1

C.A.P.E Environmental Science

Unit 2 Internal Assessment

To determine the suitability of two sites adjacent to the Brown’s Town High school
farm for vegetable crop production in an aim recommend suitable environmentally
sustainable agricultural practices for these areas.

Names and Candidate #: Jesimiel Brown 1001360025

Brianna Martin 1001360092
Jonelle Livert 1001360076
AJ Wilson 1001360130
School: Brown’s Town High School
Center#: 100136
Subject: Environmental Science Unit 2
Teacher: Mrs. Mason-Holt
Territory: Jamaica
Year: 2019- 2020

Acknowledgement

Thanks is hereby expressed to our teacher for the guidance and help given during this research.

Thanks also to those who helped with gathering information needed to complete this SBA and for
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editing the final project. Thanks to those who gave of their time to ensure that the various activities

were carried out as required for the completion of this internal assessment.

Table of Contents
Title Page

1. Section A
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● Site Visits

2. Section B

● Lab Reports

3. Section C

3.1. Final Report

● Problem Statement

● Purpose of Study

● Methodology

● Literature Review

● Data Presentation and Analysis

● Discussion of Findings

● Conclusion

● Recommendations

4. References

5. Appendices

● Appendix 1- Formulas

● Appendix 2- Pictures from Site Visits

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Section
A
Site visits (4 site visits)

Entry number: 1

Date: December 4, 2019

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Site visit number: 01

Site Locations: Site ‘C’ (school farm), ‘A’ (east) and site ‘B’ (west) of the Brown’s Town High School’s
Farm

Objectives:
A) To make observations and determine the pH of the soil present at all three (3) sites.

B) To observe the type of vegetation present at each site.

C) To observe the topographical features of each site.

Activities:
1. Observe human activities at and around each site.

2. Observe the ecology of each site.

3. Prove of site ecology was caught by camera

4. Sampling bags were labelled during the site visit.

5. Samples were collected and used to determine the pH at each site.

Observations:

● It was a sunny and hot day

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● Site ‘A’ appeared to have been recently cleared of large woody shrubs. It has a steep slope with a

high percentage of marl.

● Site ‘B’ had large amounts of low grass and three large trees namely almond and mango. There

is a tract running through the site which is used by the primary school students as a short-cut to

access the main road.

● Site ‘C’ has a gentle slope and is divided into planting beds established as mini terraces. The area

was lined with drip irrigation. There were a few patches of plantain and banana trees at different

locations on the site. Other activities seen were broiler and layer rearing, shade house for flower

production and greenhouse production.

Comments:

pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. The results indicate that the pH of the soil in

site ‘A’ was 8.5 which is considered alkaline. This is as a result of the high levels of calcium carbonate

present. In site ‘A’, the plant density was higher than site ‘B’ and this indicates that there is little to no

human activity taking place at this location. It was also the most isolated of the three and its terrain may

be a deterrent for users. Site ‘B’ and ‘C’ are located in open areas, exposed to direct sunlight. The sparse

amount trees and grass vegetation occurring on site ‘B’ and ‘C’ indication greater human activity within

these sites.

Follow –up Activity:

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The results were discussed by the teacher in a follow-up class. Three other parameters: water content,

organic matter content and bulk density will be investigated at the next site visit to site ‘A’.

Entry number: 2

Date: December 4, 2019

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Site visit number: 02

Site Location: Site ‘A’ east of the Brown’s Town High School’s Farm

Objectives:
A) To collect soil samples for analysis of gravimetric water content, organic matter content and bulk

density.

B) To determine the suitability of the soil for vegetable crop production.

Activities:
1. The human activities on the site were observed.

2. The ecology site was observed.

3. Prove of site ecology was caught by camera.

4. Sampling bags were labelled at the site.

5. Soil samples were collected from each site to a depth of one foot. Samples were placed in

labelled transparent zip lock bags. Samples were used to test gravimetric water content,

organic matter content and bulk density.

Observations:

 The weather was fair with sunny skies and gentle winds.
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 The site was covered with many boulders, tree trunks and other plant waste as it was

recently cleared. The peak of the slope is shaded by overgrown and overhanging trees

from a private property. This section had a thick layer of humus.

 The site has a steep slope and is surrounded by residential properties, the Brown’s Town

Primary School and the school farm.

Comment:

The top of the slope seemed to have been graded down with heavy machinery and this accounts for the

limestone boulders present and shallow topsoil. The density of remaining tree trunks, other small shrubs

and overgrowth from a bordering property are responsible for the thick humus deposits in some areas.

Follow –up Activity:

Soil sample collected will be used to carryout laboratory exercises to determine gravimetric water

content, organic matter content and bulk density. To visit site ‘B' where similar activities will be carried

out.

