Shoe

A shoe is an item of footwear intended to

protect and comfort the human foot.
Shoes are also used as an item of
decoration and fashion. The design of
shoes has varied enormously through
time and from culture to culture, with
appearance originally being tied to
function. Though the human foot is
adapted to varied terrain and climate
conditions, it is still vulnerable to
environmental hazards such as sharp
rocks and temperature extremes, which
shoes protect against. Some shoes are
worn as safety equipment, such as steel-
soled boots which are required on
construction sites.

Museum display of shoes

Additionally, fashion has often dictated

many design elements, such as whether
shoes have very high heels or flat ones.
Contemporary footwear in the 2010s
varies widely in style, complexity and
cost. Basic sandals may consist of only a
thin sole and simple strap and be sold for
a low cost. High fashion shoes made by
famous designers may be made of
expensive materials, use complex
construction and sell for hundreds or
even thousands of dollars a pair. Some
shoes are designed for specific
purposes, such as boots designed
specifically for mountaineering or skiing,
while others have more generalized
usage such as sneakers which have
transformed from a special purpose
sport shoe into a general use shoe.

Traditionally, shoes have been made

from leather, wood or canvas, but in the
2010s, they are increasingly made from
rubber, plastics, and other petrochemical-
derived materials.[1] The shoe industry is
$200 billion dollar a year industry.[1] 90%
of shoes end up in landfills, because the
materials are hard to separate, recycle or
otherwise reuse.[1]

History

Antiquity

 
The oldest known leather shoe, about 5500 years
old, found in Armenia

Esparto sandals from the 6th or 5th millennium BC

found in Spain

Roman shoes: a man's,[2] a woman's[3] and a

child's[4] shoe from Bar Hill Roman Fort, Scotland.
The earliest known shoes are sagebrush
bark sandals dating from approximately
7000 or 8000 BC, found in the Fort Rock
Cave in the US state of Oregon in 1938.[5]
The world's oldest leather shoe, made
from a single piece of cowhide laced with
a leather cord along seams at the front
and back, was found in the Areni-1 cave
complex in Armenia in 2008 and is
believed to date to 3500 BC.[6][7] Ötzi the
Iceman's shoes, dating to 3300 BC,
featured brown bearskin bases, deerskin
side panels, and a bark-string net, which
pulled tight around the foot.[6] The
Jotunheimen shoe was discovered in
August 2006: archaeologists estimate
that this leather shoe was made between
1800 and 1100 BC,[8] making it the oldest
article of clothing discovered in
Scandinavia.

It is thought that shoes may have been

used long before this, but because the
materials used were highly perishable, it
is difficult to find evidence of the earliest
footwear.[9] By studying the bones of the
smaller toes (as opposed to the big toe),
it was observed that their thickness
decreased approximately 40,000 to
26,000 years ago. This led
archaeologists to deduce that wearing
shoes resulted in less bone growth,
resulting in shorter, thinner toes.[10]
These earliest designs were very simple
in design, often mere "foot bags" of
leather to protect the feet from rocks,
debris, and cold.

Many early natives in North America

wore a similar type of footwear, known
as the moccasin. These are tight-fitting,
soft-soled shoes typically made out of
leather or bison hides. Many moccasins
were also decorated with various beads
and other adornments. Moccasins were
not designed to be waterproof, and in wet
weather and warm summer months,
most Native Americans went barefoot.[11]

As civilizations began to develop, thong

sandals (the precursors of the modern
flip-flop) were worn. This practice dates
back to pictures of them in ancient
Egyptian murals from 4000 BC. One pair
found in Europe was made of papyrus
leaves and dated to be approximately
1,500 years old. They were also worn in
Jerusalem during the first century of the
Common Era.[12] Thong sandals were
worn by many civilizations and made
from a wide variety of materials. Ancient
Egyptian sandals were made from
papyrus and palm leaves. The Masai of
Africa made them out of rawhide. In India
they were made from wood. In China and
Japan, rice straw was used. The leaves
of the sisal plant were used to make
twine for sandals in South America while
the natives of Mexico used the Yucca
plant.[13][14]

While thong sandals were commonly

worn, many people in ancient times, such
as the Egyptians, Hindus and Greeks,
saw little need for footwear, and most of
the time, preferred being barefoot. The
Egyptians and Hindus made some use of
ornamental footwear, such as a soleless
sandal known as a "Cleopatra", which did
not provide any practical protection for
the foot. The ancient Greeks largely
viewed footwear as self-indulgent,
unaesthetic and unnecessary. Shoes
were primarily worn in the theater, as a
means of increasing stature, and many
preferred to go barefoot.[15] Athletes in
the Ancient Olympic Games participated
barefoot—and naked.[16] Even the gods
and heroes were primarily depicted
barefoot, the hoplite warriors fought
battles in bare feet and Alexander the
Great conquered his vast empire with
barefoot armies. The runners of Ancient
Greece are also believed to have run
barefoot.[17]

 
Footwear of Roman soldiers (reconstruction)

The Romans, who eventually conquered

the Greeks and adopted many aspects of
their culture, did not adopt the Greek
perception of footwear and clothing.
Roman clothing was seen as a sign of
power, and footwear was seen as a
necessity of living in a civilized world,
although the slaves and paupers usually
went barefoot.[15] Roman soldiers were
issued with chiral (left and right shoe
different) footwear.[18] Shoes for soldiers
had riveted insoles to extend the life of
the leather, increase comfortability, and
provide better traction. The design of
these shoes also designated the rank of
the officers. The more intricate the
insignia and the higher up the boot went
on the leg, the higher the rank of the
soldier.[19] There are references to shoes
being worn in the Bible.[20]

