MODAL VERBS

Ability 1. Present and - we can use can and be able to for ability in the present. If the Despite his handicap he can/is able to drive a car.
Future Ability ability is surprising or involves overcoming some difficulty, we
often use is/are able to.
- to emphasize difficulty or to suggest effort, we use manage to She succeeds in creating a positive atmosphere in the office every day.
or succeed in + -ing We love being able to converse with the local people, so I would like to be
- we use be able to where can/could is grammatically able to speak the language better.
impossible. The claimant has been unable to drive since the date of the accident.
- we can also use be unable to if we want to sound more formal.
- to describe a future ability we use will be able to, NOT can. Will I be able to speak fluently by the end of the course?
However, we can use both can and be able to for future
arrangements. The doctor can’t/won’t be able to see you before six as he is busy till then.
If the arrangement is less certain we use could/ may/ might (be The dentist might be able to see you later today. I’ll have to check the diary.
able to).
2. Past ability - we usually use could to express past ability. But to talk about a Hannah loves the water. She could swim before she could walk.
specific occasion in the affirmative we use was/ were able to, Mike’s car broke down yesterday but fortunately he was able to repair it.
NOT could.
“Could you/ Were you able to fix the computer yourself?” “No, I could only/
-it is possible to use could, or was/ were able to, in questions, was only able to back up the important files.
superlatives, and in sentences with limiting adverbs such as only Sorry, but this is the cheapest hotel I could/ was able to find.
or hardly. She was so exhausted she could hardly/ was hardly able to speak.

Mozart couldn’t/ wasn’t able to speak French.

- we use couldn’t or was/were not able to to describe a lack of
ability/success. She could have paid by credit card but she preferred to use cash.
- we use could + have + past particle to describe a past ability
which wasn’t used or a past opportunity whi wasn’t taken. The
meaning is similar to “would have been able to” I couldn’t have been more pleased when I heard your results –
- we can use couldn’t have been + comparative adjective when congratulations!
we want to emphasize a past action or feeling.

1. Present When we speculate (or make deductions), we make informed

Speculation speculation guesses about an action or situation. This must be the place – it’s the only restaurant in the street.
modal + infinitive of the main verb in the simple or You must be feeling tired. It was a long flight.
and continuous form You have got to be joking!
expectation
- when we strongly believe that something is true: must, have He can’t/couldn’t be the senior doctor, he’s far too young.
(got) to Sam can’t be working at the moment – I see him in the garden every
- when we strongly believe that something is NOT true, or is morning.
impossible, we use can’t, couldn’t.
- we use can and could with wh- questions or with adverbs only Who can/could that be at this time of night?
and hardly It can/could only be Steve. He’s the only one with a key.
- if we believe that something is possible or probable: could,
may, might. He always wears smart suits. He could/may/might be a business man.
 - we use couldn’t to say that something is unimaginable because I couldn’t pick up a spider; they terrify me.
we are unwilling to do it:
2. Present and - to express an expectation; we expect an action to happen now The plane took off on time so it should/ought to be landing about now and
future expectation or in the future because of our prior knowledge of the current there shouldn’t/ought not to be any delays.
circumstances:
should/shouldn’t
ought to/ought not to
3. Past speculation Make informed guesses about an action or situation in the past There was a terrific noise. It must have been an explosion.
- if we strongly believe that something was true because of I couldn’t wake you this morning. You must have been sleeping really
evidence : must+have+past participle (simple –V3, or continuous soundly.
–been+Ving)
- if we strongly believe that something was NOT true because of
evidence : can’t/couldn’t+have+past participle She can’t have fixed the computer, it’s still not working properly.
- if we believe that something possibly or probably happened: They couldn’t have been expecting such a huge turnout at the funeral.
may (not)/might (not)+have+past participle
We’d better hurry – the hotel might have given our room away by now!
4. Past expectation - an action that we expected to happen in the past I don’t know where our main speaker can be. He should/ought to have
should (not)/ought (not) to +have + past participle arrived hours ago.

Obligation 1. Present and - we usually express obligation with must or have to. You must arrive in time for the meeting.
future obligation - we use don’t have to/don’t need to when there is no Everyone has to register their name and address in order to vote.
and necessity obligation. We don’t have to/need to pay to visit most museums in the UK. Entrance is free.
have to = obligation we see as outside our control vs. must =
obligation imposed by the speaker I really must get to the dentist next week.
- we can use must and should to express obligation in the
future. We’ll need to get our visas sorted out or we won’t be able to go to the United
- if the obligation is external, we use will have to or will need States.
to. If there is no future obligation, we use won’t have to, With this food processor, you won’t have to/won’t need to/needn’t chop
won’t need to or needn’t. vegetables any more.
2. Present and - we use need to, must and have to - a necessity that results I really need to/must/have to go now. I’m meeting John in half an hour.
future necessity from things other than just commands, rules or laws, or to The car really needs cleaning/ needs to be cleaned.
show that something is very important.
- absence of necessity: needn’t/don’t need to We needn’t/don’t need to put the heating on yet; it’s not cold enough.
 3. Past obligation - we use had to when we talk about an obligation or The staff and students at the university had to evacuate the campus.
and necessity necessity in the past.
- unfulfilled obligation in the past: should/ought to + have + You really should have/ought to have registered before the term started.(But
past participle you didn’t.)
- no obligation: didn’t have to/didn’t need to
Past forms of need with different meanings:
- They didn’t need to bring coffee, as it was enough. (We
don’t know if they brought coffee or not)
vs. They needn’t have brought coffee. (We know that they
brought coffee)