Entry number: 3

Date: December 4, 2019

Site visit number: 03

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Site Locations: Site ‘B’ west, of the Brown’s Town High School’s Farm

Objectives:
A) To collect soil samples for analysis of gravimetric water content, organic matter content and bulk

density.

B) To determine the suitability of the soil for vegetable crop production.

Activities:
1. The human activities on the site were observed.

2. The ecology site was observed.

3. Prove of site ecology was caught by camera.

4. Sampling bags were labelled at the site.

5. Soil samples were collected from each site to a depth of one foot. Samples were placed in

labelled transparent zip lock bags. Samples were used to test gravimetric water content, organic

matter content and bulk density.

Observation:
● The weather was fair with sunny skies and gentle winds.

● The site was covered with grass and only three trees namely almond and mango was on the site.

The top soil was loose and had a pale red colour. There is a distinct track present and students
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from the primary school were seen using the track to access the main road and vendors who

serve the high school students.

● The area is mostly flat with a gentle slope towards the road way.

Comment:

The colour of the soil maybe as a result of the topsoil being previously removed; leaving the less fertile

subsoil exposed. The type of vegetation seen may also be a direct result of the shallow soil present.

Mined lands may not be able to accommodate deep rooted plants.

Follow –up Activity:

Soil sample collected will be used to carryout laboratory exercises to determine gravimetric water

content, organic matter content and bulk density. To visit site ‘C' where similar activities will be carried

out.

Entry number: 4

Date: December 4, 2019

Site visit number: 04

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Site Locations: Site ‘C’, the Brown’s Town High Schools Farm

Objectives:

A) To collect soil samples for analysis of gravimetric water content, organic matter content and
bulk density.
B) To observe the type of vegetation present.

Activities
1. The human activities on the site were observed.

2. Human activities were caught by cameras.

3. The Ecology site was observed.

4. Prove of site ecology was caught by camera

5. Sampling bags were labelling before site visit.

6. Soil samples were collected from the site in transparent zip lock bags. Samples were used to

test gravimetric water content, organic matter content and bulk density.

Observation:

● The weather was fair with sunny skies and gentle winds.

● The site slopes towards the southern end.

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● The site was divided into planting beds established on mini terraces and fitted with drip

irrigation. There were no cultivated crops present except for a few plantain and banana trees

located at different points.

● Incorporation of poultry manure was evident in the planting beds.

● The site was bordered by fencing to keep out animals and unauthorized persons.

Comment:

The use of drip irrigation may result in higher percentage of water content compared to the site ‘A’ and

‘B’. the incorporation of poultry manure may also result in a higher level of organic matter when

compared to the other two sites.

Follow –up Activity:

Soil sample collected will be used to carryout laboratory exercises to determine gravimetric water

content, organic matter content and bulk density.

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SECTION
B
Lab reports (4 labs)

Lab: #1

Date:

Title: pH Tests

Aim: to measure the pH of soil from the sites.

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Materials: Soil samples, pH meter, 250 ml beaker, stirring rod, deionized water.

Method:

1. 20 grams of dry soil sample form site ‘A’ was added to a 250 ml beaker.
2. 20 ml of deionized water was added to create a soil solution.
3. A stirring rod was used to mix the solution thoroughly for 5 minutes.
4. A calibrated pH meter was submersed into soil solution and gently stirred with the meter rod for
one minute.
5. The reading was allowed to stabilize and the pH recorded.
6. The meter was then rinsed with water and recapped.
7. The above steps were repeated for the soil sample from site ‘B’

Results:

Table 1: showing the values obtained for soil pH at the three selected sites.

Sites pH level Standard pH range for vegetables

A 8.5 6.0 – 7.0

B 6.5 6.0 – 7.0

C (Farm) 6.5 6.0 – 7.0

Discussion:

pH stands for potential of hydrogen. It refers to the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution in a
solution. pH is measured in acidity or alkalinity of a solution. The pH value ranges from 0 to 14 on a pH
scale. On the scale 7 is neutral lower values are more acid and higher values more alkaline. Site ‘A’ has
the highest pH of 8.5 which is alkaline, while Sites ‘B’ and Site ‘C’ (farm) recorded pHs of 6.5 denoting
they are slightly acidic.
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Precaution:

pH meters were calibrated before use.

Conclusion:

Sites ‘B’ and ‘C’ recorded pH ranges with the acceptable limit for cultivating vegetable crops. On the
other hand Site ‘A’s’ alkalinity make it unsuitable for vegetable crop cultivation.

Limitation:

To allow for a more accurate evaluation of the pH, several sample points should have been established
across each site.

