June 2020

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 CONTENTS
June 2020 Volume 25 Number 06 ISSN 1468-9340
03 Comment 39 Taking control of CUI
Brandon Stambaugh, Owens Corning, USA, looks at the
05 World news materials and methods for the limitation and risk mitigation
of corrosion under insulation.
10 The great white north
Gordon Cope, Contributing Editor, explains the potential 43 Boosting profitability with butylenes
and the challenges for the oil and gas industry at the top of Nik Larsen and Tiffany Clark, Marathon Petroleum Corp.,
North America. USA, with Melissa Clough Mastry and Namal De Silva, BASF,
USA, examine new FCC catalyst technology which has
15 Migration: picking the right moment maximised butylenes production and raised profitability in
The costs of delaying control system migration can be great. refinery trials.
Satnam Bhogal, Honeywell Process Solutions, UK, explains
why. 47 Beyond estimation
Carl Fitz, API Technical Data Committee, USA, looks at
19 Digital twins: the heart of the digital improved property methods for hydrotreater separator
transformation design.
Sandra DiMatteo, Bentley Systems Inc., Canada, contends
that digital twins are the key to operational excellence in 51 A flywheel for H2S removal
refineries. Michael Ray, ThioSolv LLC, USA, discusses an innovative
process to remove hydrogen sulfide from a gas stream.
22 Data and the new oil industry
George Walker, Novotek, UK and Ireland, explains why data 55 Handling high sulfur
is integral to ushering in a new era of downstream oil and Ayla Öngören, Sercan Yaman, and Murat Ercan, Tüpraş,
gas. Turkey, provide an overview of the research into chemical
injections as a method of hydrogen sulfide disposal in
27 Decreasing downtime Turkey’s Batman Refinery.
Sepideh Rajaeirad, Seeq Corp., outlines how advanced
analytics can be leveraged to improve availability, reliability, 58 Decisions, decisions
and uptime. Edward Cass, Paratherm, USA, looks at the chemistry of heat
transfer fluids and what must be considered when selecting
31 Mapping out the road to RBI optimisation them.
Jim McVay and Russ Davis, MISTRAS Group, USA, outline
risk-based inspection planning and the utilisation of 63 The future is light
advanced non-destructive evaluation methodologies. Stephen Karns, HarbisonWalker International, USA, charts
the evolution of lightweight refractory aggregates and
35 Furnace integrity assessment monolithics.
Jaime Lopez and Everardo Dominguez, ROSEN, Mexico,
describe a recent inspection of the heating coils of several 67 Larger modules, finer details
furnaces at the Refidomsa refinery in the Dominican Kaveh Ebrahimi and Daniel Inglis, Fluor Ltd, UK, set out
Republic. design considerations for pressure vessels during seaborne
shipment in modules.

THIS TEAM delivers conventional to highly specialised

MONTH'S
inspection, condition assessment, maintenance, and
repair services that result in greater safety, reliability,

FRONT
and operational efficiency for critical assets. Through
locations in more than 20 countries, TEAM unites the
delivery of technological innovation with progressive,

COVER
yet proven integrity and reliability management
expertise to fuel a better tomorrow.

2020 Member of ABC Audit Bureau of Circulations

JOIN THE Copyright© Palladian Publications Ltd 2020. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,

CONVERSATION
recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. All views expressed in this
follow like join journal are those of the respective contributors and are not necessarily the opinions of the publisher, neither
@HydrocarbonEng Hydrocarbon Hydrocarbon do the publishers endorse any of the claims made in the articles or the advertisements. Printed in the UK.
Engineering Engineering
 COMMENT
CONTACT INFO CALLUM O'REILLY
SENIOR EDITOR

A
MANAGING EDITOR James Little
[email protected] s parts of the world start to slowly
SENIOR EDITOR Callum O'Reilly and cautiously emerge from
[email protected] the lockdown brought about by
EDITORIAL ASSISTANT Tom Mostyn
the COVID-19 pandemic, many
[email protected] businesses are taking the opportunity to
reassess their priorities and establish new ways
SALES DIRECTOR Rod Hardy
[email protected] of working under the ‘new normal’ dictated by social distancing guidelines.
It is inevitable that COVID-19 will accelerate new ways of working,
SALES MANAGER Chris Atkin
[email protected] with automation and digitalisation likely to be at the forefront of the
revolution. Many in the downstream sector will now start to explore
SALES EXECUTIVE Sophie Barrett
[email protected] opportunities for optimising operations through a digital transformation
programme.
PRODUCTION Kyla Waller
[email protected]
Digitalisation will be one of the key topics under discussion on
25 June, when Hydrocarbon Engineering hosts an online conference
WEB MANAGER Tom Fullerton dedicated to exploring the trends and technology driving the future
[email protected]
of the refining sector. Refinery of the Future 2020 will kick off with a
DIGITAL EDITORIAL ASSISTANT Sarah Smith presentation from Alan Gelder, Vice President of Refining, Petrochemicals
[email protected]
& Oil Markets at Wood Mackenzie, who will examine the immediate
DIGITAL ADMINISTRATOR Imogen Poole challenge of the coronavirus pandemic, as well as the medium and
[email protected]
long-term demand trends and opportunities for refiners to consider.
ADMIN MANAGER Laura White Other presentations will follow from Honeywell UOP, KBC, Sulzer,
[email protected]
Honeywell Process Solutions, and MISTRAS Group, each exploring
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS challenges faced by the refining sector, and the latest technology and
Nancy Yamaguchi Gordon Cope
solutions that will help to shape the industry going forward.
Refinery of the Future is a completely virtual conference, so you can
join us from anywhere in the world, free of charge! All you need to do
is register to attend and then we’ll send you all of the information that
SUBSCRIPTION RATES you’ll need to join us on the day from the comfort of your home or
Annual subscription £110 UK including postage office. We’ll also be sending all registered attendees a link to view every
/£125 overseas (postage airmail).
Two year discounted rate £176 UK presentation after the event, so if you’re unable to join us on 25 June
including postage/£200 overseas (postage airmail). you’ll have the opportunity to catch up at your leisure.
SUBSCRIPTION CLAIMS For more information on each of the presentations, and to
Claims for non receipt of issues must be made within 3 months of
publication of the issue or they will not be honoured without charge.
reserve your free space at Refinery of the Future, please visit:
www.hydrocarbonengineering.com/refinery2020
APPLICABLE ONLY TO USA & CANADA The topic of digitalisation also features heavily throughout this issue
Hydrocarbon Engineering (ISSN No: 1468-9340, USPS No: 020-998) is
published monthly by Palladian Publications Ltd GBR and distributed of Hydrocarbon Engineering. We have articles from a range of companies
in the USA by Asendia USA, 17B S Middlesex Ave, Monroe NJ 08831.
Periodicals postage paid New Brunswick, NJ and additional mailing including Honeywell Process Solutions (discussing control system
offices. POSTMASTER: send address changes to HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING, 701C Ashland Ave, Folcroft PA 19032.
migration and modernisation), Bentley Systems Inc. (looking at digital
twins), Novotek (outlining the value of data), and Seeq Corp. (examining
how to leverage advanced analytics to improve availability, reliability
and uptime). And in a preview of their presentation at the Refinery of
15 South Street, Farnham, Surrey
the Future online conference, we also have an article from Jim McVay
GU9 7QU, UK and Russ Davis at MISTRAS Group, outlining risk-based inspection
Tel: +44 (0) 1252 718 999 planning and the utilisation of advanced non-destructive evaluation
Fax: +44 (0) 1252 718 992 methodologies.
I hope you enjoy this issue of Hydrocarbon Engineering, and hope to
see you at Refinery of the Future on 25 June.
 



 


 


 



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 WORLD NEWS
CNOOC, Shell, and Huizhou
China | Siemens Gas
Indonesia |
Government sign petrochemical contract and Power wins new
order
C NOOC Oil & Petrochemicals Co.
Ltd, Shell Nanhai B.V. and the
polyethylene and polypropylene.
These chemicals are used in a wide
Huizhou Government have announced
a strategic cooperation agreement to
range of end products, in healthcare,
construction, fabrics, packaging,
S iemens Gas and Power has been
selected to supply a range of
compression and power generation
further expand the CNOOC and transport and electronics.
equipment for the Balikpapan refinery
Shell Petrochemical Co. (CSPC) 50:50 For the first time in Asia, Shell
located on Borneo Island in East
joint venture in Huizhou, Guangdong would apply its advanced technology
Kalimantan, Indonesia.
Province, China. for linear alpha olefins. The project is
The facility is owned and
The expansion is planned to serve intended to include construction of a
operated by PT Pertamina (Persero).
the growing number of intermediate new 1.5 million tpy ethylene cracker,
The equipment will be installed as
and performance chemicals customers with the mega-site bringing economies
part of Pertamina’s Refinery
in China, supplying products including of scale and enhanced
Development Master Plan (RDMP).
SMPO, polyols, ethylene glycol, competitiveness.
The RDMP involves the construction
of a residual fluid catalytic cracker
Hydrogen central to oil and gas
Worldwide | (RFCC) unit with a design capacity of
90 000 bbl per stream per day (bpsd);
industry decarbonisation a LPG sulfur removal unit; a propylene
recovery unit; and an 80 000 bpsd

A new report from DNV GL reveals

that hydrogen has surged up the
priority list of many oil and gas
gas professionals and in-depth
interviews with industry executives. The
report suggests that recent shifts in the
middle distillate hydrotreater.
The scope of supply includes
17 reciprocating compressors, along
organisations, taking a primary position industry’s investment priorities are with a single-stage, hot gas expander.
in the sector’s decarbonisation efforts. unlikely to affect the sector’s long-term Additionally, Siemens Gas and Power
A fifth (21%) of senior oil and gas efforts to reduce carbon emissions. will supply four SGT-800 industrial
industry professionals say their DNV GL found a significant rise in gas turbines and five SST-600 steam
organisation is already actively entering those reporting that their organisation turbines for the Balikpapan power
the hydrogen market, according to is actively adapting to a less plant.
DNV GL’s report. The proportion carbon-intensive energy mix – up from The expansion project will
intending to invest in the hydrogen 44% for 2018 to 60% for 2020. increase the output of the Balikpapan
economy doubled from 20% to 42% in Carbon-free hydrogen production, refinery from 240 000 bpd to
the year leading up to the transmission and distribution is now 360 000 bpd. The project will also
coronavirus-induced oil price crash. widely recognised as a central enable the refinery to produce
‘Heading for Hydrogen’ draws on a component to the oil and gas industry’s high-quality fuels of the Euro V
survey of more than 1000 senior oil and decarbonisation efforts. standard.

Worldwide | ICIS global petrochemical index plunges

T he ICIS Petrochemical Index

(IPEX) plunged in April as the
impact of the falling oil price and
board. The index charts the largely
contract and average monthly price
movements of a basket of the 12
lockdowns across large areas of the
globe hit downstream and end-use
product demand. “While there are
coronavirus-driven demand major petrochemicals and plastics. some bright spots of increased
destruction hit the sector. Aromatics prices fell steeply and demand for certain chemicals and
The global index stands at a level quickly in April as the falling value of plastics important for the
last seen in November 2003 and is naphtha worked its way through the protection of human health, the
just below that in January 2009. regional markets. overarching price trend for
Each of the regional components Petrochemicals prices are petrochemicals and plastics is down
of the global index fell sharply impacted by the drop in crude oil due largely to oversupply,”
month on month as petrochemical and the negative market sentiment according to Nigel Davis, Insight
and plastic prices fell across the of oversupply as coronavirus Editor at ICIS.