Starting around 4 BC, the Greeks began

wearing symbolic footwear. These were
heavily decorated to clearly indicate the
status of the wearer. Courtesans wore
leather shoes colored with white, green,
lemon or yellow dyes, and young woman
betrothed or newly married wore pure
white shoes. Because of the cost to
lighten leather, shoes of a paler shade
were a symbol of wealth in the upper
class. Often, the soles would be carved
with a message so it would imprint on
the ground. Cobblers became a notable
profession around this time, with Greek
shoemakers becoming famed in the
Roman empire.[21]

Middle Ages and Early Modern

period

A common casual shoe in the Pyrenees

during the Middle Ages was the
espadrille. This is a sandal with braided
jute soles and a fabric upper portion, and
often includes fabric laces that tie
around the ankle. The term is French and
comes from the esparto grass. The shoe
originated in the Catalonian region of
Spain as early as the 13th century, and
was commonly worn by peasants in the
farming communities in the area.[14]

Dutch pattens, ca. 1465. Excavated from the

archeological site of Walraversijde, near Ostend,
Belgium

Many medieval shoes were made using

the turnshoe method of construction, in
which the upper was turned flesh side
out, and was lasted onto the sole and
joined to the edge by a seam.[22] The
shoe was then turned inside-out so that
the grain was outside. Some shoes were
developed with toggled flaps or
drawstrings to tighten the leather around
the foot for a better fit. Surviving
medieval turnshoes often fit the foot
closely, with the right and left shoe being
mirror images.[23] Around 1500, the
turnshoe method was largely replaced by
the welted rand method (where the
uppers are sewn to a much stiffer sole
and the shoe cannot be turned inside-
out).[24] The turnshoe method is still used
for some dance and specialty shoes.

By the 15th century, pattens became

popular by both men and women in
Europe. These are commonly seen as the
predecessor of the modern high-heeled
shoe,[25] while the poor and lower classes
in Europe, as well as slaves in the New
World, were barefoot.[15] In the 15th
century, the Crakow was fashionable in
Europe. This style of shoe is named
because it is thought to have originated
in Kraków, the capital of Poland. The
style is characterized by the point of the
shoe, known as the "polaine", which often
was supported by a whalebone tied to
the knee to prevent the point getting in
the way while walking.[26] Also during the
15th century, chopines were created in
Turkey, and were usually 7–8 inches
(17.7–20.3 cm) high. These shoes
became popular in Venice and
throughout Europe, as a status symbol
revealing wealth and social standing.
During the 16th century, royalty, such as
Catherine de Medici or Mary I of England,
started wearing high-heeled shoes to
make them look taller or larger than life.
By 1580, even men wore them, and a
person with authority or wealth was often
referred to as, "well-heeled".[25] In 17th
century France, heels were exclusively
worn by aristocrats. Louis XIV of France
outlawed anybody from wearing red high
heels except for himself and his royal
court.[27]

Eventually the modern shoe, with a sewn-

on sole, was devised. Since the 17th
century, most leather shoes have used a
sewn-on sole. This remains the standard
for finer-quality dress shoes today. Until
around 1800, welted rand shoes were
commonly made without differentiation
for the left or right foot. Such shoes are
now referred to as "straights".[28] Only
gradually did the modern foot-specific
shoe become standard.

Industrial era
 

A shoemaker in the Georgian era, from The Book of

English Trades, 1821.

Shoemaking became more

commercialized in the mid-18th century,
as it expanded as a cottage industry.
Large warehouses began to stock
footwear, made by many small
manufacturers from the area.

Until the 19th century, shoemaking was a

traditional handicraft, but by the century's
end, the process had been almost
completely mechanized, with production
occurring in large factories. Despite the
obvious economic gains of mass
production, the factory system produced
shoes without the individual
differentiation that the traditional
shoemaker was able to provide.

The first steps towards mechanisation

were taken during the Napoleonic Wars
by the engineer, Marc Brunel. He
developed machinery for the mass-
production of boots for the soldiers of
the British Army. In 1812, he devised a
scheme for making nailed-boot-making
machinery that automatically fastened
soles to uppers by means of metallic
pins or nails.[29] With the support of the
Duke of York, the shoes were
manufactured, and, due to their strength,
cheapness, and durability, were
introduced for the use of the army. In the
same year, the use of screws and staples
was patented by Richard Woodman.
Brunel's system was described by Sir
Richard Phillips as a visitor to his factory
in Battersea as follows:

By the late 19th century, the shoemaking industry

had migrated to the factory and was increasingly
mechanized. Pictured, the bottoming room of the B.
mechanized. Pictured, the bottoming room of the B.
F. Spinney & Co. factory in Lynn, Massachusetts,
1872.

In another building I was

shown his manufactory of
shoes, which, like the other, is
full of ingenuity, and, in regard
to subdivision of labour, brings
this fabric on a level with the
oft-admired manufactory of
pins. Every step in it is effected
by the most elegant and precise
machinery; while, as each
operation is performed by one
hand, so each shoe passes
through twenty-five hands,
who complete from the hide, as
supplied by the currier, a
hundred pairs of strong and
well-finished shoes per day. All
the details are performed by
the ingenious application of the
mechanic powers; and all the
parts are characterised by
precision, uniformity, and
accuracy. As each man
performs but one step in the
process, which implies no
knowledge of what is done by
those who go before or follow
him, so the persons employed
 are not shoemakers, but
wounded soldiers, who are able
to learn their respective duties
in a few hours. The contract at
which these shoes are delivered
to Government is 6s. 6d. per
pair, being at least 2s. less than
what was paid previously for
an unequal and cobbled
article.[30]

However, when the war ended in 1815,

manual labour became much cheaper,
and the demand for military equipment
subsided. As a consequence, Brunel's
system was no longer profitable and it
soon ceased business.[29]

Similar exigencies at the time of the

Crimean War stimulated a renewed
interest in methods of mechanization
and mass-production, which proved
longer lasting.[29] A shoemaker in
Leicester, Tomas Crick, patented the
design for a riveting machine in 1853.
His machine used an iron plate to push
iron rivets into the sole. The process
greatly increased the speed and
efficiency of production. He also
introduced the use of steam-powered
rolling-machines for hardening leather
and cutting-machines, in the mid-
1850s.[31]

Advertisement in an 1896 issue of McClure's for

"The Regal".