Lab: 2

Date:

Title: Gravimetric Water Content

Aim: to determine the gravimetric water content of soil samples from site ‘A’ and site B’.

Materials: soil samples, 250ml beakers, convection oven, top load balance, tweezers, mortar, spatula,
sieve, 2 containers with cover, masking tape, calculator.
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Method:

1. The convection oven was heated to 80oC.

2. Two thoroughly cleaned and labelled containers were placed in the oven upside down for 3 hours
to dry.
3. The containers were allowed to cool and their weight taken in grams using a top balance.
4. Soil sample from site ‘A’ was prepared by mortaring to break up large particles and using a
tweezers to remove roots.
5. 50 grams of prepared soil sample was placed in the container and weighed to determine weight
of wet soil and container.
6. The container with soil was placed in the oven and allowed to dry for 48 hours.
7. The container with soil sample was removed after 48 hours and weighed on a balance to
determine the dry soil plus container weight.
8. The weight was recorded and the water content calculated.
9. Steps 1 – 8 was done simultaneously for soil samples from site ‘B’.

Results:

Table 1: showing the values obtained for soil water content at the three selected sites.

Water content Site A Site B Site C Acceptable

(Farm) Water Content

A. Container Weight
43.71(g) 44.98(g) 44.63(g)
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B. Container weight + wet soil sample
93.71(g) 94.98(g) 94.13(g)

C. Container weight+ dry soil sample

90.42(g) 87.45(g) 88.62(g)

D. Wet sample weight (b-a)

50(g) 50(g) 50(g)

E. Dry sample weight(c-a)

46.71(g) 42.47(g) 43.99(g)

F. Moisture sample weight(d-e)

3.29(g) 7.53(g) 10.01(g)

G. Soil Moisture (%) = 100*f/e

7.04% 17.7% 22.75% 25%

Discussion:

Gravimetric water content is the mass of water in the soil, measured as the difference between the moist
soil and the soil dried at 80 degrees Celsius. From the data displayed in the table, it can be see that site
‘C’ recorded a water content closets to the acceptable standard with a percentage of 22.75%. Site ‘A’
recorded a water content of 7.04%, the lowest and site ‘B’ 17.7% the second lowest.

Precaution:

The scale was zeroed before use.

Conclusion:

All three sites recorded water content levels lower than the acceptable standard. Site ‘C’ would however
be the most suitable of the three for vegetable crop production.
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Limitation:

To allow for a more accurate evaluation of the water content, several sample points should have been
established across each site.

Lab: #3

Date:

Title: Organic Matter Test

Aim: To measure the organic matter content of soil from two sites

Materials: soil samples, 250ml beakers, triple beam balance, crucibles, Bunsen burner, wire gauze,
tripod.

Method:
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1. The soil samples previously prepared and dried in the water content lab was used to carry out
this exercise.
2. Approximately 30g each of soil samples representing site ‘A’ and site ‘B’ were placed into
separate crucibles and weighed to the nearest 0.01 gram.
3. The crucibles were heated to a red color over a Bunsen burner stirring occasionally to aid
complete oxidation of the organic matter. This was done for approximately 2 hours until the soil
became light tan.
4. The samples were cooled and reweighed to determine the loss in weight and calculate percent
organic matter.

Results:

Table 1: showing the values obtained for soil organic matter content at the three selected sites.

Formula Site A Site B Site C Normal OM

(Farm) Content

C1 (Crucible weight) 46.23(g) 45.89(g) 46.72(g)

C2 (Crucible + sample weight) 76.23(g) 75.89(g) 76.72(g)

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C3 (crucible + no OM sample weight) 75.87(g) 71.97(g) 73.21(g)

% Organic matter 1.2% 5.16% 4.57% 5%

C2-C3 x100

C2

Discussion:

Organic matter is that matter that has come from a recently living organism. It is capable of decay or is
the product of decay. The three sites were tested and the results record. The normal organic matter
content is 5%. Site A matter content is 1.25 which is the lowest, followed by site ‘C’ (farm) which is
4.57% which is 5.16%. Site ‘A’ and Site ‘C’ (farm) are within the suitable organic matter making both
sites suitable for plant growth.

Precaution:

Allow crucible to cool before removing from oven.

Conclusion:
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Site ‘B’ has the most fertile soil of the three sites making it the most suitable. Site ‘C’ (farm) is
acceptable as it falls below the standard by mere margin and can be enhanced by adding compost. Site
‘A’ has an extremely low organic matter content making it unsuitable for vegetable production.

Limitation:

To allow for a more accurate evaluation of the organic matter content, several sample points should have
been established across each site.