HYDROCARBON 5 June 2020

ENGINEERING
 WORLD NEWS
IN BRIEF Wood Mackenzie assesses China’s
China |
polyolefins market

MAN Energy Solutions in Berlin, Germany,
has been awarded a contract for the
M uch of China’s polyolefins
demand growth in 2020 will
depend on global appetite for plastic
Half of polyethylene end-products
are film applications used in daily
essentials. The global lockdown has
engineering of three RG compressor trains end-products. stimulated demand for packaging in
for a carbon capture, utilisation, and Wood Mackenzie projects demand food delivery and online shopping,
storage project in the Netherlands. growth for Chinese polyethylene and translating to a rebound in demand.
polypropylene in at 3.1% and 2.8%, Polypropylene demand is weaker as
 respectively, for 2020 compared to
2019. The assumptions under this
its major application is injection
moulding, typically used in automobiles
Air Products and Haldor Topsoe have
announced the signing of a global ‘shock’ scenario include a prolonged and home appliances, which have been
alliance agreement. The two companies period of global lockdowns, followed impacted. Fibre-grade polypropylene
will collaborate, using their extensive by a sharp rise in unemployment, demand will be enhanced by the surge
market network outreach for developing against the backdrop of a global in consumption of medical-related
potential projects and the combination recession with GDP growth at -4.0% products but will not be able to offset
of their expertise on large-scale ammonia, this year. the demand loss in other applications.
methanol and/or dimethyl ether plants
to be developed and built globally.
KBR and NIPIneftegas JSC
Kazakhstan |
 announce engineering joint venture
Technip-led joint venture NovArctic, in
cooperation with Saipem and NIPIgas,
has engaged Mammoet as an unloading,
transportation and installation contractor
K BR has announced that it has
signed a joint venture (JV)
agreement with NIPIneftegas JSC to
within the Republic of Kazakhstan.
The company will also prepare
technical requirements for all stages
for the Arctic LNG 2 project. establish a new engineering and of a project, including project
support services company, management, contract supervision,
 KBR-NIPILLP, in Kazakhstan. planning and cost control.
General Atomics Electromagnetic The JV will provide engineering, Additionally, the JV will train and
Systems (GA-EMS) has received a contract procurement, design, and related develop the local Kazakh workforce
award for an 18-module Gulftronic® services for projects across the while managing construction
Electrostatic Separator system to upstream, midstream, and contractors and subcontractors
be used by an international refinery downstream oil and gas sectors throughout all stages of a project.
customer to produce International
Maritime Organization (IMO) Regulation
2020-compliant clarified slurry oil for McDermott awarded
Saudi Arabia |
use in the maritime shipping industry.
petrochemical technology contract

CNOOC Huizhou Petrochemical Co. Ltd
(CHPCL) has selected Axens’ ParamaX®
M cDermott International has been
awarded a technology contract
by Advanced Global Investment Co.,
This is APC’s second CATOFIN
unit in its portfolio, having
previously licensed the technology
Technology Suite for its petrochemical
a wholly owned subsidiary of for its first unit in 2003 – also in
complex expansion in Daya Bay, China.
Advanced Petrochemical Co. (APC). Jubail.
The project aims at increasing CHPCL’s
McDermott’s Lummus Technology This plant will utilise Clariant’s
high-purity aromatics production capacity
will provide the license and basic latest generation CATOFIN catalyst
to 3 million tpy. The new aromatics
engineering package of a system, including the company’s
complex will produce 1.5 million tpy of
C3 CATOFIN unit at its new patented metal-oxide Heat
para-xylene in a single train.
grassroots petrochemical complex in Generating Material (HGM) to
Jubail, Saudi Arabia. The unit will deliver maximised selectivity at high
have a propylene production conversion rates and long run
capacity of 843 000 tpy. lengths.

June 2020 6 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
Process Not e s

)OH[LELOLW\LVSURÀWDEOH

Flexibility Matters tray vapor loads and internal liquid reflux rates.
Keeping the upper pumparounds loaded can
In uncertain times, refineries can maximize profit (or at
also help avoid low pumparound return or tower
least minimize loss) through flexible operations. Crude
overhead temperatures that condense water and
units are the first link in the refinery processing chain,
cause salting or corrosion problems. It may even
and making large changes in crude diet or throughput
make sense to turn off a lower pumparound.
stresses even the most state-of-the-art unit.

SHORT-TERM STRATEGIES LONG-TERM SOLUTIONS

Certain operating strategies can maximize reliability, Thinking longer-term, cost-effective revamps can
yields, and product qualities. Some practical short- add critical flexibility to allow for wide swings in unit
term options include: throughput and crude blends while still operating in
• KEEP THE BOTTOMS STRIPPING STEAM control. The right process design enables operators to
At turndown, consider maintaining normal crude consistently:
tower and vacuum tower bottoms stripping steam
• Control desalter inlet temperature,
rates and lowering heater outlet temperature to
• Control preflash column inlet temperature and
control cutpoint. This allows the stripping steam
naphtha production,
to do the work while heater firing is minimized to
• Control pumparound return temperatures and
protect the heater tubes at low mass velocities.
rates independent of pumparound heat removal
• LOWER THE PRESSURE requirements, and
Lowering tower pressures at turndown lowers • Precisely control vacuum column top pressure.
the density of the vapor, which keeps trays loaded
and can avoid weeping and loss of efficiency. This advice is, of course, generic. To discuss challenges
Lower pressure also lowers draw temperatures, unique to your own crude/vacuum unit, give us a
increasing pumparound rates and hopefully call. Process Consulting Services believes crude
avoiding minimum flow limits for pumps and units should have flexibility. We believe that revamp
tower internals. solutions should be flexible too - one size doesn’t fit
all. We look forward to working together to find the
• MOVE HEAT UP
most cost-effective and reliable solution to your crude
In multi-pumparound towers, shifting heat to
processing problems.
the upper pumparounds at turndown increases

3400 Bissonnet St. +1 (713) 665-7046

Suite 130 [email protected]
Houston, TX 77005, USA www.revamps.com
 WORLD NEWS
DIARY DATES USA | Matrix Service awarded EPC contract
25 June 2020
Refinery of the Future
M atrix Service Company has
announced that its subsidiary,
Matrix Service Inc. and a
surrounding counties. Construction
is expected to begin in 3Q20 with
an estimated in-service date in
Online conference
www.hydrocarbonengineering.com/refinery2020 confidential utility, have executed a 4Q22.
contract for the engineering, “We are very pleased to have
15 - 17 September 2020 procurement, and construction been awarded this important
Turbomachinery & Pump Symposia (EPC) of a new LNG liquefaction project,” said Matrix Service
Houston, Texas, USA facility in the western US. Company’s President and CEO, John
tps.tamu.edu/ The company will take this R. Hewitt. “We look forward to
project into backlog in 4Q20. leveraging our specialised expertise
21 - 23 September 2020 The facility, which includes a in providing proven execution
LARTC
1+ billion ft3 LNG storage tank, is strategies and effective, efficient
Cartagena, Colombia
lartc.wraconferences.com being constructed to meet system solutions in the production,
reliability for the supply of natural regasification, and storage of LNG
12 - 14 October 2020 gas to customers in a major to deliver this project safely, on
Gulf Coast Conference metropolitan area and its time and on budget.”
Galveston, Texas, USA

Sweden | Aker Solutions starts CCS test

www.gulfcoastconference.com

28 - 29 October 2020
ARTC
programme at Preem refinery
Singapore
artc.wraconferences.com

02 - 04 November 2020
A ker Solutions has started
operating its mobile test facility
for carbon capture at Preem’s refinery
from capture at the refinery, local
storage, transport to the planned
storage location off the Norwegian
Sulphur + Sulphuric Acid in Lysekil, Sweden. west coast and for the storage itself.
The Hague, the Netherlands The test unit is part of the ‘Preem The results of the pilot project will
www.events.crugroup.com/sulphur/home CCS’ pilot project which will analyse then be made public – in order for
the whole value chain from capture more companies to be able to use
02 - 06 November 2020
RefComm Galveston 2020
to storage of carbon dioxide (CO2). the technology and reduce their CO2
Galveston, Texas, USA The project is a collaboration emissions.
refiningcommunity.com/refcomm-galves- between Preem, Aker Solutions, During 2020, the mobile test unit
ton-2020 Chalmers University of Technology, will capture carbon from flue gases
Equinor, and the Norwegian research coming from Preem’s hydrogen gas
09 - 12 November 2020 institute SINTEF. The Swedish Energy plant at the Lysekil refinery on the
ADIPEC Agency and the Norwegian research west coast of Sweden.
Abu Dhabi, UAE
and development programme CLIMIT The goal is for the tests to form
www.adipec.com
will contribute with funding. the basis for a full-scale carbon
16 - 19 November 2020 Within the pilot project, the capture and storage (CCS) plant that
ERTC entire value chain will be evaluated; can be operational by 2025.
Madrid, Spain

USA | API reports major shifts in energy supply

ertc.wraconferences.com

14 - 18 June 2021
ACHEMA
Frankfurt, Germany
www.achema.de
R educed economic activity
resulting from COVID-19 drove
significant near-term disruptions to
Gasoline deliveries fell more than
31% in April to their lowest level since
1972, while jet fuel posted its largest
energy markets in April with US monthly decline on record, falling
To keep up with all the latest petroleum demand falling nearly 27% nearly 56% to 0.6 million bpd. On a
updates on key industry events in to 14.2 million bpd, according to data weekly basis, total US petroleum
light of the COVID-19 pandemic, visit released in the American Petroleum demand rebounded by 1.6 million bpd
hydrocarbonengineering.com/events Institute’s (API) ‘April 2020 Monthly as of 1 May after appearing to bottom
Statistical Report’ (MSR). out during the second week of April.

June 2020 8 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
 POWERING
SMARTER
WAYS

In a fast changing world shaped by increasing complexity

and connectivity, Axens Group, building on the commitment and
the diversity of its teams, fosters innovation and collaboration
to create added value for its clients. www.axens.net
June 2020 10 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
 Gordon Cope, Contributing Editor, explains the potential and the
challenges for the oil and gas industry at the top of North America.

W
hile the public may imagine Alaska and Canada recoverable reserves, and production is approaching
as a land of cold and darkness, the region is a 10 billion ft3/d.
hot territory for the production of oil and gas The gas market is glutted in Canada, however, and
in North America. Both areas, however, are operators are looking to gain higher returns. In mid-2019, West
beset by unique trials that range from environmental to Coast Olefins (WCOL) announced plans to build a
regulatory and indigenous opposition. CAN$5.6 billion petrochemical facility in the port of Prince
George, B.C. The plant would produce 1 million tpy of
Canada ethylene and polyethylene for export to the Asia Pacific
In British Columbia (B.C.), gas production has been growing in market. The plant would be designed to recover NGLs from
leaps and bounds. The Montney shale (which extends into Enbridge’s 2.1 billion ft3/d Westcoast Pipeline. If approved by
northwest Alberta), holds almost 450 trillion ft3 of regulators, the facility would finish construction by 2023.