Attila, a former shoe factory from the 1910s in

Tampere, Finland
The sewing machine was introduced in
1846, and provided an alternative method
for the mechanization of shoemaking. By
the late 1850s, the industry was
beginning to shift towards the modern
factory, mainly in the US and areas of
England. A shoe stitching machine was
invented by the American Lyman Blake in
1856 and perfected by 1864. Entering
into partnership with McKay, his device
became known as the McKay stitching
machine and was quickly adopted by
manufacturers throughout New
England.[32] As bottlenecks opened up in
the production line due to these
innovations, more and more of the
manufacturing stages, such as pegging
and finishing, became automated. By the
1890s, the process of mechanisation
was largely complete.

On January 24, 1899, Humphrey

O'Sullivan of Lowell, Massachusetts, was
awarded a patent for a rubber heel for
boots and shoes.[33]

A process for manufacturing stitchless,

that is, glued, shoes—AGO—was
developed in 1910. Since the mid-20th
century, advances in rubber, plastics,
synthetic cloth, and industrial adhesives
have allowed manufacturers to create
shoes that stray considerably from
traditional crafting techniques. Leather,
which had been the primary material in
earlier styles, has remained standard in
expensive dress shoes, but athletic
shoes often have little or no real leather.
Soles, which were once laboriously hand-
stitched on, are now more often machine
stitched or simply glued on. Many of
these newer materials, such as rubber
and plastics, have made shoes less
biodegradable. It is estimated that most
mass-produced shoes require 1000 years
to degrade in a landfill.[34] In the late
2000s, some shoemakers picked up on
the issue and began to produce shoes
made entirely from degradable materials,
such as the Nike Considered.[35][36]
In 2007, the global shoe industry had an
overall market of $107.4 billion, in terms
of revenue, and is expected to grow to
$122.9 billion by the end of 2012. Shoe
manufacturers in the People's Republic
of China account for 63% of production,
40.5% of global exports and 55% of
industry revenue. However, many
manufacturers in Europe dominate the
higher-priced, higher value-added end of
the market.[37]

Culture and folklore

 

Haines Shoe House in Hallam, Pennsylvania

Sports shoes in Hong Kong

As an integral part of human culture and

civilization, shoes have found their way
into our culture, folklore, and art. A
popular 18th-century nursery rhyme is
There was an Old Woman Who Lived in a
Shoe. This story tells about an old
woman living in a shoe with a lot of
children. In 1948, Mahlon Haines, a shoe
salesman in Hallam, Pennsylvania, built
an actual house shaped like a work boot
as a form of advertisement. The Haines
Shoe House was rented to newlyweds
and the elderly until his death in 1962.
Since then, it has served as an ice cream
parlor, a bed and breakfast, and a
museum. It still stands today and is a
popular roadside attraction.[38]

Shoes also play an important role in the

fairy tales Cinderella and The Red Shoes.
In the movie adaption of the children's
book The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, a pair
of red ruby slippers play a key role in the
plot. The 1985 comedy The Man with One
Red Shoe features an eccentric man
wearing one normal business shoe and
one red shoe that becomes central to the
plot.

Athletic sneaker collection has also

existed as a part of urban subculture in
the United States for several decades.[39]
Recent decades have seen this trend
spread to European nations such as the
Czech Republic.[40] A Sneakerhead is a
person who owns multiple pairs of shoes
as a form of collection and fashion. A
contributor to the growth of sneaker
collecting is the continued worldwide
popularity of the Air Jordan line of
sneakers designed by Nike for Basketball
star Michael Jordan.

In the Bible's Old Testament, the shoe is

used to symbolize something that is
worthless or of little value. In the New
Testament, the act of removing one's
shoes symbolizes servitude. Ancient
Semitic-speaking peoples regarded the
act of removing their shoes as a mark of
reverence when approaching a sacred
person or place.[41] In the Book of
Exodus, Moses was instructed to remove
his shoes before approaching the
burning bush:
 Put off thy shoes from off thy
feet, for the place whereon
thou standest [is] holy ground
(Exodus 3:5).

