freeboard or empirical criteria de- rived from successful designs), L and/or B can be increased, which affects available volume and weight. Hull depth might be reduced in an attempt to avoid excess volume, if adequate freeboard could be achieved. Deckhouse size (volume) also might be reduced. Note that Cp and/or Cx also could be in- creased at this point to reduce draft but the naval architect ‘may choose not to, seeking a solution atthe selected Cp and Cx values with the idea that other Cp and Cx combinations also will be studied later. Ifthe calculated draft is too low, pethaps not enough draft to swing a propeller of reasonable diameter, L and/or B could be reduced; D and/or deckhouse size would have to be increased commensurately to maintain adequate internal volume. Again, note that Cp and Cx could also be varied in the effort to find a solution. At this point, weight and volume have been evaluated. Bear in mind that displacement weight must equal buoyancy, but that the avail- able volume may exceed the required volume. If the avail- able volume must exceed the required volume in onder to provide sufficient buoyancy, thisis an indication of a weight- driven design such as an Ore Carier. 5.328 Stability check ‘The transverse metacentric height, GMt, is estimated to check initial intact stability. Note that initial stability at large heel angles and damage stability are evaluated at a later point in design when the required design detail is available. ‘To estimate GMt, estimate KMt and subtract KG, mak- ing a reasonable correction for tankage free surface (see Chapter 11 ~ Parametric Design). The two constituents of KM&, KB and BMt, are each estimated based on the known quantities L, B,T, Cp, and Cx, and the results summed, TheChapter {transverse moment of inertia of the waterplane, It is esti- ‘mated from the waterplane coefficient, Cw. Cw is estimated from Cp, recognizing that a transom stern significantly af- fects both Cw and ft. GMUB is computed and compared to a predetermined criterion of accepiability. generally rang- ing from 3 to 10%, depending on the ship type and its in- tended mission (lower for cargo ships. mid-range for passenger ships, and higher for warships). If the criterion is exceeded, the result might be accepted. at least tem- poravily: ifthe criterion is not met. corrective action must bbe taken. Bither KG must be reduced or KMt increased. KG can be reduced by reducing D or deckhouse size or by low- ‘ering weights within the ship. At this early stage, reducing KG by lowering weights is not really feasible since indi- vidual weights have not yet been located within the hull Reducing deckhouse size yields small gains and reducing D may be infeasible due to freeboard! requirements or large ‘object volume dimensions, for example, the required height of a low-speed diesel engine room. The most effective way to raise KML is to increase beam since BM¢ varies as B squared, and this is generally the approach taken, Length may be reduced at the saine time, if possible, to avoid ex- cessive hull volume. 53.29 First estimate of propulsion power The power required to propel the ship at the desired maxi- mum or sustained speed is estimated. This estimate can be ‘much improved over the Subsection 5.3.2.3 estimate since the hull dimensions and form coefficients are now known, along with a better estimate of ship displacement. As- sumptions have been made regarding the general charac- (eristics of the hut] shape at the ends, for example, whether oF not there is a transom or bow bulb. Bare hull resistance isestimated using one of the established techniques; for ex- ample, a standard series, a regression analysis, or test re- sults of a similar hull. The principal hull appendages are identified, permitting an estimate of appendage drag to be made. Overall propulsive coefficient is estimated and shaft- ing and reduction gear losses are accounted for (or electric losses in the case of an electric ship). The resulting required propulsive power is compared 10 the installed power as- sumed in Step 3 of Figure 5.6, Ifthe installed poweris equal to or somewhat greater than the required power, a tentative solution has been achieved. If the installed power greatly exceeds the requirement, iL must be reduced. If t falls short ofthe requirement, it must be increased. In cither case, the ‘assumed propulsion plant must be modified and the process ‘repeated, starting with Step 5. The revised propulsion plant is likely to have a revised engine room volume and hence the total required volume will change. Ifthe fuel endurance is specified at a speed other than the specified maximum or The Ship Design Process 5-19 sustained speed, the speed-power estimate in Step 9 will clude the endurance speed so that a refined estimate of fuel weight can be made. This is a common situation for fossil fuel naval ships that cruise much of the time at fuel-efficient speeds and spend very litle time at high speeds. This completes the description of the nine steps listed in Figure 5.6, Even if a tentative solution has been achieved inthe first pass through the process, it may be