EST MODULE: 1

Resistors are used in a wide variety of applications in all types of electronic circuits. Their main
function in any circuit is to limit the amount of current or to produce a desired drop in voltage.
Resistors are manufactured in a variety of shapes and sizes and have ohmic values ranging from
a fraction of an ohm to several megohms. The power or wattage rating of a resistor is
determined mainly by its physical size. There is, however, no direct correlation between the
physical size of a resistor and its resistance value. In this topic, you will be presented with an in-
depth discussion of the following resistor topics: resistor types, resistor color coding,
potentiometers and rheostats, power ratings, and resistor troubles

I-TYPES OF RESISTORS

1.Carbon-composition resistor- a type of resistor made of finely divided carbon mixed with a
powdered insulating material in the correct proportion to obtain the desired resistance value.
Carbon-composition resistors are commonly available in R values of 1 to 20 M. Examples are 10,
220, 4.7 k, and 68 k. The power rating is generally 1 ⁄10, 1 ⁄8, 1 ⁄4, 1 ⁄2, 1, or 2 W 

2.Carbon-film resistor a type of resistor whose construction consists of a thin spiral layer of
carbon on an insulated substrate. 

3. Metal-film resistor a type of resistor whose construction consists of a thin spiral film of metal
on a ceramic substrate.
4.Wire-wound resistor a type of resistor whose construction consists of resistance wire wrapped on an
insulating core. Wire-wound resistors are typically used in high-current applications. Wire-wound
resistors are available with wattage ratings of about 1 to 100 W.

5. Surface-mount resistor a type of resistor constructed by depositing a thick carbon fi lm on a ceramic

base. (A surface-mount resistor is many times smaller than a conventional resistor and has no leads that
extend out from the body itself.)

6. Thermistor a resistor whose resistance value changes with changes in its operating temperature. A
thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor whose resistance value changes with temperature. If the
resistance of a thermistor increases with temperature, it is said to have a positive temperature
coefficient (PTC). If the resistance of a thermistor decreases with temperature, it is said to have a
negative temperature coefficient (NTC).
7. Variable Resistor
a. Potentiometer a three-terminal variable resistor used to vary the voltage between the center terminal
and one of the outside terminals.
b. Rheostat a two-terminal variable resistor used to vary the amount of current in a circuit.

8. Zero-ohm resistors are used with automatic insertion machines when it is desired to short two points
on a printed-circuit board. Zero-ohm resistors are used with automatic insertion machines when it is
desired to short two points on a printed-circuit board. Zero-ohm resistors are available in 1 ⁄8- or ¼-W
ratings.

9. Varisters (VDR)-are voltage dependent Resistors (VDR) which is used to eliminate the high
voltage transients. In other words, a special type of variable resistors used to protect circuits
from destructive voltage spikes is called varisters. When voltage increases (due to lighting or
line faults) across a connected sensitive device or system, then it reduces the level of voltage to
a secure level i.e. it changes the level of voltages.

10. Photo Resistor or LDR (Light Dependent Resistors)- is a resistor which terminal value of
resistance changes with light intensity. In other words, those resistors, which resistance values
changes with the falling light on their surface is called Photo Resistor or Photo Conductive Cell
or LDR (Light Dependent Resistor). The material which is used to make these kinds of resistors is
called photo conductors, e.g. cadmium sulfide, lead sulfide etc

II – RESISTOR COLOR CODING

Resistors are usually color-coded to indicate their resistance value in ohms. Either a four-band or a five -
band code is used. The five-band code is used for more precise R values. Chip resistors use a three- or
four-digit code to indicate their resistance value.
a.) For Four- color band carbon composition resistor

b.) For five-color band carbon composition resistor

The first stripe is orange for the number 3, the second stripe is blue for the number 6, and the third
stripe is green for the number 5. Therefore, the first three digits of the resistance are 3, 6, and 5,
respectively. The fourth stripe, which is the multiplier, is black, which means add no zeros. The fifth
stripe, which indicates the resistor tolerance, is green for 0.5%. Therefore R = 365Ω x +0.5%. The
permissible ohmic range is 363.175Ω to 366.825Ω.

c.) Typical chip resistor coding system

Example: Determine the resistance of the chip resistor given below.