Salt Crystal Shoes, art installation at the Dead Sea

by Israeli artist Sigalit Landau

The removal of the shoe also symbolizes

the act of giving up a legal right. In
Hebrew custom, the widow removed the
shoe of her late husband's brother to
symbolize that he had abandoned his
duty. In Arab custom, the removal of
one's shoe also symbolized the
dissolution of marriage.[41]

In Arab culture, showing the sole of one's

shoe is considered an insult, and to
throw a shoe and hit someone with it is
considered an even greater insult. Shoes
are considered to be dirty as they
frequently touch the ground, and are
associated with the lowest part of the
body—the foot. As such, shoes are
forbidden in mosques, and it is also
considered unmannerly to cross the legs
and display the soles of one's shoes
during conversation. This insult was
demonstrated in Iraq, first when Saddam
Hussein's statue was toppled in 2003,
Iraqis gathered around it and struck the
statue with their shoes.[42] In 2008,
United States President George W. Bush
had a shoe thrown at him by a journalist
as a statement against the war in Iraq.[43]
More generally, shoe-throwing or
shoeing, showing the sole of one's shoe
or using shoes to insult are forms of
protest in many parts of the world.
Incidents where shoes were thrown at
political figures have taken place in
Australia, India, Ireland, Taiwan, Hong
Kong, Pakistan, the United Kingdom, the
United States, and most notably the Arab
world.[44][45]
Empty shoes may also symbolize death.
In Greek culture, empty shoes are the
equivalent of the American funeral
wreath. For example, empty shoes
placed outside of a Greek home would
tell others that the family's son has died
in battle.[46] At an observation
memorializing the 10th anniversary of
the September 11 attacks, 3,000 pairs of
empty shoes were used to recognize
those killed.[47] The Shoes on the Danube
Bank is a memorial in Budapest,
Hungary. Conceived by film director Can
Togay, he created it on the east bank of
the Danube River with sculptor Gyula
Pauer to honor the Jews who were killed
by fascist Arrow Cross militiamen in
Budapest during World War II. They were
ordered to take off their shoes, and were
shot at the edge of the water so that their
bodies fell into the river and were carried
away. The memorial represents their
shoes left behind on the bank.

Construction
The basic anatomy of a shoe is
recognizable, regardless of the specific
style of footwear.

All shoes have a sole, which is the

bottom of a shoe, in contact with the
ground. Soles can be made from a
variety of materials, although most
modern shoes have soles made from
natural rubber, polyurethane, or polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) compounds.[48] Soles can
be simple—a single material in a single
layer—or they can be complex, with
multiple structures or layers and
materials. When various layers are used,
soles may consist of an insole, midsole,
and an outsole.[49]

The insole is the interior bottom of a

shoe, which sits directly beneath the foot
under the footbed (also known as sock
liner). The purpose of insole is to attach
to the lasting margin of the upper, which
is wrapped around the last during the
closing of the shoe during the lasting
operation. Insoles are usually made of
cellulosic paper board or synthetic non
woven insole board. Many shoes have
removable and replaceable footbeds.
Extra cushioning is often added for
comfort (to control the shape, moisture,
or smell of the shoe) or health reasons
(to help deal with differences in the
natural shape of the foot or positioning
of the foot during standing or
walking).[49]

The outsole is the layer in direct contact

with the ground. Dress shoes often have
leather or resin rubber outsoles; casual
or work-oriented shoes have outsoles
made of natural rubber or a synthetic
material like polyurethane. The outsole
may comprise a single piece, or may be
an assembly of separate pieces, often of
different materials. On some shoes, the
heel of the sole has a rubber plate for
durability and traction, while the front is
leather for style. Specialized shoes will
often have modifications on this design:
athletic or so called cleated shoes like
soccer, rugby, baseball and golf shoes
have spikes embedded in the outsole to
improve traction.[49]

The midsole is the layer in between the

outsole and the insole, typically there for
shock absorption. Some types of shoes,
like running shoes, have additional
material for shock absorption, usually
beneath the heel of the foot, where one
puts the most pressure down. Some
shoes may not have a midsole at all.[49]

The heel is the bottom rear part of a

shoe. Its function is to support the heel
of the foot. They are often made of the
same material as the sole of the shoe.
This part can be high for fashion or to
make the person look taller, or flat for a
more practical and comfortable use.[49]
On some shoes the inner forward point
of the heel is chiselled off, a feature
known as a "gentleman's corner". This
piece of design is intended to alleviate
the problem of the points catching the
bottom of trousers and was first
observed in the 1930s.[50] A heel is the
projection at the back of a shoe which
rests below the heel bone. The shoe heel
is used to improve the balance of the
shoe, increase the height of the wearer,
alter posture or other decorative
purposes. Sometimes raised, the high
heel is common to a form of shoe often
worn by women, but sometimes by men
too. See also stiletto heel.

The upper helps hold the shoe onto the

foot. In the simplest cases, such as
sandals or flip-flops, this may be nothing
more than a few straps for holding the
sole in place. Closed footwear, such as
boots, trainers and most men's shoes,
will have a more complex upper. This
part is often decorated or is made in a
certain style to look attractive. The upper
is connected to the sole by a strip of
leather, rubber, or plastic that is stitched
between it and the sole, known as a
welt.[49]

Most uppers have a mechanism, such as

laces, straps with buckles, zippers,
elastic, velcro straps, buttons, or snaps,
for tightening the upper on the foot.
Uppers with laces usually have a tongue
that helps seal the laced opening and
protect the foot from abrasion by the
laces. Uppers with laces also have
eyelets or hooks to make it easier to
tighten and loosen the laces and to
prevent the lace from tearing through the
upper material. An aglet is the protective
wrapping on the end of the lace.

The vamp is the front part of the shoe,

starting behind the toe, extending around
the eyelets and tongue and towards back
part of the shoe.

The medial is the part of the shoe

closest to a person's center of symmetry,
and the lateral is on the opposite side,
away from their center of symmetry. This
can be in reference to either the outsole
or the vamp. Most shoes have shoelaces
on the upper, connecting the medial and
lateral parts after one puts their shoes on
and aiding in keeping their shoes on their
feet. In 1968, Puma SE introduced the
first pair of sneakers with Velcro straps
in lieu of shoelaces, and these became
popular by the 1980s, especially among
children and the elderly.[51][52]

The toe box is the part that covers and

protects the toes. People with toe
deformities, or individuals who
experience toe swelling (such as long-
distance runners) usually require a larger
toe box.[53]
  

Diagram of a typical dress shoe. Note

that the area labeled as the "Lace guard"
is sometimes considered part of the
quarter and sometimes part of the vamp.