HYDROCARBON 11 June 2020

ENGINEERING
 In late 2019, Royal Dutch Shell and partners began Prudhoe Bay field and the Trans Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS).
construction of the LNG Canada project in the B.C. port of Hilcorp is the largest privately-owned oil company in the
Kitimat. When the US$31 billion project is completed in 2025, state, producing 75 000 boe/d.
it will consist of two 6.5 million tpy liquefaction trains, with Other firms are moving to fill the gap created by BP’s
the prospect of adding two more, for a total capacity of departure. In late 2019, ConocoPhillips began producing the
26 million tpy. Greater Mooses Tooth-1 project, and is investing a further
The growth in the oil sands, an immense deposit of US$1 billion to get Greater Mooses Tooth-2 up and running by
165 billion bbl of bitumen in northeast Alberta, has suffered late 2021.
significant setbacks in the last several years. Environmental The Houston-based company also intends to spend
opponents have labelled it as ‘dirty oil’, and successfully around US$25 billion over the next decade to develop its
thwarted the development of several pipelines, creating assets in Alaska. In order to help finance the expansion, it
bottlenecks on exports that caused crude storage to reach a announced in late 2019 that it would sell up to 25% stake in
record 39 million bbl in late 2019. both fields and prospects.
The logjams have created several consequences. A large portion of the funds is expected to be invested in
Operators without firm pipeline contracts were forced to take the Willow prospect in the eastern National Petroleum
large discounts in order to attract buyers, which resulted in Reserve Alaska (NPRA). ConocoPhillips estimates it will need
the Alberta government introducing production curtailments. roughly US$4 – 6 billion to deliver up to 130 000 bpd by the
International majors such as Total and BP sold their interests in middle of the decade. The field could hold up to
the oil sands, seeking better returns elsewhere. 800 million bbl of reserves. The Willow plan calls for
In spite of the headwinds, output from the oil sands grew 200 wells on five production pads, as well as an oil and gas
from 2.4 million bpd in 2015 to 3 million bpd today. And processing plant to separate products prior to shipping it east
production is expected to increase at approximately on a new 30 km pipeline to existing facilities at Alpine field.
100 000 bpd annually for the next decade, reaching The construction of infrastructure in the NPRA also allows
4 million bpd as operators focus on incremental increases in for smaller finds to be profitably produced. Over the course of
existing assets, removing production bottlenecks, and bringing the 2019 – 2020 drilling season, for instance, ConocoPhillips
on smaller scale projects. Cenovus, for instance, will add will be conducting seven exploratory wells on the Harpoon
50 000 bpd with its Phase G Christina Lake in 2020, and prospect, located close to the Willow project.
Suncor plans to move ahead with 40 000 bpd Meadow Creek The Pikka project, located east of the NPRA on state lands,
West in 2023. is being developed by Australia’s Oil Search and Spain’s Repsol.
Alberta has bountiful natural gas liquids (NGLs) associated If the project goes ahead, it could begin producing by 2022
with gas production, and petrochemical companies have been and reach up to 120 000 bpd by 2024.
attracted by low prices and government incentives. In early In December, 2019, oil companies bid on 1 million acres in
2020, Dow announced that it was investing up to the most successful Alaska auction in a decade. A total of
US$225 million to expand its Alberta petrochemical assets. US$11 million was bid on acreage in the NPRA, overseen by the
The goal is to add 130 000 tpy to its Fort Saskatchewan US Bureau of Land Management. Top bidders were North
ethylene plant near Edmonton. The increased output will be Slope Exploration (associated with Armstrong Energy of
shipped to nearby polyethylene plants to make plastic. Denver), ConocoPhillips and Alaska Emerald House.
Pembina Pipeline has been advancing the construction of The renaissance in Alaskan production is expected to have
its CAN$5.5 billion integrated propane dehydrogenation and a beneficial impact on the Trans Alaskan Pipeline System
polypropylene (PDH/PP) upgrading facility near Edmonton. (TAPS). The 800 mile line is currently moving around
Pembina is in a 50/50 joint venture (JV) with Canada Kuwait 500 000 bpd, down from 2 million bpd in the 1970s and 1980s.
Petrochemical Corp. (CKPC) to complete the complex by the If Pikka, Willow and other fields are on-stream by mid-decade,
second half of 2023. that would increase the flow by 50%.
In late 2019, Pembina closed on its acquisition of Kinder In March 2020, the US Federal Energy Regulatory
Morgan Canada’s assets for CAN$4.5 billion. The assets Commission (FERC) issued its final environmental impact
included the US portion of the Cochin pipeline system (that statement (EIS) for the Alaska LNG Project. The US$40 billion
returns diluent from Chicago to Edmonton), as well as a 50% project is designed to monetise the 30 trillion ft3 of stranded
stake in the Edmonton Base Line terminal, a crude storage gas in the state. It consists of a North Slope gas treatment
facility that provides a total of 4.8 million bbl of liquids plant, an 807 mile pipeline to the Kenai Peninsula, and up to
capacity. The deal gives the company a much-needed three trains to liquefy 20 million tpy of LNG for export to
terminus to approximately 2 million bbl of gathering capacity. Asian markets. Although the EIS is an important milestone,
Inter Pipeline earmarked a further CAN$935 million in current low prices (due to an LNG glut) and the high CAPEX
2020 CAPEX to its Heartland Petrochemical Complex in make the go-ahead for the privately-funded project uncertain.
Strathcona County near Edmonton. The 525 000 tpy
polypropylene plant is expected to be finished in 2021. Problems
Without a doubt, the most intractable problem facing the
Alaska Canadian oil patch is the lack of pipeline capacity due to
In August 2019, BP announced it was selling its Alaskan environmental opposition. Since the Trudeau government
upstream and midstream assets to Hilcorp Alaska for came to power in 2015 on a mandate to reduce GHG
US$5.6 billion. The sale includes BP’s interests in the emissions, the Northern Gateway pipeline from Alberta to the

June 2020 12 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
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CHALLENGE CONVENTION
 west coast was cancelled, and the Energy East pipeline the proposal as detrimental to critical investments that are
designed to carry crude east to tidewater in New Brunswick needed to boost North Slope production.
was smothered in red tape. Kinder Morgan Canada, frustrated Alaska is largely underlain by permafrost, a mix of
by years of delays over the expansion of is Trans Mountain sediment and ice that normally makes a foundation for roads
pipeline running from Alberta to the lower mainland in B.C. due and buildings as solid as cement. In 2019, scientists recorded
to court challenges and opposition from the B.C. government, one of Alaska’s hottest years on record, however, speeding up
finally sold the pipeline to the federal government. the melting cycle that has been an issue for the last several
In addition to opposition to Trans Mountain, pipeline decades. The ground under the Nome airport runway has
opponents recently instigated civil disobedience across the melted, requiring costly repairs. Sinkholes the size of a truck
nation. The flashpoint involved the construction of the Coastal have opened up on major roads. Shorelines are being eroded
GasLink pipeline, designed to deliver over 2 billion ft3/d to the as sea ice thins.
LNG Canada project being built by Shell and partners in The oil and gas industry is also heavily affected by melting
Kitimat, B.C. permafrost. The foundations for drill rigs, production
The Trudeau government’s animosity toward Canada’s oil facilities, holding tanks and other infrastructure are in peril.
and gas industry has had a negative impact far beyond TAPS sits on supports that are anchored in permafrost; as the
pipelines. In February 2020, Teck Resources, based in Vancouver, ice melts, the supports shift. GHGs are also emitted as the
cancelled its CAN$20 billion Frontier oil sands mine project permafrost melts, aggravating CO2 levels in the atmosphere
when faced by perpetual red tape thrown up by Ottawa. that are rising from the burning of fossil fuels. The state
In Quebec, Gazoduq has proposed a 780 km gas pipeline government is tapping into reserve funds to repair
that would run from north-eastern Ontario to its planned LNG infrastructure, but there is no long-term solution if the trend
facility located in Saguenay. The 42 in. line would transport persists.
1.8 billion ft3/d, enough to support approximately 11 million tpy
of LNG exports. In March 2020, Warren Buffet’s investment Future
firm Berkshire Hathaway, which had pledged CAN$4 billion to Clearly, the immediate future is clouded by reduced demand
the project, withdrew his support, citing the “current Canadian brought on by the COVID-9 virus and Saudi Arabia’s price war
political context.” against US shale producers that has seen prices plunge below
Shortly after his inauguration, President Trump declared US$20.
that areas that had been restricted from exploration and Major conventional and oil sands producers in Canada
drilling by the Obama administration (such as the continental have slashed their 2020 spending. Husky energy reduced its
shelf and large areas of federal lands in Alaska), would once capital budget by US$645 million (from US$2.45 billion to
again be open to the oil and gas sector. The Republican US$1.8 billion), and Cenovus dropped its budget by over 30%.
president, for instance, has proposed that more than 80% of Pembina Pipeline had initially planned to spend
the NPRA be open to oil leasing. CAN$2.3 billion in its 2020 capital budget. In March 2020, it
Democrat-controlled Congress is fighting back. In 2019, the reduced it by almost half, to approximately CAN$1.2 billion;
House issued bills banning new drilling off the Atlantic and the Calgary-based company is deferring spending on Phase
Pacific Coasts and drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge VII, VIII and IX expansions of its Peace Pipeline network.
(ANWR). In the US, companies have seen their stock prices drop
The bills are not expected to pass in the Republican dramatically, triggering short-term readjustment in spending.
controlled Senate, however. Environmental groups are relying In March 2020, ConocoPhillips cut US$700 million from its
on other tactics, such as court challenges. In 2019, Trump’s 2020 capital budget of US$6.5 billion as it and other major
order to revoke the Obama administration’s ban on offshore Permian players slashed over US$7.5 billion in the Texas shale
Arctic and Atlantic oceans was found illegal by a federal judge play. In April 2020, it announced that it would suspend new
in Alaska, stumping his plan to increase drilling in offshore Arctic drilling as a precaution to protect personnel.
waters. Not all is doom and gloom; Hilcorp’s planned
Environmental groups are also successfully targeting US$5.6 billion purchase of BP’s Arctic assets has been revised;
financial institutions. Several megabanks have announced that the purchase price remains the same, but BP has eased terms
they will end support for exploration and drilling in various on the final payment. OPEC and non-OPEC producers have
regions of the Arctic. In March 2020, Swiss-based UBS joined adopted massive production curtailments to deal with the
Wells Fargo, Goldman Sachs and JPMorgan Chase in refusing to drop in demand. In Canada, export capacity is expected to
provide financing for new projects; Wells Fargo and Goldman ease somewhat as midstream companies add 200 000 bpd of
Sachs specifically mentioned the ANWR as a reason for their capacity in 2020 through optimisation. Enbridge’s Line 3
decisions. While major oil companies can finance projects from replacement is also expected to add almost 400 000 bpd
their own cash flows, smaller explorers could potentially feel when completed in late 2020.
the pinch if the practice spreads. In the longer term, the coronavirus impact will ease and
In late February 2020, a ballot initiative to raise oil industry demand return as consumers respond to low petrol prices.
taxes in Alaska reached its required signature threshold and will Shale oil assets stranded by bankruptcies will be acquired at
be placed before voters this year. The Fair Share Act would bargain prices by survivors.
potentially raise oil production taxes from their current level of In conclusion, Alaska and Canada will suffer a frosty
US$400 million to approximately US$1 billion. Proponents say investment climate for most of 2020, but the long-term
the industry pays far less than it should, while opponents view prospects remain bright for the resource-rich regions.