Lab: #4

Date:

Title: Bulk Density Test

Aim: To measure the bulk density of soil from two sites

Materials: Soil samples, top load balance, spatula, beakers, 100 ml graduated cylinder, calculator
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Method:

1. 50ml of soil sample was added to a 50ml beaker.

2. A 100 ml graduated cylinder was dried, weighed and weight recorded (A).
3. The soil sample was added to the cylinder and compacted by dropping it on a textbook ten times
and at 10 ml intervals until it reaches the 50 ml mark.
4. A spatula was used to level the top of the sample and more soil added until it is even with the 50
ml line (B). this represents the bulk volume of the compacted soil ( 1 ml = 1 cm3)
5. The cylinder plus compacted soil sample was weighed (C) and weight recorded.
6. Steps 1- 5 were repeated for site 2.

Results:

Table 1: showing the values obtained for soil bulk density at the three selected sites.

Formula
Site A Site B Site C Acceptable
(Farm) Standard
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(A) Weight of graduated cylinder. 136.85 g 138.39g 136.47g

(B) Bulk volume of compacted soil. 50 cm3 50 cm3 50 cm3

(C) Weight of graduated cylinder plus 211.60g 236.37g 237.52g

compacted soil.

(D) weight of soil sample = (C – A) 74.75g 97.98g 101.05g

(E) Bulk density (g/cm3) D/B 1.49 1.95 2.02 1.0 – 2.7 g/cm3
g/cm3 g/cm3 g/cm3

Discussion:

Bulk density is a measure of the mass of a soil per given volume, including solids and pore spaces. It
reflects the solid ability to function for structural support, water and solute movement and soil aeration,
for site A the weight of graduated cylinder is 136.85g while, site b is 138.3g and site ‘C’ is 136.47g. The
bulk volume of compacted soil, site ‘A’, ‘B’ and ‘C’ has a50cm weight of graduated cylinder plus
compacted soil, Site ‘A’ has 21.60g, Site ‘B’ 236.37 while Site ‘C’ weighs 236.37g of soil sample. Site
‘A’ 74.75g, Site ‘B’ 97.98g and Site ‘C’ 101.05g. The bulk density has a Site A of 1.49g/1cm, Site B is
1.95g/cm and Site ‘C’ has 2.02g/cm for the acceptable standard 1.0-2.7g/cm3.

Precaution:

Avoid spilling when measuring soil sample.

Conclusion:
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The bulk density for all three sites is within the acceptable range and therefore, it can be concluded that
the sites are suitable for crop production.

Limitation:

To allow for a more accurate evaluation of bulk density, several sample sites should have been
established across each site.
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Section
C
Final Report
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Problem Statement

The Ministry of Education is seeking to end the shift in secondary schools. The Brown’s Town

High School has been selected to make the transition. However, with the expected expansion and limited

land space, a section of the school’s farm which is used for crop production has been identified as the

most inexpensive solution for the expansion. However, relocating the farm to adjacent lands may require

the implementation of more sustainable agricultural practice which may have a very high initial cost for

implementation. The school may not be willing to expend monies for this purpose and so the Agriculture

Science department may lose out on their production capacity.

Variables
Constant
❖ The material / tools used to collect soil was the same design in all sites.

❖ The same pH matter was used to test the pH of the soil collected at the bout side.

❖ The pH matter was calibrated using the same method & standard solution before all pH tests

were conducted.

❖ The tests that were conducted were the same for the site.

Manipulated

❖ All the tests were conducted at different site.

❖ Different students carry out each test at each site.

❖ The time the tests were performed varied for each site.

Responding
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❖ The pH of the soil.
❖ The organic matter content of the soil.
❖ Soil moisture.

Purpose of Study
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The purpose of this project is to determine the suitability of two sites of land adjacent to the

Brown’s Town High school farm, for crop production. The sites have a slope with shallow topsoil and

an abundance of semi hardwood trees and shrubs. They have never been put into production and their

location and topography brings to the fore the need for the implementation of environmentally

sustainable agricultural practices. This research will compare the existing farm’s soil to that of two

adjacent sites being eyeballed for the relocation of the farm in an aim to make recommendations as to

the practices which will have to be employed to ensure the environmental integrity of these site are

maintained or enhance while supporting our need for crop production.

Objective:
In order to determine and illustrate the need for the implementation of environmentally sustainable

agricultural practices, a comparison of the soils from the existing farm; which utilizes terracing, drip

irrigation, use of compost and crop rotation; and the suggested relocation sites will be made by

examining the follow parameters:

● pH

● Organic matter content

● Bulk density

● Gravimetric water content

● To observe the surroundings.