4. Other ways of - we can use be to for an order from a person in authority. The members of the jury are to report to the judge’s chambers immediately.
expressing - be supposed to = lesser obligation that is frequently ignored We’re supposed to attend all classes, but we often skip them.
obligation - be liable to = obligation (in a legal context)
- be obliged to/be required to – formal Anyone causing damage will be liable to pay for all necessary repairs.

Prohibition 1 Present and - must not/mustn’t You really shouldn’t/oughtn’t to speak to your mother like that!
future prohibition - less strong, often moral prohibition: shouldn’t/oughtn’t to
and criticism - prohibition by an external authority: can’t, aren’t allowed
to, is prohibited/ forbidden, may not. It is prohibited/forbidden to smoke here!
- prohibition in the future: won’t be allowed to, can’t.
Let’s eat before we go. We won’t be allowed to/ can’t take food into the
auditorium.
2. Past prohibition - prohibition in the past : couldn’t, wasn’t/weren’t allowed In those days, women and criminals couldn’t/ weren’t allowed to vote.
and criticism to.
- shouldn’t/ought not to +have+past participle – to criticize You shouldn’t have driven through that red light. You could have caused an
a past action; in the affirmative form for the fact that accident.
something did not happen. You’re late! You should have been here half an hour ago.
- weaker criticism – might/ could +have + past participle. You might/could have told me about the party.

Certainty, 1. Present and - when we believe something is certain but we don’t know it It’s five o’clock. Janet will be in Moscow now. (based on our experience of
future certainty is a fact: will/won’t. travel time)
habits and - for something ongoing: will/won’t +be+Ving Jason knows his successor will be having a hard time in the job. (based on
willingness Jason’s experience)
- prediction about the future that someone made in the past: We had to hurry to get him to the hospital. It would be too late otherwise.
would/wouldn’t
2. Past certainty - to refer to something which we feel certain has happened We sent the invitation on Monday, so they will have received it by now.
(but do not actually know): will+have+past participle
- to refer to something which we feel certain has not We sent the invitations by second-class post. They won’t have received them
happened: won’t+have+past participle yet.
3. Present habits - we use will/won’t to talk about habits and routines that have Every lesson is the same: he will sit down and he won’t greet us or show any
and routines become predictable. interest in us.
 - to describe an annoying habit or make a criticism We enjoy going out with Frank and Carol, but they will argue in public!
4. Past habits and - we use would/ wouldn’t to talk about habits in the past. Every lesson was the same: he would sit down and he wouldn’t greet us or show
routines any interest in us.
5. Present and - we use will to express an agreement to do something. It John will act as referee today since Martha can’t make it.
future willingness means “be willing to”. If you will take a seat for a moment, Mr Franks will be with you soon. (=if you
- we can use will/won’t in the if clause of a first conditional are willing to take a seat)
to make a polite request:
6. Past willingness - we use would/wouldn’t to show willingness or refusal in the Dad would always help us with our homework.
past. The shop assistant wouldn’t change the blouse for me, even though I hadn’t
worn it.

Other uses 1. Asking for and - less formal/more sure: can/could/may Can/could I use your phone? – Yes, you can. – No, I’m afraid you can’t/ No,
giving/refusing I’m sorry.
of modals permission - more formal/less sure: might Might I ask the court for an adjournment? – Yes, you may/ Certainly. – No, you
may not/ No, I’m afraid not.
2. Suggestions To make suggestions we use can, shall, let’s, could. Shall we try that new café? Let’s try that new café.
3. Orders, Orders, formal instructions and written rules: will or shall. The judges’ decision will/shall be final.
instructions and - we use will to make promises. My government will reduce unemployment.
promises
4. Expressing - we often use would + infinitive with to with verbs of liking We’d love to come to your wedding on 6th September.
desires, preferences and preference (like, love, prefer, etc.) to express desires and I would like you to listen to me when I’m talking!
and disagreements preferences. I would prefer to lose weight by a tried and tested method.

- we can use would with rather/sooner to express a Our delegates would rather not stay at the conference centre.
preference. ‘

- we can use would/wouldn’t to show disagreement in a I wouldn’t say that.

polite way. I wouldn’t go that far.