June 2020 14 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
 Migration:
picking the
right moment
The costs of delaying control system
migration can be great. Satnam Bhogal,
Honeywell Process Solutions, UK,
explains why.

N
ot everything improves with age. Control system
performance generally degrades over time. As
systems near obsolescence, control strategies fail to
take account of changes in the plant, resulting in
declining operating performance, reduced reliability, rising
maintenance cost, and difficulty in sourcing affordable spares.

HYDROCARBON 15 June 2020

ENGINEERING
 escalating costs of obsolescence until forced to
migrate by an external influence.

Risk and reward

This reluctance to migrate may be understandable, but
it is ultimately misplaced. First, and most obviously, it
does not address the obsolescence itself; it merely
postpones the point at which it must be confronted.
Worse, the risk of downtime will grow in the
meantime. If plants are balancing the danger of a
control system failure resulting from obsolescence
against disruption to the operation from migration,
they should recognise that the balance is constantly
changing – and in favour of the latter.
Moreover, by tackling the issue early, plants give
Figure 1. Honeywell offers a clear and cost-effective path to themselves time to make better migration decisions.
a plant’s digital future. Waiting for changes in regulatory requirements or
withdrawal of system support ensures decisions will
be made under pressure. It may also mean delays in
the ability of plants to respond to changes. Plants
waiting to migrate until greater flexibility is required,
for example, face perhaps an 18-month delay for
evaluation, engineering and delivery before they can
meet the challenges posed by changing market
conditions or customer demand.
Indeed, this relates to the final point: by
postponing the costs of migration (since it cannot be
eliminated), plants also postpone the benefits. There
is certainly a cost to migration, but also an
opportunity cost in delay.
It is this positive case for migration that perhaps
most strongly argues for addressing obsolescence
early. Even ignoring the costs of obsolescence and
growing risk of downtime, the payback period for a
migration of the control system can be relatively
Figure 2. Honeywell’s strong cybersecurity approach rapid (perhaps as little as 10 years for a batch plant,
enables plants to modernise safely.
through automation and optimisation).
In simply focusing on the costs of obsolescence
Eventually, experienced personnel with systems and migration, plants risk missing out half the equation.
knowledge begin to retire. Evaluating only the costs – as opposed to potential
In fact, the cost of the distributed control system benefits from migration – they are also considering only
(DCS) is relatively trivial in comparison to the outsized the short-term factors for what is a long-term decision.
impact it has on plant performance and the cost of lost They are likely, for instance, to stick with the existing
production from unplanned downtime. Yet the number control system vendor for the migration as the route to
of control systems in operation that are two or three minimise the short-term risks of disruption to the
decades old shows that many manufacturers delay process. This fails to address whether such an approach
migration as long as possible. In most cases, the rising maximises the benefits to the operation over the
costs of obsolescence alone are not enough to prompt long-term, however.
the change. Instead, some other factor forces the
upgrade: compliance requirements or changing demand Choosing a foundation
conditions that cannot be met due to system There are three key aspects in which the risk-averse
constraints; or mergers and acquisitions that bring the approach to migration can lead plant operators astray.
desire to standardise on a single control solution. The first is that, even in the short-term, assumptions
One reason for this delay is the cost, although this as to the lowest risk migration method may be incorrect.
is usually a false economy, given the price associated The migration approach will have a significant impact on
with a control system failure. A more defensible reason the risks and disruption of the project. The quality of the
is the potential for disruption to the operation. At process definition and functional specification
worst, a poorly planned migration could bring about documents, for example, will have a profound impact on
the key risk of downtime that it is designed to prevent. success. Without detailed and accurate planning at the
As a result, many plants are willing to bear the outset, everything will take longer than expected.

June 2020 16 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
DIGITIZE.
MODERNIZE.
OPTIMIZE.
Partner with Honeywell to take
care of your plant’s migration needs.

Honeywell provides third party system migration ranging from full migration of existing
systems to varying options for incremental migration that enable customers to upgrade
without any loss of production and efficiency. If you are considering a system upgrade,
download our free guide to system migrations, guiding you through the options; along with
valuable insights into the risks and rewards associated with it.

For more information, please visit www.hwll.co/SystemMigration

 „ Analysis can take advantage of the Industrial
Internet of Things (IIoT) and the massive expansion
in the range and depth of data collected from the
field under the auspices of digitalisation. The right
analytical tools can turn data into actionable
intelligence, empowering operators to not just
control the process but drive profitability. It is
possible to use diagnostic data to extend
equipment life, process parameters to enhance
quality, and other key performance indicators (KPIs)
to identify new opportunities.
„ Built-in protections can mitigate growing threats to
the control system from cyberattacks and enable
plants to safely increase connectivity, bringing
Figure 3. Incremental modernisation solutions are the benefits to performance, productivity and
key to step into the digital future. efficiency.

The productivity tools employed can also significantly The DCS is not just a control solution, but the
reduce risks. Virtualisation and virtual engineering, for platform that provides the foundation for other
example, allow engineering and configuration of the solutions that can enhance plant performance. That
control system to be completed much in advance may be well-established technologies, such as
offsite; universal I/Os, channel independent and advanced process control, or new solutions, such as
configurable without extra hardware, meanwhile, can intelligent wearables. The latter provide connectivity,
simplify projects and further minimise the risks of communication and intelligence to field workers
disruption and delay. through wearable computers, while greatly enhancing
The manner of migration will also determine the their productivity, efficiency and safety.
costs saved from retaining I/Os and wiring or By taking a broad view of the benefits of migration,
consolidating multiple control systems, as well as not just the risks of obsolescence, plants can choose a
protection of the plant’s application intellectual better long-term solution for the future of the plant.
property. Can the provider easily retain or replicate
control strategies and logic configurations, for example? Fool me once
Added to that, if the decision to migrate is made early, Finally, there is a third way that short-term thinking can
rather than being forced, plant operators can take an undermine the migration strategy. It fails to take
incremental approach, replacing controllers gradually to account of the fact that all solutions to obsolescence
minimise interruptions or the risks from a hot cutover, are temporary. Just as the current control system will
avoiding interruption to the process entirely. age, decline in reliability, demand more maintenance
The second way in which focusing solely on the risks and ultimately require replacement, so the new one
of migration undermines the ability to realise the will, too.
potential rewards is that it prevents plants from taking a By choosing what seems the easiest migration
holistic view of the control system. option, plants can be setting themselves up to face the
Any migration should bring a greater capacity and same situation again, albeit 20 years down the line. It is
capability to the control system. Using Honeywell’s Fault never too early to consider migration, and plants
Tolerant Ethernet (FTE), for example, plants can increase should seek clarity about their future options and the
their network bandwidth by up to 20 times. A migration end of life plans for the control system right at the
should also be expected to meet current requirements outset – at the time of sale. A good migration solution
and provide potential for future growth. should therefore include consideration of the service
But a migration brings opportunities to enhance the programmes that will ensure the longest effective life
operation more broadly in several ways: for the new technology. It should also include a
„ Integration brings together control, safety and long-term commitment of support from the vendor – a
security, allowing the control system to reduce promise best evaluated by examining the vendor’s track
unnecessary alarms and enable operators to make record with its legacy solutions. Honeywell continues
better, faster decisions. With greater visibility and a to support its very first control system, released four
simpler human machine interface (HMI), operators decades ago.
can detect situations quicker, prevent them from Finally, the migration strategy should include a clear
escalating, and react more effectively to abnormal pathway to upgrading and updating technology, as and
situations that do arise, preventing losses and when required. Plants should demand a route to
downtime. Integration with management systems, modernisation in the future that avoids the disruption
meanwhile, can ensure those running the operation and cost of a rip and replace strategy. Obsolescence and
have a clear view of both process constraints and migration may be facts of life, but that is no reason that
opportunities. plants should continually make the same mistakes.

June 2020 18 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
 O
il and gas leaders have recognised that digital
Sandra DiMatteo, solutions, combined with engineering
Bentley Systems Inc., Canada, innovation, can create value and bring
operational performance benefits. However,
contends that digital twins refineries still face challenges in a frequently volatile
are the key to operational market, such as reducing costs, complying with
regulations, optimising asset performance, and
excellence in refineries. minimising environmental impact. With the influx of

HYDROCARBON 19 June 2020

ENGINEERING
 operational data from the Industrial Internet of superior performance once in operation. Over the life
Things (IIoT), coupled with increasing silos of of an asset, typical bottom-line results from
engineering data, a key strategy for operational incorporating digital twins include:
excellence is adopting digital twins. „ Reducing maintenance costs by 10% – 20%.
Digital twins consolidate data from operations, „ Increasing equipment availability by 2% – 10%.
enterprise, and engineering technologies. A trusted „ Reducing spare parts inventory by 10% – 30%.
system of systems, digital twins are federated sources „ Reducing insurance costs by 10%.
of data that allow you to contextualise, validate,
visualise, and analyse all plant data, no matter what Designing for reliability at the beginning of a project
format or where it is stored, all from within a single is key for a more dependable, resilient, and successful
view. This federated model provides a collaborative operation. Including a digital twin in one’s asset
platform that allows engineering, maintenance, and performance work is the key to sustained performance.
operations to work together and solve refinery
challenges. Digital twins: central to digital
Leveraging digital twins to enable a risk-based reliability
reliability approach to asset performance management Digital twins are fast becoming a priority across many
can help ensure refinery performance targets are industries. Gartner reported 13% of companies that
achieved. Refineries can be positioned for success using implement Internet of Things (IoT) projects are already
reliability-centred design (RCD) for operational using digital twins strategically, while 62% are planning
readiness and reliability-centred maintenance (RCM) for to do so or are in the process of doing so.
A digital twin is a digital representation of a physical
asset, process or system, as well as the engineering
information that allows one to understand and model
What is a digital twin? its performance. Typically, a digital twin can be
„ A digital twin is a digital representation of a physical continuously updated from multiple sources, including
asset, including processes and systems, as well as the sensors and continuous surveying, to represent its near
engineering information that allows one to understand real-time status, working condition or position. A digital
and model performance. twin enables users to visualise the asset, check status,
„ Digital twins should be continuously synchronised from perform analysis and generate insights in order to
multiple sources, including sensors and continuous predict and optimise asset performance.
surveying, to represent its nearly real-time status, Digital twins are becoming commonplace in a
working condition, or position. variety of industries, including the oil and gas industry.
„ A digital twin enables users to visualise the asset, They offer tremendous benefits to refineries,
check status, perform analysis, and generate insights to particularly in terms of asset reliability for all critical
predict and optimise asset performance. equipment types. Any failure within pumps, heat
exchangers, piping and vessels, compressors, valves, or
A digital twin should be more than just a standard 3D other key assets can have serious consequences.
model used as a quick visualisation tool. Instead, a digital Consider heat exchangers as an example. As they
twin is a living entity that adds business value and allows operate for long periods of time, unexpected failures
critical decisions to be made. can be costly as they affect uptime and processing.
Therefore, it is beneficial to predict an
upcoming failure well before it takes place.
Using a digital twin of the exchanger can
provide visibility into the asset’s current
health. With the many data points
collected via IoT devices, the digital twin
can inform an operator when a component
or system condition begins to degrade
without the need for an engineer to access
the physical asset. When connected to the
asset management system, digital twins
grant access to the work order backlog,
photos of inspections, and the complete
maintenance and cost history, as well as
provide reliability program visibility and
records of all the ways the asset can fail.
Digital twins provide analytics visibility,
Figure 1. With a complete, intelligent digital twin, Hatch reduced including the predictive analytics that
production ramp-up time after hot commissioning from six months to
one week. forecast end of life, the risk profile of the
asset, health indices and all related