Methodology

The principal aim to move the school farm father back and use the current farm area for school

expansion is the driving force for conducting this research. Therefore, soil sampling is needed to
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determine the quality of soils at the proposed locations as well as the need and importance of

employing environmentally sustainable practices within these sites. Soil sampling and testing

allows for a determination to be made as to the capacity of the soil to adequately supply nutrients

for growing crops.

Information was collected by utilizing primary and secondary sources of data collection

methods. Primary data was collected in the form of site visits and experimental research. The site

visits occurred on December 4, 2019 at different locations site ‘A’, site ‘B’, site ‘C’ (farm).

Scientific methods were used to execute all experiments. The experiments were observed closely

which allows excellent documentation of results and documentation of environmental conditions.

Computer interfaces were used to collect the chief sum of data based on the parameters that were

needed and analyzed for execution of this assessment.

Secondary sources, were also used to achieve information for this internal assessment. This

research process was supported with internet and textbook knowledge as secondary sources to

research specific details in the experimental procedure. These secondary sources allowed a

greater level of understanding within the experiment increasing the validity and reliability of the

information and providing a greater understanding of the experiment.

Literature Review

Introduction

This section presents a literature review for the Internal Assessment. Various parameters were

investigated and compared to establish the need for more sustainable practices and significant

differences in the quality of the soil when more environmentally sustainable practices are employed.
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The parameters selected are soil pH, bulk density, gravimetric water content and organic matter. The

significance of these parameters to crop production was researched and detailed below.

Soil pH

Soil pH or soil reaction is an indication of the acidity or alkalinity of soil and is measured in pH

units (College of Environmental Science and Forestry, 2019). Soil pH is a measure of the acidity and

alkalinity in soils. pH levels range from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral, below 7 acidic and above 7

alkaline. The desirable pH range for optimum plant growth varies among crops. While some crops grow

best in the 6.0 to 7.0 range, others grow well under slightly acidic conditions (The Mosaic Company,

2019). Soil properties that influence the need for and response to lime vary by region. A knowledge of

the soil and the crop is important in managing soil pH for the best crop performance. The optimal pH

range for most plants is between 5.5 and 7.0; however, many plants have adapted to thrive at pH values

outside this range.

Garden soils are often described as acidic (sour) or alkaline (sweet), (Jauron, 2002). There are a

few plants that require a soil pH of 4.5 to 5.5, including azaleas, rhododendrons, and blueberries. The

soil pH for these plants can be lowered by incorporating elemental sulfur (S) into the soil. Since the soil

acidifying response to elemental sulfur is slow, it should be applied and incorporated a year before

planting. Working Canadian sphagnum peat into the soil is another method to lower pH. Gullickson

(2016) notes that optimal soil pH is essential to proper nutrient cycling, soil microbial activity, soil

structure, efficacy and degradation of soil-applied herbicides and nitrogen fixation by leguminous crops.

Liming is a good way of reaching optimal soil pH.

Soil Depth
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Kosmas (1999) define soil depth as the root space and the volume of soil from where the plants

fulfil their water and nutrient demands. Soil depth refers to depth of soil profile from the top to parent

material or bedrock or to the layer of obstacles for roots. It differs significantly for different soil types

(ResCare-Hub, 2018). It is one of basic criterions used in soil classification. Soils can be very shallow

(less than 25 cm), shallow (25 cm-50 cm), moderately deep (50 cm-90 cm), deep (90cm-150 cm) and

very deep (more than 150 cm). Soil depth is a very crucial factor in plant growth and development

(Annapolis, 2015), since it straightway dictates the moisture storage ability, you can still grow an

excellent crop, with few exceptions as usual. Most of the red and lateritic soils having low activity

kaolinite clays, known for low inherent soil fertility, can still produce excellent crops with irrigation and

nutrient management options. The depth of soil is measured by how far below the surface plant roots

can extend before being stopped by barriers, such as rock, sand, gravel and heavy clay.

Soil depth is such soil property that cannot be created and plants have the ability to adjust to the

given soil environment, including depth. Application of open field hydroponics in perennial crops like

citrus is a big success in countries like Australia, South Africa. Protected cultivation of vegetables. One

needs a precision oriented management strategy to manage the soil according to crop requirement. Abd-

Elmabod (2017), states that solid depth is very critical for plant growth. Any discontinuities in the soil

profile, from layers of sand or gravel to even bedrocks, can physically limit root penetration.

Furthermore, most plants rely on soil for mechanical support and this is especially true for tall woody

plants (e.g. Shrubs, trees).