 
Play media

A shoemaker making t rnshoes at the

 A shoemaker making turnshoes at the
Roscheider Hof Open Air Museum

Cutaway view of a typical shoe.

Types
There are a wide variety of different types
of shoes. Most types of shoes are
designed for specific activities. For
example, boots are typically designed for
work or heavy outdoor use. Athletic
shoes are designed for particular sports
such as running, walking, or other sports.
Some shoes are designed to be worn at
more formal occasions, and others are
designed for casual wear. There are also
a wide variety of shoes designed for
different types of dancing. Orthopedic
shoes are special types of footwear
designed for individuals with particular
foot problems or special needs. Other
animals, such as dogs and horses, may
also wear special shoes to protect their
feet as well.

Depending on the activity for which they

are designed, some types of footwear
may fit into multiple categories. For
example, Cowboy boots are considered
boots, but may also be worn in more
formal occasions and used as dress
shoes. Hiking boots incorporate many of
the protective features of boots, but also
provide the extra flexibility and comfort
of many athletic shoes. Flip-flops are
considered casual footwear, but have
also been worn in formal occasions,
such as visits to the White House.[54][55]

 
Random display of different shoes

Athletic

A pair of athletic running shoes

Athletic shoes are specifically designed

to be worn for participating in various
sports. Since friction between the foot
and the ground is an important force in
most sports, modern athletic shoes are
designed to maximize this force, and
materials, such as rubber, are used.
Although, for some activities such as
dancing or bowling, sliding is desirable,
so shoes designed for these activities
often have lower coefficients of
friction.[56] The earliest athletic shoes
date back to the mid 19th century were
track spikes—leather shoes with metal
cleats on the soles to provide increased
friction during running. They were
developed by J.W. Foster & Sons, which
later become known as Reebok. By the
end of the 19th century, Spalding also
manufactured these shoes as well.
Adidas started selling shoes with track
spikes in them for running and soccer in
1925. Spikes were eventually added to
shoes for baseball and American football
in the 20th century.[14] Golfers also use
shoes with small metal spikes on their
soles to prevent slipping during their
swing.[57]

The earliest rubber-soled athletic shoes

date back to 1876 in the United Kingdom,
when the New Liverpool Rubber
Company made plimsolls, or sandshoes,
designed for the sport of croquet. Similar
rubber-soled shoes were made in 1892 in
the United States by Humphrey
O'Sullivan, based on Charles Goodyear's
technology. The United States Rubber
Company was founded the same year
and produced rubber-soled and heeled
shoes under a variety of brand names,
which were later consolidated in 1916
under the name, Keds. These shoes
became known as, "sneakers", because
the rubber sole allowed the wearer to
sneak up on another person. In 1964, the
founding of Nike by Phil Knight and Bill
Bowerman of the University of Oregon
introduced many new improvements
common in modern running shoes, such
as rubber waffle soles, breathable nylon
uppers, and cushioning in the mid-sole
and heel. During the 1970s, the expertise
of podiatrists also became important in
athletic shoe design, to implement new
design features based on how feet
reacted to specific actions, such as
running, jumping, or side-to-side
movement. Athletic shoes for women
were also designed for their specific
physiological differences.[14]

A pair of Converse All-Stars

Shoes specific to the sport of basketball

were developed by Chuck Taylor, and are
popularly known as Chuck Taylor All-
Stars. These shoes, first sold in 1917, are
double-layer canvas shoes with rubber
soles and toe caps, and a high heel
(known as a "high top") for added
support. In 1969, Taylor was inducted
into the Naismith Memorial Basketball
Hall of Fame in recognition of this
development, and in the 1970s, other
shoe manufacturers, such as Nike,
Adidas, Reebok, and others began
imitating this style of athletic shoe.[58] In
April 1985, Nike introduced its own brand
of basketball shoe which would become
popular in its own right, the Air Jordan,
named after the then-rookie Chicago
Bulls basketball player, Michael Jordan.
The Air Jordan line of shoes sold $100
million in their first year.[59]

As barefoot running became popular by

the late 20th and early 21st century,
many modern shoe manufacturers have
recently designed footwear that mimic
this experience, maintaining optimum
flexibility and natural walking while also
providing some degree of protection.
Termed as Minimalist shoes, their
purpose is to allow one's feet and legs to
feel more subtly the impacts and forces
involved in running, allowing finer
adjustments in running style.[60] Some of
these shoes include the Vibram
FiveFingers,[61] Nike Free,[62] and
Saucony's Kinvara and Hattori.[63][64]
Mexican huaraches are also very simple
running shoes, similar to the shoes worn
by the Tarahumara people of northern
Mexico, who are known for their distance
running abilities.[65] Wrestling shoes are
also very light and flexible shoes that are
designed to mimic bare feet while
providing additional traction and
protection.