repeuted start- ing at the step described in Sub-sections 5.3.2.4 or 5.3.2.5, using more refined estimates for the various parameters. This greatly improves the quality of the study and reduces tisk. Required volume, weight and KG are prime candi- dates for refinement. ‘An arrangement sketch must be developed in order to validate the tentative solution before the study can be ac- vepted. As a minimum, an inboard profile and main deck plan view must be depicted. A typical transverse section through the ship's midbody would be the next priority. Even if it were not required for validation, the customer would want to see a sketch anyway. The term sketch is used deliberately. Detail is not desired, only a simplified outline ‘of the hull and deckhouse boundaries and the principal in- ternal subdivisions: decks and bulkheads, Large object vol- lumes should be located and identified. The primary reason for the sketch is for the naval architect to ensure that a sat- isfactory ship arrangement can be developed within the se- {ected principal dimensions. In profile, does the selected hull depth permit a satisfactory allocation of deck heights tobe made with adequate space in the overheads to run dis- tributed systems? Can the heights of large object volumes such as the engine room be accommodated efficiently? Does the selected bull length permit a satisfactory arrange- ment of main transverse bulkheads? Can the lengths of large object volumes such as the engine room and cargo holds be accommodated efficiently, considering the re- quirements for colfision and after peak bulkheads? Can one ‘or more deckhouses with the required total volume be sat- isfactorily located on the hull so as to provide proper align- ‘ment with the engine room below deck, for example? Is the main deck length (and beam) adequate to accommo- date all of the required topside functions? The minimum length required to do this in naval ship design is referred toas the stack-up length, The stack-up length often sets the hull length in ships with cluttered topsides such as surface combatants or in ships with specific topside cargo stowage requirements, such as heavy lift ships or container ships. After a practical arrangement sketch has validated the study, capital and operating and support (O&S) costs can be estimated. Risks also must be assessed. Unique aspects of performance, beyond the usual calm water speed and fuel endurance estimates, are sometimes evaluated, albeit in pre-5-20 Ship Design & Construction, Volume 1 liminary fashion. Ship motions and maneuvering predic- tions are examples. Countless versions of the feasibility study development process outlined above have been programmed for speedy execution by computer. These programs, termed synthesis models, differ primarily in four ways: level of detail, de- gree of tailoring to specific ship types, approach to user in- teraction, and solution approach. Some programs are quite simplistic and contain only rough approximations for es- timating relationships; others are very sophisticated and estimate parameters such as weight and space in consid- erable detail (see Chapter 13 — Computer Based Tools). ‘Some programs are finely tuned to deal with a particular type of ship, for example, a container ship, and a particu- lar hull form type such as a cruiser stern hull with bow ‘bulb; others are much more flexible. Some programs run jout user interaction after the necessary inputs are pro- vided; others permit the user to interact with the program and steer the computer towards a particular solution. Graph- ical interfaces that permit arrangement sketches to be de- veloped on-line are becoming more common. Some programs iterate and converge to a single solution inter- nally; others produce a huge matrix of solutions and point ‘out to the user which ones fail to meet one or another of the prescribed acceptance criteria. ‘The advantages of a synthesis model inchude speed, re- peatability, relative accuracy, and the ability to capture the best thinking of all the experts in the organization deve ‘oping the model. Relative, as opposed to absolute, accu- racy is essential in the early stage design process. When alternatives are being evaluated and compared, capturing the true deita between the alternatives is of paramount impor- tance. In the past, parametric studies were done manually, often by different individuals. The true deltas between al- temnatives were often lost due to differing assumptions or round-off errors, On the other hand, synthesis models are costly to develop and require continuing care and feeding to keep up with ad. vancing technology. The primary use of synthesis models is in the concept design phase; that is, to develop ship fea- sibility studies. They also are used in later design phases to perform trade-off studies, for example, study the effects of varying hull proportions, form coefficients, etc. and to as- sess the total ship impacts of subsystem alternatives; for ex- ample, alternative propulsion plants, habitability standards, ‘margin policies, etc. 533 Concept Design A concept design represents the further development of a