Gravimetric Water Content

According to Bilskie (2001), the state of water in soil is described in terms of the amount of

water and the energy associated with the forces which hold the water in the soil. The amount of water is
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defined by water content and the energy state of the water is the water potential. Plant growth, soil

temperature, chemical transport, and groundwater recharge are all dependent on the state of water in the

soil. While there is a unique relationship between water content and water potential for a particular soil,

these physical properties describe the state of the water in soil in distinctly different manners. It is

important to understand the distinction when choosing a soil water measuring instrument.

Walt (2015) outlines the importance of knowing gravimetric water content. It is important to

know water content of soil because 1) soil water serves as a solvent and carrier of food nutrients for

plant growth; 2) the yield of a crop is more often determined by the amount of water available rather

than the deficiency of other food nutrients; 3) soil water acts as a nutrient itself; 4) soil water regulates

soil temperature; 5) soil forming processes and weathering depend on water and 6) it is a principal

constituent of the growing plant, among other advantages.

Bulk Density

Soil Quality Organization (2018) defines bulk density as the weight of soil in a given volume.

The soil bulk density (BD), also known as dry bulk density, is the weight of dry soil (Msolids) divided

by the total soil volume (Vsoil). The total soil volume is the combined volume of solids and pores which

may contain air (Vair) or water (Vwater), or both (figure 1). The average values of air, water and solid

in soil are easily measured and are a useful indication of a soil's physical condition. Soils with a bulk

density higher than 1.6 g/cm3 tend to restrict root growth. Bulk density increases with compaction and

tends to increase with depth. Sandy soils are more prone to high bulk density. Bulk density can be used

to calculate soil properties per unit area (e.g. kg/ha).

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According to the Department of Natural Resources (2011), bulk density is important, because it

reflects the soil’s ability to function for structural support, water and solute movement, and soil aeration.

Bulk densities above thresholds indicate impaired function (see table 1). Bulk density is also used to

convert between weight and volume of soil. It is used to express soil physical, chemical and biological

measurements on a volumetric basis for soil quality assessment and comparisons between management

systems. This increases the validity of comparisons by removing errors associated with differences in

soil density at time of sampling.

Organic Matter
Organic matter has an overwhelming effect on almost all soil properties, although it is generally

present in relatively small amounts. A typical agricultural soil has 1% to 6% organic matter. It consists

of three distinctly different parts—living organisms, fresh residues, and well-decomposed residues

(University of Maryland, 2012). Fenton (2008) defines soil organic matter as the fraction of the soil that

consists of plant or animal tissue in various stages of breakdown (decomposition). Organic matter is

made up of different components that can be grouped into three major types: 1. Plant residues and living

microbial biomass; 2. Active soil organic matter also referred to as detritus and 3. Stable soil organic

matter, often referred to as humus. Soil organic matter - the product of on-site biological decomposition

- affects the chemical and physical properties of the soil and its overall health. Its composition and

breakdown rate affect: the soil structure and porosity; the water infiltration rate and moisture holding
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capacity of soils; the diversity and biological activity of soil organisms; and plant nutrient availability

(Bot and Benites, 2005).

The discussion above highlights the importance of the selected parameters to vegetable crop production.

When engaging in field cultivation, it is important that the soil is fertile as this will determine both the

quality and the quantity of produce achieved. Soils lay the foundation for field production and is

therefore of outermost importance in ensuring plants are provided with the conditions needed to perform

at their optimum. However, environmentally sustainable agricultural practices such as contour farming,

hydroponics and conservation tillage can be employed to enhance lands deem unsuitable for crop

production and should be explored as suitable options.

Presentation and Analysis of Data

Presentation of results obtained from tests carried out on soil samples from the four sites investigated.

Table 1 showing a comparison of the parameters tested for each sites.

Sample Area pH Water Content O.M Content Bulk Density

Site A 8.5 7.04% 1.2% 1.49g/cm3
Site B 6.5 17.7% 5.16% 1.95g/cm3
Site C (Farm) 6.5 22.75% 4.57% 2.02g/cm3

Table 2 showing pH for the three sites investigated.

Sites pH Standard pH range for

vegetables
A 8.5 6.0 – 7.0
B 6.5 6.0 – 7.0
C (Farm) 6.5 6.0 – 7.0
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Table2 shows the pH levels for the three sites sampled. Site ‘A’ recorded a pH of 8.5, sites ‘B’ and ‘C’

6.5. The data shows that sites ‘B’ and ‘C’ readings are within the acceptable range while site ‘A’ is

outside the acceptable range with an alkaline pH of 8.5.