Many athletic shoes are designed with

specific features for specific activities.
One of these includes roller skates, which
have metal or plastic wheels on the
bottom specific for the sport of roller
skating. Similarly, ice skates have a metal
blade attached to the bottom for
locomotion across ice. Skate shoes have
also been designed to provide a
comfortable, flexible and durable shoe
for the sport of skateboarding.[66]
Climbing shoes are rubber-soled, tight-
fitting shoes designed to fit in the small
cracks and crevices for rock climbing.
Cycling shoes are similarly designed with
rubber soles and a tight fit, but also are
equipped with a metal or plastic cleat to
interface with clipless pedals, as well as
a stiff sole to maximize power transfer
and support the foot.[67] Some shoes are
made specifically to improve a person's
ability to weight train.[68]

Boot
 

A pair of steel-toed safety boots

A boot is a special type of shoe which

covers the foot and the ankle and
extends up the leg, sometimes as far as
the knee or even the hip. Most boots
have a heel that is clearly distinguishable
from the rest of the sole, even if the two
are made of one piece. They are typically
made of leather or rubber, although they
may be made from a variety of different
materials. Boots are worn both for their
functionality—protecting the foot and leg
from water, snow, mud or hazards or
providing additional ankle support for
strenuous activities—as well as for
reasons of style and fashion.

Cowboy boots are a specific style of

riding boot which combines function with
fashion. They became popular among
cowboys in the western United States
during the 19th century. Traditional
cowboy boots have a Cuban heel,
rounded to pointed toe, high shaft, and,
traditionally, no lacing.[69] They are
normally made from cowhide leather but
may be made from more exotic skins
such as ostrich, anaconda, or elephant
skins.[70]
Hiking boots are designed to provide
extra ankle and arch support, as well as
extra padding for comfort during hiking.
They are constructed to provide comfort
for miles of walking over rough terrains,
and protect the hiker's feet against water,
mud, rocks, and other wilderness
obstacles. These boots support the ankle
to avoid twisting but do not restrict the
ankle's movement too much. They are
fairly stiff to support the foot. A properly
fitted boot and/or friction-reducing
patches applied to troublesome areas
ensures protection against blisters and
other discomforts associated with long
hikes on rugged terrain.[71]
During wet or snowy weather, snow
boots are worn to keep the foot warm
and dry. They are typically made of
rubber or other water-resistant material,
have multiple layers of insulation, and a
high heel to keep snow out.[72] Boots may
also be attached to snowshoes to
increase the distribution of weight over a
larger surface area for walking in snow.
Ski boots are a specialized snow boot
which are used in alpine or cross-country
skiing and designed to provide a way to
attach the skier to his/her skis using ski
bindings. The ski/boot/binding
combination is used to effectively
transmit control inputs from the skier's
legs to the snow. Ice skates are another
specialized boot with a metal blade
attached to the bottom which is used to
propel the wearer across a sheet of
ice.[73] Inline skates are similar to ice
skates but with a set of three to four
wheels in lieu of the blade, which are
designed to mimic ice skating on solid
surfaces such as wood or concrete.[74]

Boots are designed to withstand heavy

wear to protect the wearer and provide
good traction. They are generally made
from sturdy leather uppers and non-
leather outsoles. They may be used for
uniforms of the police or military, as well
as for protection in industrial settings
such as mining and construction.
Protective features may include steel-
tipped toes and soles or ankle guards.[75]

Dress and casual

Dress shoes are characterized by smooth

and supple leather uppers, leather soles,
and narrow sleek figure. Casual shoes
are characterized by sturdy leather
uppers, non-leather outsoles, and wide
profile.

Some designs of dress shoes can be

worn by either gender. The majority of
dress shoes have an upper covering,
commonly made of leather, enclosing
most of the lower foot, but not covering
the ankles. This upper part of the shoe is
often made without apertures or
openings, but may also be made with
openings or even itself consist of a
series of straps, e.g. an open toe
featured in women's shoes. Shoes with
uppers made high to cover the ankles are
also available; a shoe with the upper
rising above the ankle is usually
considered a boot but certain styles may
be referred to as high-topped shoes or
high-tops. Usually, a high-topped shoe is
secured by laces or zippers, although
some styles have elastic inserts to ease
slipping the shoe on.

Men's
 

This male dress shoe, known as a derby shoe, is

distinguished by its open lacing.

Men's shoes can be categorized by how

they are closed:

Oxfords (also referred as "Balmorals"):

the vamp has a V-shaped slit to which
the laces are attached; also known as
"closed lacing". The word "Oxford" is
sometimes used by American clothing
companies to market shoes that are
not Balmorals, such as bluchers.
Derby shoe: the laces are tied to two
pieces of leather independently
attached to the vamp; also known as
"open lacing" and is a step down in
dressiness. If the laces are not
independently attached to the vamp,
the shoe is known as a blucher shoe.
This name is, in American English,
often used about derbys.
Monk-straps: a buckle and strap
instead of lacing
Slip-ons: There are no lacings or
fastenings. The popular loafers are
part of this category, as well as less
popular styles, such as elastic-sided
shoes.
Men's shoes can also be decorated in
various ways:

Plain-toes: have a sleek appearance

and no extra decorations on the vamp.
Cap-toes: has an extra layer of leather
that "caps" the toe.
Brogues (American: wing-tips): The toe
of the shoe is covered with a
perforated panel, the wing-tip, which
extends down either side of the shoe.
Brogues can be found in both balmoral
and blucher styles, but are considered
slightly less formal.