The first two digits are 5 and 6, giving 56 as the first two numbers in the resistance value. The third digit,
2, is the multiplier, which means add 2 zeros to 56 for a resistance of 5600Ω or 5.6 kΩ.
III – SERIES RESISTANCES AND PARALLEL RESISTANCES

a.) Series resistances- resistances that are

connected in the same current path.
The total resistance R T of a series string is the
sum of the individual resistances. RT = R1+ R2+
R3+ · · · etc.

RT = R1 + R2 RT = R3 + R4 +R5

b.) Parallel resistances- a combination of parallel-connected branches of

resistors. For only two parallel resistances

of any value, REQ = R1R2 / (R1+ R2). For
the general case of any number of
branches, calculate REQ as VA /IT or use the reciprocal resistance formula:
REQ = ___________1_____________
1 ⁄ R1+ 1 ⁄ R2 + 1 ⁄ R3 + · · · +etc.

IV – POWER RATING OF RESISTORS

The physical size of a resistor determines its wattage rating: the larger the physical size, the
larger the wattage rating. There is no correlation between a resistor’s physical size and its resistance
value.
In addition to having the required ohms value, a resistor should have a wattage rating high
enough to dissipate the power produced by the current flowing through the resistance without
becoming too hot. Carbon resistors in normal operation often become warm, but they should not get so
hot that they “sweat” beads of liquid on the insulating case. Wire-wound resistors operate at very high
temperatures; a typical value is 300°C for the maximum temperature. If a resistor becomes too hot
because of excessive power dissipation, it can change appreciably in resistance value or burn open. The
power rating is a physical property that depends on the resistor construction, especially physical size.
Note the following:
1. A larger physical size indicates a higher power rating.
2. Higher wattage resistors can operate at higher temperatures.
3. Wire-wound resistors are larger and have higher wattage ratings than carbon resistors.

APPLICATION OF RESISTORS

Practically, both types of resistors (Fixed and Variable) are generally used for the following purposes.
Resistors are used:

1. For Current control and limiting

2. To change electrical energy in the form of heat energy
3. As a shunt in Ampere meters
4. As a multiplier in a Voltmeter
5. To control temperature
6. To control voltage or Drop
7. For protection purposes, e.g. Fusible Resistors
8. In laboratories
9. In home electrical appliances like heater, iron, immersion rod etc.
10. Widely used in the electronics industries

V - RESISTOR TROUBLES

The most common trouble in resistors is an open. When the open resistor is a series component,
there is no current in the entire series path.

Checking Resistors with an Ohmmeter

Resistance is measured with an ohmmeter. The ohmmeter has its own voltage source so that it
is always used without any external power applied to the resistance being measured. Separate the
resistance from its circuit by disconnecting one lead of the resistor. Then connect the ohmmeter leads
across the resistance to be measured

An open resistor reads infinitely high ohms. For some reason, infinite ohms are often confused
with zero ohms. Remember, though, that infinite ohms mean an open circuit. The current is zero, but
the resistance is infinitely high.

Furthermore, it is practically impossible for a resistor to become short-circuited in itself. The

resistor may be short-circuited by some other part of the circuit. However, the construction of resistors
is such that the trouble they develop is an open circuit with infinitely high ohms.

The ohmmeter must have an ohm’s scale capable of reading the resistance value,
 1. In checking a 10-MΩ resistor. An ohm’s scale of 100 MΩ or more should be used for checking
such high resistances.

2. To check resistors of less than 10Ω, a low-ohms scale of about 100 or less is necessary. Center
scale should be 6 or less. Otherwise, the ohmmeter will read a normally low resistance value as zero
ohms. When checking resistance in a circuit, it is important to be sure there are no parallel resistance
paths. Otherwise, the measured resistance can be much lower than the actual resistor value, as
illustrated in Fig. a Here, the ohmmeter reads the resistance of R2 in parallel with R1.

To check across R2 alone, one end is disconnected, as in Fig. b. NOTE: For very high resistances, it is
important not to touch the ohmmeter leads. There is no danger of shock, but the body resistance of
about 50,000 as a parallel path will lower the ohmmeter reading