June 2020 20 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
engineering documents. Lastly, digital twins
provide early warning of when an asset
could fail or show signs of
under-performance, minimising the risk of
unexpected downtime.
Moreover, with a digital twin, engineers
can make risk mitigation decisions based on
actual data instead of predefined
time-based maintenance schedules or
guesswork. Assets can be kept running at
their optimal level longer for maximum
return on the asset and minimum total cost
of asset ownership. This is one example of
a digital twin in operation at an asset level.
Imagine the benefits of conducting the
whole refinery this way.
Figure 2. The Shell Polymers ethane cracking plant was surveyed
What happens in design twice weekly to create a 3D reality mesh, which was combined with
other asset data to update the project’s digital twin.
matters in operations
When digital twins are used to monitor
assets as they are being designed and built as well as maintenance, such as the precise location of
during handover and operations, the owner-operator of underground utilities. Shell’s refinery digital twin
the assets maximises their benefits. Creating an enabled the organisation to analyse its data, now and
accurate, up-to-date, accessible digital twin with all in the future.
engineering and asset information available during
design enables engineers and operations personnel to Taking centre stage in refinery design
collaborate and determine the best possible design Digital twins are advancing building information
that meets all needs. Incorporating design information, modelling (BIM) in asset-centric organisations to help
including reliability and maintenance strategies in the them converge their engineering technologies,
digital twin, reduces time to operational readiness and operational technologies, and information
can influence time-to-market. Over time, refineries technologies. Digital twins give stakeholders the
change equipment and assets are replaced, modified, or knowledge that they have the information they need at
upgraded. It is important to track these changes in a their fingertips to make fast and accurate decisions.
digital twin to maintain regulatory compliance and Digital twins provide an augmented or immersive
ensure the twin is up to date and accurately reflects experience and apply artificial intelligence and
the physical assets. machine learning. Digital twins provide visibility and
insights into analytics to enhance the effectiveness of
Case studies operations, maintenance, and engineering staff. Using
Hatch had its shortest production ramp-up time using a digital twins in their work, project teams can anticipate
digital twin to manage and share live models rather than issues before they arise and react quickly and
using traditional mechanical, piping, and structural confidently.
drawings. Production ramp-up time is typically Adopting a digital twin approach in operations and
18 months to two years. Ramp-up time with digital maintenance creates a full view line-of-sight of the
delivery was estimated at six months, but in practice asset over its entire life. It is easy to carry out
only required one week after hot commissioning. The modifications, upgrades or additions in-house since
digital twin allowed the team to compress project team members will have up-to-date engineering
timelines with quality-controlled, component-based 3D models close at hand.
modelling workflows, all managed in a connected data
environment. Accessing the right information at the
Shell Polymers is constructing an ethane cracking right time
plant using a digital twin while surveying the facility A digital transformation is happening within the oil and
twice weekly with unmanned aerial vehicles. The 3D gas industry, and digital twins are at the heart of it.
reality mesh created using photogrammetry was Digital twins provide the means for successful digital
combined with other asset data gathered during advancement by breaking down previously inaccessible
surveys to update the project’s digital twin. The digital data silos and granting access to shared information in
twin was then used to track construction and identify a common view that improves decision-making. By
issues by visualising change over time, which enabled using digital twins, owner-operators of plants and
the team to immediately respond to on-site changes. refineries can improve performance, safety, and
Shell also captured the asset’s digital record as it was mitigate risks, while maintaining insight into their
being constructed for use in operations and globally distributed assets with digital twins.

HYDROCARBON 21 June 2020

ENGINEERING
 DATA AND
THE NEW OIL
INDUSTRY

June 2020 22 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
George Walker, Novotek, UK and Ireland,
explains why data is integral to ushering in a
new era of downstream oil and gas.

D
espite its importance to the global economy – There is a clear trend here. Most of the assets that
and sometimes because of it – the oil and gas engineers are responsible for maintaining and overseeing
industry is one that is placed under a great deal in the oil industry are static assets, like pipelines, flare
of pressure to operate efficiently and stacks and tanks. Unfortunately, these assets are difficult
effectively. So, it is no surprise that oil and gas has been to access and have traditionally not been fitted with
among the most active adopters of modern sensors to relay performance information to a central
technologies to assist in operations. From remote control system. Instead, unmanned and robotic systems
operated vehicles (ROVs) for inspecting subsea pipelines play a key role.
to thermal imaging drones for easier inspection of tank Moving more downstream, industrial automation and
internals. control software is more prevalent, with tasks such as

HYDROCARBON 23 June 2020

ENGINEERING
 keep a record of when a piece of equipment was last
serviced, and routine maintenance will be arranged in
accordance with the directions of the equipment’s
manufacturer. This fails to account for abnormalities
that can accelerate a decline in performance and
puts the manager and the engineer at the mercy of
circumstance because their approach is purely
reactive.
This is changing as the industry digitalises. With
more sophisticated sensors connected to equipment
and assets, engineers can remotely view the
performance data of equipment in use. The sensors
transmit information about key parameters, such as
the operating temperature of motors or the pressure
in a centrifugal compressor, to a central control
Figure 1. AR in industrial maintenance.
system, such as a supervisory control and data
acquisition (SCADA) system or manufacturing
execution system (MES).
MESs have been used in downstream oil and gas
for much of the past decade, so most will be familiar
with the benefits and functions. With modern MESs,
alongside sensors capable of measuring a wide range
of different metrics and communicating quickly with
the latest communication networks and protocols, it
is becoming possible for managers to receive all of
their operation and process data in almost real-time.
Real-time access to data means that engineers
can visualise data and create a snapshot of any
given moment of an operation. With this, it
becomes far easier to identify when equipment is
underperforming.
However, the vast sums of information generated
Figure 2. Industrial engineer. by these operations can easily be too much for an
engineer to manage effectively, which is why an
management of a refinery’s crude slate largely using increasing number of MESs and Industrial Internet of
these systems. However, the downstream sector has a Things (IIoT) platforms are turning to machine learning
similar problem to upstream in that maintenance algorithms.
remains one of the biggest challenges for engineers, due Machine learning (ML), artificial intelligence (AI) and
to the sheer number of complex assets to be many algorithms in general have become equal parts
maintained. buzzwords and breakthroughs in recent years. Owing in
According to an ARC survey of senior executives and no small part to the high number of start-ups that claim
engineering, operations and maintenance managers in oil to use AI without actually using it, there is a lot of
and gas, 3 – 5% of production is lost due to unplanned confusion surrounding exactly what these terms mean
downtime.1 In theory, maintenance can be seen as a – and the benefits they provide.
preventative measure to combat this unplanned In simple terms, an AI is any computer software or
downtime and maximise uptime. The challenge is that algorithm that functions in a way that simulates the
system complexity often means maintenance has to be thinking processes of a human. Considering how human
carried out using planned downtime – something that beings learn, much of this knowledge is acquired through
still costs the refinery production time and money, but is experiences and observations, as well as through
begrudgingly accounted for rather than being a surprise. connection with other people. ML brings a similar
For these reasons, more downstream oil businesses concept to software, where algorithms are ‘trained’ on
are looking at ways of reducing the frequency of planned data to allow the algorithms to establish connections
downtime and maintenance to save costs and maximise between data sets.
productivity. This has driven an interest in the idea of Analysis of industrial-equipment performance data is
predictive, preventative maintenance, as well as the a matter of understanding the wider connotations of the
process-data collection that underpins it. presented data and spotting patterns. It is something
that lends itself to automation quite nicely, and the
Prediction and prevention benefit of putting it in the hands of computers is that
Traditionally, maintenance has been scheduled on a the system can parse thousands of data sets far quicker
rota-style basis in most oil refineries. A manager might than a human.

June 2020 24 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
Ensure a More Predictable Tomorrow
with Reliable Hot Tap and Line Stop Solutions
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To optimize your assets’ performance assurance, contact TEAM.

TeamInc.com
 This technology plays a key role in GE Digital’s Predix for increasingly advanced visualisation. This supports
IIoT platform and MES. The platform uses ML algorithms two interesting possibilities: digital twinning and
that are trained on thousands of sets of industrial augmented reality (AR).
process data, so it can be integrated easily and run Digital twinning software allows engineers to create
quickly, while using data collected by existing historian a virtual representation of their site and operations
software to teach the algorithm what ‘normal’ looks like using the collected data and real-time inputs. This twin
for a specific site’s operations. can simulate the impact of actions on processes and
The implications and potential of this are operations. If a maintenance manager wants to test a
far-reaching, with the only limitations really being the new schedule for maintaining equipment, they can run a
sophistication and number of sensors a business has to simulation to see what the repercussions of that
monitor assets. decision might be.
For example, it might be that that a compressor is Similarly, a procurement team member curious about
operating at too high an RPM or is vibrating abnormally the implications of modernising certain key assets can
while running. Even though the compressor could be an see a data-driven estimation of how operations will be
integral part of an oil refining operation, it might be affected.
something that is overlooked in the deluge of Again, this serves as a useful planning tool that
operational data, until the compressor trips due to leverages collected data. But this visualisation shows
overspeed or high levels of vibration and the system how the detail contained in the data can allow for new
starts flaring more than usual. levels of insight. This visualisation also helps explain
In a network of equipment monitored by a platform how AR works in industrial settings.
containing a ML algorithm, the software would detect Using a mixed reality headset such as a modern
the erroneous performance data and alert the most smartphone means that engineers can access industrial
relevant maintenance engineer to attend to the data through certain platforms such as PTC’s Thingworx.
compressor before tripping occurred. Potentially, this This real-time data updates a virtual representation of
preventative maintenance could have helped the each machine and component in a plant, and engineers
business avoid unexpected downtime – a rather can see the live data, as well as the location and the
understated accomplishment when considering that easiest access point for components, while looking at a
unplanned downtime can cost an average of machine.
US$49 million annually to offshore oil and gas This is only possible if the AR application can
companies. properly access the real-time operational data from the
This is a particularly time-sensitive example. For system. In this instance, the engineer could use the AR
other applications, such as the management and functionality of PTC’s ThingWorx 8 industrial internet of
mitigation of corrosion in pipework using sensors to things (IIoT) platform, as provided by Novotek, UK and
detect the total acidity number (TAN) of fluids, the Ireland.
algorithms can recognise early symptoms of problems By using a purpose-built AR application, engineers
and automatically adjust maintenance schedules can view real-time system data from the platform and
accordingly. This is where businesses can introduce see which components are performing inefficiently. In
effective predictive maintenance regimens to addition to this, the functionality also allows more
hydrocarbon engineering, minimising downtime across senior engineers to accelerate the training of new staff,
operations. providing further long-term value to the company.
Although this application of industrial data can This will not entirely remove the planned downtime
prove invaluable to oil engineers, it is just the beginning from maintenance, but it will significantly reduce the
of the ways in which process data improves amount of time needed for routine check-ups, as
performance. Not only can the proper collection and engineers can easily identify the most effective and
analysis of data change the strategic and planning side efficient way to approach the task. Even a reduction of
of maintenance, it can also greatly enhance the process five minutes per piece of equipment can quickly
of conducting maintenance itself. culminate in a substantial saving of resources.