Formal high-end men's shoes are

manufactured by several companies
around the world, amongst others in
Great Britain, France, Hungary, Romania,
Croatia, Italy, and to a lesser extent in the
United States. Notable British brands
include: Church's English Shoes (est.
1873), John Lobb Bootmaker (est. 1849),
Edward Green Shoes (est. 1890), and
Crockett & Jones (est. 1879). Both John
Lobb and Edward Green offer bespoke
products. In between the world wars,
men's footwear received significant
innovation and design, led by cobblers
and cordwainers in London's West
End.[76] A well-known French maker is
J.M. Weston. Armani of Italy was a major
influence on men's shoe design in the
1960s–1980s until they returned to the
larger proportions of its forebears, the
welt-constructed Anglo-American dress
shoe originally created in Edwardian
England. Another well-known Italian
company is Salvatore Ferragamo Italia
S.p.A.. Higher end companies in the
United States are Allen Edmonds and
Alden Shoe Company. Alden, located in
New England, specializes in genuine shell
cordovan leather from the only remaining
horse tannery in the US, in Chicago[77]
and is completely manufactured
domestically, whereas Allen Edmonds, of
Wisconsin, is a larger company that
outsources some of its production.[78]

Women's
 

High heel sandals

Women's high heel pump

There is a large variety of shoes available

for women, in addition to most of the
men's styles being more accepted as
unisex. Some broad categories are:
High-heeled footwear is footwear that
raises the heels, typically 2 inches
(5 cm) or more above the toes,
commonly worn by women for formal
occasions or social outings. Variants
include kitten heels (typically 11⁄2–
2 inches high) and stiletto heels (with a
very narrow heel post) and wedge
heels (with a wedge-shaped sole rather
than a heel post).
Mules are shoes or slippers with no
fitting around the heel (i.e. they are
backless)
Slingbacks are shoes which are
secured by a strap behind the heel,
rather than over the top of the foot.
 Ballet flats, known in the UK as
ballerinas, ballet pumps or skimmers,
are shoes with a very low heel and a
relatively short vamp, exposing much
of the instep. They are popular for
warm-weather wear, and may be seen
as more comfortable than shoes with
a higher heel.
Court shoes, known in the United
States as pumps, are typically high-
heeled, slip-on dress shoes.

Unisex

Clog
Platform shoe: shoe with very thick
soles and heels
Sandals: open shoes consisting of a
sole and various straps, leaving much
of the foot exposed to air. They are
thus popular for warm-weather wear,
because they let the foot be cooler
than a closed-toed shoe would.
Saddle shoe: leather shoe with a
contrasting saddle-shaped band over
the instep, typically white uppers with
black "saddle".
Slip-on shoe: a dress or casual shoe
without shoelaces or fasteners; often
with tassels, buckles, or coin-holders
(penny loafers).
Boat shoes, also known as "deck
shoes": similar to a loafer, but more
 casual. Laces are usually simple
leather with no frills. Typically made of
leather and featuring a soft white sole
to avoid marring or scratching a boat
deck. The first boat shoe was invented
in 1935 by Paul A. Sperry.
Slippers: For indoor use, commonly
worn with pajamas.

Dance

A wide variety of footwear is used by

dancers. The choice of dance shoe type
depends on the style of dance that is to
be performed and, in many cases, the
characteristics of the surface that will be
danced on.
Pointe shoes are designed for ballet
dancing. These have a toe box that is
stiffened with glue and a hardened
sole so the dancer can stand on the
tips of their toes. They are secured by
elastic straps and ribbons that are tied
to the dancer's ankles.
Ballet shoes are soft, pliable shoes
made of canvas or leather, with either
continuous or two-part sole (also
called split-sole), used for ballet
dancing. The sole is typically made of
leather, with thicker material under the
ball and heel of the foot, and thinner
and thus more flexible material under
the arch so that the foot can be easily
pointed. They are typically secured by
elastics across the top of the foot.
Ghillies are soft shoes that are used in
Irish dance, Scottish country dance,
and highland dance.
Jazz shoes typically have a two-part
rubberized sole (also called split-sole)
to provide both flexibility and traction,
and a short heel. They are secured to
the foot by laces or elastic inserts.
Tango and Flamenco shoes are used
for tango or flamenco dancing.
Ballroom shoes fall into two
categories: Ballroom and Latin
American. Both are characterised by
suede soles. Men's ballroom shoes are
typically lace-ups with one-inch heels
and patent leather uppers. Ladies'
ballroom shoes are typically court
shoes with two-inch heels, made of
fabric that can be colored to match the
dancer's dress. In contrast to the low
Ballroom heel, which evenly distributes
weight across the foot, Latin American
shoes have higher heels designed to
shift weight onto the toes. Latin shoes
are also more flexible than ballroom
shoes. Men's Latin shoes typically
have 1.5- to 2-inch high, shaped heels,
while Ladies' Latin shoes have 2.5-inch
to 3-inch heels. Ladies shoes are
typically open-toed and strapped.
Dance sneakers are lightweight
sneakers with reinforced rubber toes
that allows dancers to briefly stand on
their toes. These are known by various
trademarked names, such as
dansneakers.
Foot thongs are slip-on, partial foot
covers that cover the ball of the
dancer's foot so as to reduce friction
while executing turns, thus making it
easier to perform turns and also
protecting the foot from skin
abrasions. From a distance, flesh
colored foot thongs give a dancer the
appearance of having bare feet. They
are known by various names
depending on the manufacturer,
including dance paws, foot undies, and
foot paws.
Tap shoes have metal plates mounted
to the bottoms of the toe and heel. The
metal plates, which are known as taps,
make a loud sound when struck
against a hard performance surface.
Tap shoes, which are used in tap
dancing, may be made from any style
of shoe to which taps can be attached.
Character shoes are leather shoes with
one- to three-inch heels, usually with
one or more straps across the instep
to secure it to the foot. They may be
soft-soled (suede) or hard-soled. They
may be converted to tap shoes by
attaching taps.