specific feasibility study. The work is done to reduce risk, improve the estimate of project cost, refine and validate the major ship performance requirements established previ- ously and, not Jeast, to establish a baseline for the start of preliminary design and its major trade-off studies, In de- veloping a set of feasibility studies, emphasis is given to rel- ative correctness, that is, to establishing the correct deltas between studies in the set. In developing a concept design, emphasis shifts to absolute correctness, that is, how large and heavy is this specific ship really going to be and what will it really cost? ‘Concept design, and all the design phases, which follow it, is really a parallel process, as depicted in Figure 5.7. Three critical steps, as shown in the figure, initiate the process, First, the exterior envelope of the ship is defined for the first time. This consists of the hull and deckhouse bound- aries. The assumptions reflected by the selected feasibility study are translated into a specific initial shape for the ship. ‘These initial assumptions include parameters such as the principal hull dimensions (L, B, T, D), principal hull form coefficients (Cp, Cx), freeboard and deckhouse volume. For the initial hull form, an existing hull may be used or a new one developed from scratch. The existing hull may bbe modified to match the desired dimensions and form co- efficients. Techniques for doing this are well known (8) and today are integrated into naval architecture software pack- ages, such as TRIBON and FORAN. The initial deckhouse configuration must reflect the desired volume and also nu- merous practical considerations such as realistic molded deck heights, sight lines from the bridge, provisions for propulsion air inlets and exhausts, and maintenance of the Tequired working deck areas, Even in this initial definition of the hull and deckhouse, production considerations should be given significant weight ‘fier the hull and deckhouse boundaries have been de- fined initially, the principal internal subdivisions must be es- tablished. The process of doing this is sometimes referred to as decking out the design, Deck locations within the hull and deckhouse are defined, as are the locations of the principal bulkheads, both transverse and longitudinal. The naval ar- chitect performing this task uses judgment based on experi- ence plus knowledge of the numerous influencing factors. ‘These factors include considerations such as realistic molded deck heights (at least 2.6 m today) necessary to achieve de- sired clear deck heights, practical double bottom depth, de- sired frame spacing for efficient structure, and the transverse bulkhead spacing needed to meet cargo stowage, floodable length and damage stability requirements. Production con- siderations and the need for structural continuity are given high priority in establishing the internal subdivisions. Ad- vice’ may be sought from experts in these areas. At the sameChapter 5: The Ship Design Process 521 time, itis important to remember that this is simply a start ing point, and that all design decisions tentatively made at this point will be thoroughly reviewed later in the design process before they are locked in. The decking our process may require small changes to certain of the input parame- ters. The hull depth, for example, may be adjusted to pro- vide the desired number of internal deck levels in an efficient manner, that is, without either inadequate or excessive mween- deck heights. Hull or compartment length might be modi- fied slightly to equate to an even number of frames at the desired spacing, Selected Define Hull Forrn Feasibilty |B] and Deckhouse Study Configuration ‘Locate Decks Initial and General Bulkheads ‘Arrangement ‘Avaittgiy Manning. Hydrodynamic Performance Cost, et. Baseline 1 Baseline 2 Baseline 3 Figure5.7 Naval Ship Cont Design Process After the decking out process is completed, an initial general arrangement drawing is developed. The drawing. depicts all so-called large object volumes such as the en- _gine room and cargo holds. These are spaces whose heights are greater than a single normal deck height. Smaller spaces, with normal deck heights are not individually defined at this point. Rather, blocks of space are allocated by function, for example, crew living, office and administrative spaces, navigation and other ship control spaces, workshops, etc. In the process of defining the initial general arrangement, it may be necessary to modify deck or bulkhead locations ‘or even the deckhouse boundaries. After the initial hull envelope and general arrangement have been defined, parallel design development can pro- ‘ceed in a number of functional areas, as depicted in Figure 5.7. The parallel design development effort extends beyond the concept design development and, in fact, continues through all the remaining design phases. The ensuing de- sign development activities can be classed as design and analysis activities, as depicted in the figure. As system de- sign and total ship analysis proceeds, conflicts with the ini- tial hull envelope and/or the general