A new perspective Conclusion

The trouble with increasingly complex industrial Oil is undoubtedly one of the most important natural
equipment is that it means that maintenance can be resources on earth, and data can be similarly crucial to
more difficult for engineers to carry out. In many cases, the success of businesses throughout the oil stream. And
a period of planned downtime, albeit brief, is necessary just like oil, data is not inherently valuable. Its value
to maintain systems. So, despite site managers comes from how it is used, and so it must be refined and
introducing AI-supported predictive maintenance applied effectively to gain the most value.
schedules with the best of intentions, the maintenance
itself can still reduce productivity. Reference
However, this does not need to be the case. One of 1. ‘Asset Performance Management Overcomes Challenges in the
Oil & Gas Industry’, ARC Advisory Group, (November 2016),
the biggest advantages of collecting the vast sums of https://www.ge.com/digital/sites/default/files/download_
process data produced during operations is that it allows assets/arc-asset-performance-management-in-oil-and-gas.pdf

June 2020 26 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
Sepideh Rajaeirad, Seeq Corp.,
outlines how advanced analytics can
be leveraged to improve availability,
reliability, and uptime.

A
ccording to a Kimberlite research study, the cost of
unplanned downtime for an oil and gas company can be
US$5.037 million for just 3.65 days of unplanned
downtime a year.1
The key to decreasing downtime is reducing unexpected
equipment failures and increasing overall equipment effectiveness
(OEE). Oil and gas companies can do this by employing new, more
efficient maintenance methods, such as condition-based
monitoring and predictive maintenance. These efforts revolve
around the simple principle of proactively identifying and fixing
malfunctioning equipment before problems arise, thus realising
benefits such as:
„ Decreased downtime and increased output.
„ Lower costs due to proactive and prioritised maintenance.
„ Increased machinery lifespan.
„ Improved safety.

Condition-based monitoring, in conjunction with a predictive

maintenance strategy, is best accomplished by coupling subject
matter expertise with advanced analytics software. This type of
near real-time analysis enables plant personnel to take a
proactive, rather than a costly reactive approach, to operations
and maintenance.

HYDROCARBON 27 June 2020

ENGINEERING
 A robust strategy for predictive maintenance relies on Therefore, best practices for servicisation include
connectivity to the myriad and disparate data sources close cooperation between equipment vendors and
commonly found in a manufacturing setting, along with SMEs. Vendors can provide value by analysing asset data
the application of the workflow process shown in Figure 1. across their fleets, and the results of these analyses can
To achieve the promise of condition-based monitoring be shared with SMEs, who then use this information to
and predictive maintenance, innovation in strategy and use make final decisions regarding plant operations and
of the right technology is required, which will be brought maintenance.
to life in this article through two industry use cases.
Applying the right technology
Innovation in strategy Predictive maintenance decisions can best be made using
Many equipment vendors have introduced subscription advanced analytics software designed to empower the
services for monitoring their assets installed on customer SMEs. This type of software gives SMEs the ability to
premises. This is called ‘servicisation’, and while it can be
analyse available data, including time-series and
beneficial, it may present challenges to the end user transactional information, to provide context and insight
company’s subject matter experts (SMEs). Vendors regarding the overall health of critical assets. With the
typically do not have an in-depth understanding of the right advanced analytics software, SMEs can configure
impact of day-to-day operations on the health of the the solution, implement it, use it for performance
equipment. Since the asset is integrated with overall monitoring and root cause analysis (RCA), and
operation, the impact of operation on performance needs continuously improve it as operations evolve. Since this
to be considered for best decisions to be made regarding new model of operation is of interest to many different
both adjustments to real-time control systems and departments within an organisation, collaboration and
maintenance strategies. knowledge sharing is essential, so the advanced analytics
solution should also
include these features.
Advanced analytics
software can be
configured and
implemented by SMEs
with the required
insight into overall
plant operations. Plant
personnel can use the
results of these
Figure 1. Data analysis workflow process required for successful implementation of a analyses to make rapid
continuous monitoring and predictive maintenance strategy. adjustments and initiate
a workflow. Any alarm
or notification
indicating poor
performance or failure
can be expanded upon
with detailed
information regarding
the bad actors and root
causes.

Pump health
monitoring
Pumps are a critical
part of any operation in
oil and gas upstream,
midstream, and
downstream plants and
processes. Unplanned
outages due to pump
failure can lead to
Figure 2. Summary of results utilising Seeq, an advanced analytics application, to significant downtime
support continuous monitoring for pumps in manufacturing: a) histogram showing
and loss of revenue, not
percent time per day at different mode of operation, b) bars across the top (capsules)
representing the exact time range at each mode, c) journal on the left hand side
to mention the
highlighting the analysis workflow. potential increased risk
to process and

June 2020 28 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
personnel safety. Therefore, monitoring pump Alternatively, advanced analytics software can be
performance is critical for robust and cost-effective applied much more effectively. Figures 3 and 4 show the
operation. contextualisation of data using Seeq, an advanced
In the event of an unexpected pump failure, an alarm analytics application. The software was used to connect
is usually triggered, and action is required from the to the data sources and implement the configured
operator. Depending upon the severity of the issue, this solution. The software was then used to cleanse the
could lead to a process shutdown, or require a backup data, calculate conditions, and create key performance
pump to be brought online. Alternatively, in order to indicators (KPIs). Data cleansing tools were used to
reduce pump failures, many companies conduct regular remove downtime and to ignore signal noise, dropouts,
maintenance activities based on runtimes or a calendar, and negative values from a flowmeter. Calculations and
which can result in high operating costs and a waste of contextualisation were used to create a ‘scorecard’
resources. indicating the status of pump operation, along with a
Reactive pump monitoring is triggered by a pump value for overall pump health. The KPIs were used for
failure, after which a RCA is usually conducted with the reporting and creating live dashboards – fostering
involvement of multiple stakeholders, including improved collaboration and continuous improvement.
operation and engineering personnel. This type of
approach may not allow utilisation of the RCA findings to Control valve performance diagnostics
prevent another similar failure. Control valves are a critical part of any operation and
To make this type of analysis proactive, an SME can mechanical failures can lead to prolonged shutdown and
manually examine historical data from various data sources cause significant economic impact.
such as a computerised
maintenance management
system, laboratory
information management
system, process historian,
and other sources. The data
must then be cleansed and
aligned with respect to
time. This cleansed and
aligned data can be used to
identify and calculate the
leading and lagging
indicators impacting a
pump’s performance. In Figure 3. Advanced analytics software can be used to calculate and monitor duration
many plants and facilities, and magnitude of a defined violation of operation beyond design curve or away from
these are largely manual best efficiency point.
efforts implemented with
spreadsheets.
Leading indicators are
created by examining the
duration and magnitude of
defined violations of
operating parameters, such
as operating outside of
the limits of the design
curve, away from best
efficiency point, near low
flow cavitation mode, in
low bearing/seal life (high
flow) mode, in high
vibration mode, or other
undesirable operating
conditions (Figure 2).
Lagging indicators are
transactional data coming
from a maintenance or
incident management Figure 4. Example visualisation illustrating the performance and condition of various
valve assets within the manufacturing operation: a) each box represents a unique
system, adding context to
valve asset within the site, b) box colours represent status based on the data analysis
time series data, such as
and accompanying operational boundaries established.
failure events.

HYDROCARBON 29 June 2020

ENGINEERING
SERVICE

SMEs often conduct an RCA as a result of a control

valve failure, which is a reactive approach. They look
for common causes of failure – such as stiction,
positioner overshoot, incorrect valve sizing, and
nonlinear flow characteristic – and at the impact of
operations on valve performance such as meeting
throttling requirements, cavitation events, and chocked
flow due to changes in process fluid characteristics.
Depending on the available data, engineers traditionally
calculate the indicator impacting the health of the
control valve using spreadsheet software and loop
performance assessment software.
Due to the major limitations of using spreadsheets
for advanced analytics on time series data, along with
an inability to configure a holistic solution using loop
performance assessment software, SMEs are not able
to configure and implement a performance monitoring
solution to proactively detect poor performance,
identify bad actors, and take corrective action.
Advanced analytics software can be used to improve
upon this process, as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 4 shows a poorly performing control valve
(red) in a tree map in comparison with other valves.
A health score was calculated using control output
(CO), control input or process variable (PV), control set
point (SP), and control mode historical data. The score
also used percent valve travel, average rate of travel,
relative difference between SP and PV, hysteresis,
stiction, and PV vs CO relationship characteristics.
Health scores for all control valves were calculated,
and plant personnel used these scores to predict valve
failures and schedule proactive maintenance.

Conclusion
Managing complex and diverse assets like pumps and
valves across large geographical areas can be
challenging for oil and gas companies, with predictive
capabilities required to ensure optimal asset lifespans

SERVICE
and efficient operations.
Coupling SMEs with advanced analytics software
results in rapid insights to improve execution, drive

YOUR PROFITS down costs, and increase earnings. With this strategy,
end users are able to leave behind the traditional
reliance on spreadsheets, which require
time-consuming and mostly manual interaction.
Furthermore, SMEs should be encouraged to access
the necessary data sources using advanced analytical
Tailor-made performance begins by putting
software so they can apply their rich knowledge and
your needs center stage. Services offered by intuition based on experience. The software’s
HOERBIGER provide long-term improvements modelling capabilities can help SMEs intentionally
in reliability, efficiency and environmental draw out profiles and trends to inform and to guide
soundness. The goal: to make your plant run decision making. It can also be used to create and share
even more profitably. step-by-step analytics processes, which may be turned
into repeatable documented workflows.

px.hoerbiger.com Reference
1. ‘The Impact of Digital on Unplanned Downtime’, Baker Hughes, a
GE company, https://www.bhge.com/sites/default/files/2017-12/
impact-of-digital-on-unplanned-downtime-study.pdf
 Jim McVay and Russ Davis, MISTRAS Group, USA,
outline risk-based inspection planning and the utilisation
of advanced non-destructive evaluation methodologies.

P
ressure vessels and piping assets in the
chemical, petrochemical, and refining industries
require the highest attention to ensure they
remain fully operational and intact. So, what
happens when abnormalities such as cracking,
corrosion, and other critical issues present themselves?