Water Content
30.00%

25.00%

20.00%

15.00%

10.00%

5.00%

0.00%
Plot A Plot B Plot C (Farm) Acceptable standard

Figure 1 shows a comparison of the data retrieved for water content at the three sites which were

sampled. Based on the results displayed in the graph above, all three site’s water content are below the

acceptable standard for soils. Site ‘A’ has the lowest percentage of 7.04%, site ‘B’ the second lowest of

17.7% while site ‘C’ (farm) had the highest percentage, 22.75%; closets to the acceptable standard.
 11

Organic Matter Content

Plot A
8%

Standard
31%

Plot B
32%

Plot C
(Farm)
29%

Plot A Plot B Plot C (Farm) Standard

Figure 2 shows the comparison of data gathered for organic matter content. From the information

presented on the pie chart above, site ‘A’ and site ‘C’ (Farm) is below the acceptable standard while site

‘B’ is above the standard. Site ‘A’ has the lowest percentage organic matter content of 1.2%, site ‘C’

(Farm) the second lowest recording 4.57%, while site ‘B’ has the highest percentage with 5.16% which

is also above the acceptable standard.

 12

Bulk Density

2.7
Acceptable standard

2.02
Plot C (Farm)
0

1.95
plot B
0

1.49
Plot A
0

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

Series 1 Column1

The above chart shows the bulk density of soils from three sites sampled. The chart also provides the

acceptable standard for bulk density. From the chart it is evident that all three sites are within the

acceptable standard. Site ‘A’ has the lowest, recording 1.49 g/cm3, site ‘B’ has the second lowest of

1.95 g/cm3 while site ‘C’ (Farm) has the highest 2.0.g/cm3.
 13
Discussion

Soil pH

Soil pH is measured in units. It is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration.

The pH scales range from 0 to 14 with pH 7 as the neutral point. As the amount of hydrogen ions in the

soil increases, the soil pH decreases thus becoming more acidic. The pH is important because it

influences the availability of essential nutrients. Most horticultural crops will grow satisfactorily in soils

having a pH between 6 (slightly acid) and 7.5 (slightly alkaline).

In the soil pH table showing comparison of the parameters tested for each site. The pH for site ‘A’ is at

8.5, site ‘B’ 6.5 at the farm of site ‘C’ is 6.5. When compared to the standard pH range for cultivating

vegetables, sites ‘B’ and ‘C’ are within the acceptable range being slightly acidic while site ‘A’ is

outside the acceptable limits with an alkaline pH of 8.5.

Gravimetric Water Content

Gravimetric water content is the mass of water in the soil, measured as the difference between the moist

soil and the soil dried at 105°C, known as the oven-dry weight. Gravimetric water content is the mass of

water per mass of dry soil. It is measured by weighing a soil sample, drying the sample to remove the

water, then weighing the dried soil. The results for water content at the three sites are: Site ‘A’ 7.04%,

Site ‘B’ 17.75% and Site ‘C’ is 22.75% and for the acceptable standard is 25%. The data reveals that all

sites results were below the acceptable standard. However, given that water content is related to

environmental temperature, the readings maybe as a direct result of the temperature on the day samples

were taken.
 14
Soil Organic Matter

Soil organic matter binds mineral particles, giving soils a granular structure, keeping the soil loose and

aerated. Organic matter also increases the water holding capacity of soils and water availability to

plants. As organic matter decays it releases essential nutrients to the soil that is taken up by plants. It is

also the primary source of carbon and energy for soil organisms. Organic matter is very important in the

movement of nutrients in the environment and plays a role in water retention in soils. It is matter

composed of organic compounds that have come from the remains of organisms such as plants and

animals and their waste products in the environment. The tests for organic matter content were

conducted for sites ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’. For Site ‘A’ the reading was 1.2%, Site ‘B’ 5.16% and for Site ‘C’ it is

4.57%. The acceptable standard is 5%. Site ‘A’ has the lowest percentage and Site ‘B’ is the highest

percentage above the standard.

Bulk Density

Bulk density is a measure of the mass of a soil per given volume, including solids and pore spaces. Bulk

density is a commonly measured soil property by agriculturalists and engineers. Bulk density reflects the

soils ability to function for structural support, water and solute movement and soil aeration. The data for

bulk density are, Site ‘A’ 1.49g/cm3, Site ‘B’, 1.95g/cm3 and for Site ‘C’ 2.02g/cm3. The acceptable

standard ranges from 1.0g/mc3 -2.7g/cm3. The results thus indicate the suitability of all three sites as they

are within the acceptable range.

 15
Conclusion

It can be concluded that

 The pHs of the sites were all within the standard pH range for cultivating vegetable crops.

 The gravimetric water content of soil at each site is lower than that of the water content of fertile

soils.

 With respect to the organic matter content, the soils at each site have lower than normal organic

matter content.