arrangement will be identified and must be resolved. Resolution may necessi- tate changes in either the hull envelope or the general arrangement, For example, development of the propulsion plant, including the initial machinery arrangement, may in- dicate the need to lengthen the engine room, which in tum will require a change to the general arrangement, Figure 5.8 is a depiction of the concept design task cat- egories after the initial configuration definition (Baseline 1 in Figure 5.7). Additional detail is provided. There are strong interactions between both the ship envelope and the ‘general arrangement and three of the eight areas of system design activity noted in the figure. These are structures, Propulsion plant and mission systems. Similarly, there are strong interactions between most of the areas of system de- sign activity and the eight analysis activities noted in the ‘upper block of total ship analysis tasks. For example, most areas of system design will contribute products to the area/volume analysis, the weight estimate, the electric load estimate, and the Master Equipment List (MEL). The top- ics listed in the second block of analysis tasks have equally strong interactions but with fewer system design tasks. There are strong interactions between both the hull form and the weight estimate and the hydrodynamic performance and stability analysis tasks, The general arrangement also has strong interaction with the damage stability analysis task. Noise and vibrations analysis tasks are strongly linked to the general arrangements and to the principal noise sources: propulsion and other rotating machinery and the propulsor itself, Fuel weight and volume are linked to the required5-22 propulsion power at the endurance speed, as well as to the efficiency of the propulsion and electric power generating plants at that speed. As design development proceeds, interim products are produced in each of the system design and total ship analy- sis task areas and fed to other areas that use them as inputs or as information updates. Frequently, updated information will reveal problems or disconnects in the design that the team must set to work to resolve. For example, the damage stability analysis may reveal the need to change transverse bulkhead spacing at the after quarter point which is at odds with the general arrangement, Such disconnects cannot be predicted in advance and the skill of a design team may be ‘measured by how quickly they can be identified, addressed and satisfactorily resolved. Figures 5.7 and 5.8 are generic in that they are applica- ble to the entire system design process once the initial hull envelope and general arrangement have been defined. In concept design, not all of the tasks identified in Figure 5.8 will be performed; others will receive varying degrees of attention, depending on the design problem at hand. ‘Tasks emphasized are those with the major influence on overall ship size, cost, performance and risk. Examples of tasks not performed in concept design might include the availability, noise and vibrations analysis tasks. Tasks given minimal attention might include the manning analysis task and the following design tasks: Outfit and Furnishings Ship Design & Construction, Volume 1 (ORF), fluid systems, HVAC system, and auxiliary m: chinery/mechanical systems. For concept design, there is insufficient detail to develop a manning estimate based on workload considerations. It would be premature to spent much effort defining O&F details. Design effort in the sys tems task areas mentioned above might be restricted to se lecting a reasonable baseline system concept, describing it by means of a highly simplified 1-line diagram and, for that concept, identifying major system components and esti ‘mating their sizes by ratiocination from similar ships. 54 DESIGN DEVELOPMENT In this section, the design development process, subsequ to the development of an initial concept design, is discussed. This process occurs during the preliminary, contract and functional design phases. 54.1 Overview ‘The design development process is a parallel one, performed! by persons with expertise in the various design disciplines. ‘These persons develop their portions of the design in par allel, exchanging data at appropriate points in the process. ‘The initial concept design provides the data that is needed tostart this parallel development process. Itis the initial le ‘CONFIGURATION DEVELOPMENT Ship Envelope General Topside ‘Appendage “Hl Form Arengement Arrangement Configuration {Deckhouse Configuration ‘SYSTEM DESIGN AND ANALYSIS. Mission swuaure | [Propulsion | [ electric Fuad HVAC ‘Avillany ‘out Systems Plant ine Pant systems | | system | | atachinery and Propulsoe) Mechanical, Fumishings Systems ‘TOTAL SHIP ANALYSIS1 Manning ire Weights ‘mvaiabity | [Bectrc ‘Master Cost ik Volume and cS Load) Equipment nD centers Use (MEL) ‘Construction Lee ‘TOTALSHIP ANALYSIS Hydiodyname | [tet tam intact Floodabie | [Deadweight | [Foci Nols Vierations Performance and satitty | | Length and | | cepacties | | weight | |

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