HYDROCARBON 31 June 2020

ENGINEERING
 Risk-based inspection (RBI) is a highly effective results and suggested highly effective NDE
option for identifying damage mechanisms and methodologies.
provides recommendations for appropriate By taking the time to enhance an inspection
non-destructive evaluation (NDE) methodologies program, owner/operators are able to maximise their
through a suite of advanced software. While this tool is time, budget, and plans accordingly. This type of
critical to alerting plant personnel of potential issues, program offers a selection of benefits strategically
most RBI recommended practices and software only designed to keep operations running at a highly
suggest a handful of NDE techniques to detect the effective and profitable level.
damages, and typically do not include advanced
techniques, which are often proven to be more Determining damage mechanisms
effective. RBI is an effective way to determine expected damage
Plants can benefit by working with a third-party mechanisms and select NDE methods suitable for the
service provider with experience in damage mechanism detection and quantification of damage. These
analysis and the selection of advanced NDE abnormalities can have a significant impact on the
methodologies to help bridge the gap between RBI integrity of virtually any pressure vessel or piping asset,
caused by a variety of asset
characterstics and operating parameters,
including:
„ Material of construction.
„ Operating temperature.
„ Corrosivity of the process.
„ pH.
„ Flow rate.
„ Environmental elements.

The impact can vary from minimal to

significant, and include cracking,
localised corrosion, or general corrosion,
or any of their many sub-categories.
Having a thorough understanding of
all potential damage mechanisms helps
to identify what type of inspection
method(s) is ultimately required. Damage
mechanism/corrosion analysis must be
Figure 1. While RBI may suggest a few traditional NDT solutions to performed by qualified personnel, and
detect damages such as corrosion under insulation (CUI), experts in
damage mechanisms might suggest more advanced solutions to better
the selection and execution of a suitable
locate and inspect these issues. NDE methodology must be determined
by highly qualified subject matter experts
(SMEs). In this regard, it is essential to
work with a third-party service provider
with expertise in engineering analysis and
NDE methodology, such as
MISTRAS Group, to guide the planning
and decision-making process.

Optimised position of
conditioning monitoring
location
After RBI outputs expected damage
mechanisms, plants must determine the
placement of condition monitoring
locations (CMLs). These are designated
areas on equipment or piping systems
where periodic examinations are
conducted. CMLs may contain one or
more examination point(s) (EP) and may
require multiple inspection techniques
Figure 2. Rather than focusing on quantity of CMLs, a more cost- and
based on predicted damage mechanisms.
time-efficient approach to CML placement is focusing on placing the
right amount of CMLs in the right locations. An approach that many plants take to
determine where to place CMLs is

June 2020 32 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
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 methodologies to detect and characterise
expected damage mechanisms.
An acceptable NDE methodology must
be determined by SMEs whom are fully
aware of the benefits and limitations each
NDE method offers. Comparative analysis of
the most effective and efficient testing and
inspection methods for managing the
detection and evaluation of those damage
mechanisms must be completed. Utilising a
highly effective inspection methodology
results in more complete and accurate data
and reduces the need for non-productive
data collection.
As an example, RBI program results may
suggest the use of traditional ultrasonic
testing (UT) as an acceptable method for
detecting corrosion under insulation (CUI) in
a piping system. However, advanced NDE
techniques, such as digital radiography (DR)
or pulsed eddy current (PEC) testing have
proven to be more successful in detecting
and characterising CUI, with the added
Figure 3. In this example, identifying piping distribution by benefit of eliminating the need to strip
corrosivity allows inspectors to strategically pinpoint high-risk insulation along the asset.
assets, and prioritise their inspection schedule. In conjunction with an SME, operators
can also determine if these inspections can
quantity over quality; the more CMLs you inspect, the be conducted externally, as an additional program
higher the chance of detecting potential damages. optimisation measure. In the case of pressure vessels,
However, very few of these CMLs ever show corrosion after CMLs have been established, the use of
activity, leading to years of high-volume but non-intrusive inspection (NII) programs can further
low-quality data. Inspections also require significant reduce costs and safety hazards.
resources; it takes time, personnel, and money to NII is an external inspection method in lieu of
conduct this number of inspections. To help optimise internal inspection examination. This process enables
resource allocation, a more effective method of CML safe and effective inspections to be performed on
placement is to utilise the right number of CMLs in the pressure equipment externally, therefore eliminating
right locations and utilise the right NDE methodology. vessel entry during the inspection process. Through NII,
This can be accomplished by identifying areas that NDE methods can therefore be completed without
are most susceptible to corrosion, by reviewing operational interruptions, or a complete plant
determined corrosion mechanisms and all available shutdown. NDE technology has progressed to the point
historical inspection data. Refinery piping circuits can where inspectors and engineers are able to externally
generally be broken into three categories: corrosive, collect data on vessel integrity that is as good or
low-corroding, and non-corroding. An SME with better than data obtained from an internal inspection.
experience in process damage mechanisms can enable By executing these advanced methodologies over
plants to focus their inspection spend and effort on more traditional NDE solutions, facility
the highly corrosive areas, while often reducing the owner/operators can experience significant savings on
amount of CMLs on low- or non-corroding piping both their time and money.
circuits.
By making the most effective use of the CML Conclusion
placement process, facilities can realise efficiency Choosing the most effective NDE methodology based
enhancements in inspection data management, testing on expected damage mechanisms is a crucial step to
effectiveness, and data quality, particularly for help ensure the health and fitness of pressure vessel
corrosive piping systems. and piping assets. By executing this program, facility
operators can plot the best course of action for
Effective implementation of NDE detecting damage and ultimately protecting their
methodologies plant’s critical operations. Implementing a well-defined
As discussed, RBI recommended practices and software NDE methodology through an optimised RBI program
are effective tools for suggesting what damages are allows owner/operators to not only preserve the
likely to occur within an asset but are non-prescriptive integrity of their critical assets, but their time, budget,
with regard to appropriate application of NDE and peace-of-mind as well.

June 2020 34 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
Jaime Lopez and Everardo Dominguez,
ROSEN, Mexico, describe a recent
inspection of the heating coils of
several furnaces at the Refidomsa
refinery in the Dominican Republic.

F
urnaces, or fired heaters, play a vital role in the
petrochemical and refining industry, as they
transform crude oil, which has little direct
application, into more useful fuels such as LPG,
petroleum naphtha, gasoline, diesel fuel, asphalt base,
heating oil, kerosene, LPG, jet fuel and fuel oils. Even
though furnaces are complex pieces of equipment, their

HYDROCARBON 35 June 2020

ENGINEERING
 components can be divided into four basic parts: firebox, Monitoring the integrity of fired heaters is critical for
burner, coils and stack. Their functioning principle is that any facility. Potential failure may have a major impact on
the burner generates heat by combusting fuels. The flue the safety of equipment and personnel, the reliable
gases generated by the combustion preheat the process supply of product, and the efficient operation of the
fluid in the coils within the upper part of the furnace, the facility. Furthermore, relatively short periods of
convection section. From there, the fluid travels to the disturbance often suffice for these complex assets to
coils in the lower-situated radiant section, where it is cause an incident. In stark contrast to this is the fact that,
further heated by the radiation of the actual flame. It then due to volatile fuel prices, the demand for cost-effective
undergoes different refinery processes such as unit reliability and performance increases, putting
fractionation, thermal cracking and, of course, distillation. pressure on operations managers to keep downtimes as
short as possible.
Evaluating the condition of the furnace coils during a
unit shutdown is an important part of the integrity
management of process plants. The aim is to timely
mitigate threats that put the integrity of the entire
process unit at risk. This case study reviews the utilisation
of the Circumferential Hand Scanning Tool (CIRC) based
on electromagnetic transducer (EMAT) technology in
combination with visual inspection and ultrasound (UT)
imaging for a comprehensive inspection of two furnaces.

The challenge
The Dominican Petroleum Refinery Refidomsa processes
approximately 30 million bbl/yr of crude oil and
currently holds over 60% of the hydrocarbon market
share in the Dominican Republic. Located close to the
Haina Occidental Port, this refinery is responsible for
processing all of the crude oil that enters the country.
This means that the Refidomsa refinery produces
approximately 34 000 bpd of refined product. Given the
large throughput of this facility, it is of utmost
importance to Refidomsa that all parts of the facility
maintain their integrity and remain safe for operation.
As mentioned above, one part of the facility that
requires regular integrity inspection are the fire heating
furnaces, specifically the heating coils inside the furnace
units. Since they operate under such extreme conditions,
the service life of furnace coils is often limited. The
Figure 1. Furnace of the Refidomsa facility in the leading damage mechanisms for these tubes are
Dominican Republic. corrosion, metallurgical changes and creep, which
describes the slow deformation of the tube material due
to persistent mechanical stress while being exposed to
extreme heat. Furthermore, all these types of
degradation may eventually lead to cracking.
Refidomsa approached ROSEN with the request to
inspect the heating coils of two furnaces. The
requirements included but were not limited to:
„ Detection of both external and internal metal loss as
well as cracking.
„ Guaranteed coverage of the tubes’ entire lengths.
„ Assessment of the required cleaning work.
„ Completion of the project within an eight-hour
shutdown window.

Access to these coils is only possible during a

planned facility shutdown, and a failure of any of the
furnace coils while in operation can be catastrophic to
Figure 2. Heat exchanger coils inside the furnaces. the personnel, the facility and the environment, and, in
In total, 271 tubes and 60 U-bends, in two furnaces,
were successfully inspected. the case of Refidomsa, also to the energy supply of the
entire country. Therefore, the operator plans a specific

June 2020 36 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
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 cooperation with Refidomsa, ROSEN integrity engineers
evaluated the asset, identified the inspection
requirements and formulated a plan, which included
visual and technical inspections based on the EMAT
and UT technologies, to assess the status of the
furnaces.
First, visual inspections were performed to identify
areas of concern. It was decided that, thanks to EMAT’s
capability of detecting corrosion on covered surfaces,
the furnace coils only required minimum cleaning to
proceed with the inspection. Then, the ROSEN CIRC
was used to identify anomalies. The CIRC system is an
external inspection system that detects internal and
external corrosion as well as cracks utilising EMAT
technology. The tool provides a differential gauge unit,
Figure 3. Circumferential Hand Scanning Tool (CIRC)
measuring any change in the acoustic path through two
based on electromagnetic transducer (EMAT) technology.
The circumferential inspection is performed quickly as acoustic transducers, which can detect any changes in
the CIRC tool travels along the entire length of the pipe. material through a significantly long acoustic path.
EMAT therefore offers substantial benefits over the
industry-established procedure of UT. The technology
induces a soundwave inside the object without the
need for a coupling medium or extensive surface
preparation, meaning it is capable of rapidly scanning,
detecting and sizing anomalies on the inner and outer
surfaces of a tube.
Thanks to its ability to obtain high-quality data in
extremely high temperatures, the tool delivered full
data coverage of the entire heat exchanger coils within
the furnaces. The data from the CIRC inspection was
downloaded and then confirmed using the images
collected with an ultrasonic hand scanner. All of this
collected information was consolidated into a report
for Refidomsa in order to provide a comprehensive
overview of the assets’ integrity status.