 Based on the established standard for bulk density, soil from each sites were within the

acceptable standard.

 Based on the parameters investigated, site ‘C’ (school farm) was determined to be the most

suitable for vegetable crop production. This may be attributed to the environmentally sustainable

practices being employed on this site.

 Site ‘A’ is the least suitable while Site ‘B’ is the second least suitable. Clearing these area will

expose the shallow soils to the elements of the weather and so there will be need for the

implementation of practices to prevent or limit the negative effects brought on by crop

production. .
 16
Recommendation

1. The school administration should consider using the least suitable (fertile) site (site ‘A’) for the

school expansion project and build to the shape of the land.

2. Implementing the use of technology such as greenhouse and hydroponics for vegetable

production if it is more cost effective to move the school farm. Greater use of technology will

increase productivity and improve student’s awareness and knowledge. It will also lessen the use

of harmful agricultural chemical.

3. The topography of the adjacent lands can be modified to establish terraces and covered with

topsoil as well as contours. This will help to control soil erosion and maintain soil fertility.

4. The school’s administration should thoroughly assess the past earnings and the investments made

in the farm before making a decision to relocate

References
 17

Abd-Elmabod, Sameh. Modeling Agricultural Suitability Along Soil Transects Under Current
Conditions and Improved Scenario of Soil Factors. 2017.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/soil-depth

Anapalli, Saseedran. How does Soil Depth impact Plant Growth and Development? December 12, 2015.
https://www.researchgate.net/post/How_does_soil_depth_impact_plant_growth_and_developme
nt

Bilskie, Jim. Soil Water Status: Content and Potential. 2001.

https://s.campbellsci.com/documents/us/technical-papers/soilh20c.pdf

Bot, Alexandra & Benites, José. The importance of soil organic matter. 2005.
http://www.fao.org/3/a0100e/a0100e00.htm#Contents

College of Environmental Science and Forestry. Soil pH: What it means. 2019.
https://www.esf.edu/pubprog/brochure/soilph/soilph.htm

Department of Natural Resources. Bulk Density. September 19, 2011.

http://soilquality.org/indicators/bulk_density.html

Fenton, Megan. Soil Organic Matter. 2008. http://franklin.cce.cornell.edu/resources/soil-organic-

matter-fact-sheet

Gullickson, Gil. What You Need To Know About Soil Ph. April 6, 2016.
https://www.agriculture.com/content/what-you-need-to-know-about-soil-ph

Jauron, Richard. The Meaning and Importance of Soil pH. May 24, 2002.
https://hortnews.extension.iastate.edu/2002/5-24-2002/soilph.html

Kosmas, Constantinos. Definition: Soil Depth. 1999.

https://esdac.jrc.ec.europa.eu/public_path/shared_folder/projects/DIS4ME/indicator_descriptions
/soil_depth.htm

ReCare Hub. Soil Depth. 2018. https://www.recare-hub.eu/glossary/92:soil-depth

 18
Soil Quality Organization. Bulk Density – Measurement. 2018.
http://soilquality.org.au/factsheets/bulk-density-measurement

The Mosaic Company. Soil pH. 2019. https://www.cropnutrition.com/nutrient-management/soil-ph

University of Maryland. Organic Matter: What It Is and Why It's So Important. 2012.
https://www.sare.org/Learning-Center/Books/Building-Soils-for-Better-Crops-3rd-Edition/Text-
Version/Organic-Matter-What-It-Is-and-Why-It-s-So-Important

Walt, Van. Why do we need to know the soil moisture content of soil? April 8, 2015.
https://www.vanwalt.com/news/2015/04/08/why-do-we-need-to-know-the-soil-moisture-content-
of-soil/

Appendices
 19
Appendix 1- Formulas

1. Gravimetric Water Content

A. Container weight
B. Container weight + well soil sample
C. Container weight +dry soil sample
D. Wet sample weight (b+a)
E. Dry sample (c-a)
F. Moisture sample weight (d-e)
G. Soil moisture (%)

2. Organic Matter Test

C1 (Crucible weight)
C2 (Crucible + sample weight)
C3 (crucible + no OM sample weight)
% Organic matter
C2-C3 x100
C2

3. Bulk Density Test

(A)Weight of graduated cylinder.
(B) Bulk volume of compacted soil.
(C) Weight of graduated cylinder plus compacted soil.
(D) Weight of soil sample = (C – A)
(E) Bulk density (g/cm3) D/B

Appendix 2- Picture from Site Visits

 20

Site ‘B’: stony and mildly. Stumps and vegetation observed by site

Section of Site ‘A’ showing shallow soils. Preparing to collect samples.

Shows the shape of site ‘B’.