Pointe shoes

Ballet shoes
  

Jazz shoes. This style is frequently worn

by acro dancers

A foot thong, viewed from the bottom

  

Ghillies

Ladies' ballroom shoes

  

Men's ballroom shoes

Tap shoes

Orthopedic

Orthopedic shoes are specially-designed

footwear to relieve discomfort
associated with many foot and ankle
disorders, such as blisters, bunions,
calluses and corns, hammer toes, plantar
fasciitis, or heel spurs. They may also be
worn by individuals with diabetes or
people with unequal leg length. These
shoes typically have a low heel, tend to
be wide with a particularly wide toe box,
and have a firm heel to provide extra
support. Some may also have a
removable insole, or orthotic, to provide
extra arch support.[14]

Measures and sizes

 

World's largest pair of shoes, Riverbank Center,

Philippines—5.29 metres (17.4 ft) long and 2.37

metres (7 ft 9 in) wide, equivalent to a French shoe

size of 75.

The measure of a foot for a shoe is from

the heel to the longest toe. Shoe size is
an alphanumerical indication of the
fitting size of a shoe for a person. Often it
just consists of a number indicating the
length because many shoemakers only
provide a standard width for economic
reasons. There are several different
shoe-size systems that are used
worldwide. These systems differ in what
they measure, what unit of measurement
they use, and where the size 0 (or 1) is
positioned. Only a few systems also take
the width of the feet into account. Some
regions use different shoe-size systems
for different types of shoes (e.g., men's,
women's, children's, sport, or safety
shoes).

Units for shoe sizes vary widely around

the world. European sizes are measured
in Paris Points, which are worth two-
thirds of a centimeter. The UK and
American units result in whole-number
sizes spaced at one barleycorn (1⁄3 inch),
with UK adult sizes starting at size 1 =
82⁄3 in (22.0 cm). In the US, this is size 2.
Men's and women's shoe sizes often
have different scales. Shoe size is often
measured using a Brannock Device,
which can determine both the width and
length size values of the foot.[79] A metric
standard for shoe sizing, the Mondopoint
system, was introduced in the 1970s by
International Standard ISO 2816:1973
"Fundamental characteristics of a
system of shoe sizing to be known as
Mondopoint" and ISO 3355:1975 "Shoe
sizes – System of length grading (for use
in the Mondopoint system)".[80] the
current version of the standard is ISO
9407:2019, "Shoe sizes—Mondopoint
system of sizing and marking".[81] The
Mondopoint system includes
measurements of both length and width
of the foot.

Accessories
Foam tap: a small foam pad placed
under the ball of the foot to push the
foot up and back if the shoe is too
loose.
Heel grip: used to prevent the shoe
from slipping on the heel if the fit is not
perfect
Overshoes or galoshes: a rubber
covering placed over shoes for rain
and snow protection.
Shoe bag: a bag that protects shoes
against damage when they are not
being worn.
Shoe brush and polishing cloth: used
to apply polish to shoes.
Shoe insert, insole or inner sole:
orthopedic or regular insert of various
materials for cushioning, improved fit,
reduced abrasion or to keep shoe fresh
and increase its durability. These
include padding and inner linings.
Inserts may also be used to correct
foot problems.
Shoe polish: a waxy material spread on
shoes to improve appearance and
glossiness, and provide protection.
 Shoe stretcher: a tool for making a
shoe longer or wider or for reducing
discomfort in areas of a shoe.
Shoe tree: placed inside the shoe when
user is not wearing it, to help maintain
the shoe's shape.
Shoehorn: can be used to insert a foot
into a shoe by keeping the shoe open
and providing a smooth surface for the
foot to slide upon.
Shoelaces: a system used to secure
shoes.
Snow shoe: a wooden or leather piece
that increases the area of ground
covered by the shoe.

Removal of shoes
In many places in the world shoes are
removed when moving from exteriors to
interiors, particularly in homes and
religious buildings. In many Asian
countries outdoor shoes are exchanged
for indoor shoes or slippers. Some
fitness centres require that shoes be
exchanged for indoor shoes to prevent
dirt and grime from being transferred to
the equipment.

See also
Foot binding
List of shoe companies
List of shoe styles
Locomotor effects of shoes
 Runner's toe, injury from malfitting
shoes
Shoe tossing
Trousers

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Bibliography
Bergstein, Rachelle (2012). Women
from the Ankle Down: The Story of
Shoes and How They Define Us
 (Hardback). New York: Harper Collins.
pp. 284 pages . ISBN 978-0-06-
196961-4.
Doe, Tamasin (1998), Patrick Cox: Wit,
Irony, and Footwear, ISBN 0-8230-1148-
8.
Pattison, Angela, A Century of Shoes:
Icons of Style in the 20th Century,
ISBN 0-7858-0835-3.
Swann, June. History of Footwear in
Norway, Sweden and Finland: Prehistory
to 1950, ISBN 91-7402-323-3.

Further reading
Design Museum. Fifty Shoes That
Changed the World. London: Conran
 Octopus, 2009. ISBN 978-1-84091-539-
6.

External links

Shoes
at Wikipedia's sister projects

Definitions
  from
Wiktionary
Media
from
 
Wikimedia
Commons
News from
 
Wikinews
 Quotations
  from
Wikiquote
Texts from
 
Wikisource
Textbooks
  from
Wikibooks
Resources
  from
Wikiversity

All About Shoes —the Bata Shoe

Museum's online exhibits on the
history and variety of footwear
Footwear History
 International Shoe Size Conversion
Charts , from i18nguy's website, offers
more information.
Shoe Care
[1] - an illustrated glossary of shoe
parts and styles
The Political History of Shoes

Retrieved from
"[Link]
title=Shoe&oldid=1008465203"

Last edited 5 days ago by Abel111222

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