Figure 4. Ultrasound hand scanner to confirm data from The benefit

the CIRC inspection. As requested, the inspections were performed within
an eight-hour shutdown window. In total, 271 tubes and
number of shutdowns of different facility units. During 60 U-bends, in two furnaces, were successfully
these periods, as much maintenance and inspection inspected. The high-quality data indicated several small
work as possible must be completed in as short a metal loss anomalies in some of the pipes. No cracking
timeframe as possible to keep the downtime of the was detected. Therefore, Refidomsa’s evaluation of the
furnaces to a minimum. It is of the essence that the detailed report yielded that the heating coils’
inspections be performed accurately, comprehensively condition was acceptable until the next planned
and efficiently in order to avoid a complete shutdown furnace shutdown.
of the facility, minimise associated risks and maintain The overall benefits of the inspection were
production. compelling. Combining EMAT technology with UT and
Conventional inspection technologies require major visual inspection of the heating coils enabled the
cleaning of the heating coils to remove all incrusted operator to obtain accurate and extensive information
material accumulated on the external surface by burning on all areas of the furnace coils, including the
fuel oil. In most cases, this requires sand blasting due to difficult-to-access areas and even some so-called ‘blind
the toughness of the incrusted material. This process is zones’. This combination of inspection technologies
very time-consuming, which increases the pressure on provided a complete and comprehensive understanding
the operator. Since they are the only refinery on the of the integrity status of these installations in a timely
island, this was not a desirable option for Refidomsa, as manner. With limited shutdown of operations, the
they must maintain the fuel supply to the country. operator gained valuable information that enabled
proper rehabilitation and future planning. This
The solution increased the assets’ potential value significantly by
The demanding inspection parameters required ensuring safe, efficient and compliant future
extensive pre-inspection planning. Through close operations.

June 2020 38 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
 Taking
control
of CUI
Brandon Stambaugh, Owens Corning, USA, looks at the materials and
methods for the limitation and risk mitigation of corrosion under insulation.

T
he pipes and equipment that process or carry water, chemical agents and certain weather conditions that contribute
steam, gas and petrochemicals must perform to CUI can develop more quickly and cause more damage.
reliably under harsh industrial and environmental CUI can occur when moisture infiltrates the insulation
conditions. Despite many options for wrapping, system. It is typically fed by four factors: water, oxygen, a
insulating and protecting these vital pieces of infrastructure, corrosive chemical and the right temperature conditions.1
pipes and equipment are constantly vulnerable to corrosion. Moisture under insulation is difficult to detect. Moisture may sit
Beneath these layers of protection, corrosion can advance, in contact with a pipe for a long period of time, causing
often undetected. When corrosion under insulation (CUI) corrosion to go completely unnoticed until a pipe begins to
takes hold, it compromises not only the piping and equipment leak, or fails.
systems, but also the productivity of processes and safety of All corrosion begins with moisture. Moisture is everywhere
facility personnel. and it is unavoidable. Some of the main moisture sources and
risk factors to watch for include:2
How does CUI happen? „ Rainwater/environmental moisture: rainwater or moisture
CUI is a common problem for insulated pipes and equipment in condensed in the air can by itself be corrosive. As this
almost any industry. However, the ideal conditions for moisture contacts pipe jackets and sealants, or picks up
developing CUI often characterise gas and petrochemical other environmental elements, it can take on more
processing environments. The presence of heat, humidity, corrosive characteristics.

HYDROCARBON 39 June 2020

ENGINEERING
 comes into contact with other substances that change its
chemical composition. As water flows through the insulation
itself, sealants, jackets, the pipe material or its coatings, the
corrosive effects of water can be amplified.
Sometimes corrosion is accelerated by electrolytes or
salts in the moisture, which creates a current between
different types of metal in the pipe and insulation, jacket or
other components.4 This type of corrosion, called galvanic
corrosion, is a concern in coastal areas where salts are carried
on the moisture in the air. Salts may also be introduced
through de-icing processes.
The other common type of corrosion is alkaline/acidic
Figure 1. Pipes in gas and petrochemical facilities can corrosion caused when a basic or acid substance mixes with
be particularly vulnerable to CUI due to the presence
the water contacting the pipe. For example, with pipes that
of humidity, chemical agents and ideal weather
carry heated contents (over 250˚F or 121˚C), water may
conditions that can promote corrosive activity.
evaporate from the pipe surface but migrate to the edges of
the insulation.4 Here, the water vapour can condense, mix with
sealants and other components there and create a corrosive
acidic or alkaline mixture.4 Alkalinity will often produce pitting
on aluminium pipes,4 leading to weak spots and leaks.

The economic impact of corrosion

The full costs of CUI are difficult to quantify because they
include so many follow-on effects, such as operational
disruptions. One study put the direct cost of metallic
corrosion in the US at US$276 billion/yr, with indirect costs
possibly doubling that figure.5
CUI poses a risk in the oil/gas and chemical industries.
According to a study presented to the European Federation of
Figure 2. Water beads on a piece of FOAMGLAS® Corrosion and cited by the National Insulation Association:2
cellular glass insulation. Cellular glass consists „ CUI is responsible for most of the pipe leaks the industry
of millions of hermetically sealed glass cells and, experiences (rather than process corrosion).
therefore, does not absorb moisture.
„ More than 80% of leaks occur in small pipes
(< 4 in. diameter).
„ Sprinkler systems: when these systems are activated, they „ Up to 60% of pipe maintenance costs are related to CUI.
can often introduce vast amounts of water into a small
area, potentially soaking insulation. While organisations may have programmes in place to
„ Power washing: regular maintenance procedures could remain vigilant against CUI, detecting it can be
introduce corrosion risks through water and/or cleaning time-consuming. The most labour-intensive method is to
agents. remove insulation and visually inspect pipes, but there are also
„ Cold temperatures: pipes operating at temperatures well various radiographic, ultrasonic and pulsed electrical
below freezing tend to be at low risk of corrosion technologies that can be used to assess pipe damage or
(because of the lack of oxygen), but pipes (or sections) thinning,4 allowing for assessment without disrupting
that frequently experience freezing and melting below insulation or jacketing. Even with these technologies, assessing
their insulation are particularly vulnerable to corrosion.2 for CUI on a large operation takes time and manpower. Once
„ Warmer temperatures: 25˚F – 350˚F (-4˚C – 175˚C) is the corrosion is detected, the damage to a system’s productivity
prime corrosion risk temperature range for most metal and uptime may already be done.
pipes.3 These temperatures are typically not quite hot
enough to evaporate all moisture,2 allowing permeable CUI mitigation: insulation materials
insulation to potentially become waterlogged and in The hidden nature of CUI makes mitigation even more
constant contact with the pipe. important. Protecting pipes from moisture incursion is vital,
„ High-temperature systems at rest: when pipes are carrying but moisture can never be entirely removed from the equation
high-temperature substances, corrosion risk is generally in all settings. Therefore, one of the best defences can be in
lower because of evaporation. But when these systems the choice of pipe insulating material and systems that help
are shut down, moisture can set in and so can corrosion. reduce the risk of moisture contacting pipes.
Cellular glass insulation is a material many engineers and
Water plus chemistry: creating a more contractors turn to, particularly when pipe failures due to
corrosive mixture corrosion could be far more than an inconvenience, but could
The moisture that starts corrosion may be simple water, threaten to shut down operations or create a significant safety
e.g. condensation or rainwater. However, often that water risk.

June 2020 40 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
 REFINERY OF THE
FUTURE 2020
INTERNATIONAL ONLINE CONFERENCE EXPLORING
THE TECHNOLOGY AND INNOVATIONS DRIVING THE
REFINERY OF THE FUTURE

25th June 2020

With participation from:

Register for free:

K\GURFDUERQHQJLQHHULQJFRPUHÀQHU\
 Sand, soda ash and limestone are the primary ingredients important component and can help limit damage to the
used in the manufacturing of FOAMGLAS® cellular glass insulation layer. Compressive strength is a key consideration
insulation. When heated to extreme temperatures, a as well, particularly if pipes may be under additional stress,
chemical reaction occurs that produces millions of such as being placed under walking surfaces. Cellular glass
hermetically sealed glass cells. This closed-cell glass matrix is has a high strength-to-weight ratio, and because it is glass, it
impervious to both liquid water and water vapour. also will not deflect or warp, even under changing
Insulation itself is only part of the story. System temperature conditions.
designers should be aware of how other components in the Sealants also play an important role in maintaining the
system, including jackets and sealants, can add to (or detract integrity of the insulation layer. FOAMGLAS insulation
from) the system’s moisture barrier. For example, even with systems use high-temperature, neutral cure sealants and
an impermeable material like cellular glass, jacketing is an adhesives that help ensure complete closure of the cellular
glass insulation around pipes, as well as adhere silicone
spacers/strips to the insulation. These sealants will perform
even at high operating temperatures (up to 392˚F or 200˚C).

CUI mitigation: insulation systems

Even the best insulation materials will not help limit CUI if
they are not installed properly. Following manufacturers’
recommendations is critical, but so is researching specific
insulation systems that can help mitigate moisture. Joints
present points of vulnerability, making effective sealants
critical. The FOAMGLAS Sealed System uses an
easy-to-spread proprietary joint sealant. This is a neutral cure
sealant, so it will not contribute to corrosion. It also
compartmentalises the insulation system to help limit the
spread of moisture in the event that a section of the system
is damaged or opened for maintenance.
If moisture should encroach, spacing systems can provide
a redundant level of protection, helping channel moisture
away from pipes. Ideally, spacers and pipe insulation should be
part of a total system, so they work together for maximum
effectiveness. The FOAMGLAS Spacer System is pre-fabricated
Figure 3. The FOAMGLAS Sealed System for pipe
insulation. The orange lines represent areas where and easy for installers to work with. Spacers and strips are
insulation is sealed using a neutral cure sealant. This molded from high-temperature, high-performance silicone.
sealed system helps protect the pipe from moisture The system’s spacers and strips are specifically designed to
intrusion and also creates compartmentalisation to help shed water from the piping surface, and promote
aid in limiting the spread of moisture. compartmentalisation and channeling of moisture. Drain holes
provide a means for moisture to exit the system.
CUI is a costly and ever-present challenge in gas and
petrochemical processing settings. While the greatest cause
of corrosion – moisture – can never be eliminated from
these working environments, by understanding the
conditions that promote CUI and looking for materials and
installation techniques that help mitigate it, the risks and
expense of CUI can be reduced, helping to keep plants
running safely and efficiently.

References
1. HART, G., ‘Toolbox for Prevention of Corrosion Under Insulation’,
National Insulation Association, (2008), https://insulation.org/io/
articles/toolbox-for-prevention-of-corrosion-under-insulation/
2. LETTICH, M., ‘Is There a Cure for Corrosion Under Insulation?’,
National Insulation Association, (2005), https://insulation.org/io/
articles/is-there-a-cure-for-corrosion-under-insulation/
3. ‘Standard Practice: Control of Corrosion Under Thermal Insulation
and Fireproofing Materials – A Systems Approach’, NACE
International, (2010).
4. ‘Asset Intelligence Report: A Primer on Corrosion Under Insulation
Figure 4. Spacing systems create a gap between (CUI)’, Inspectioneering, (2015), https://inspectioneering.com/
pipes and insulation to help allow moisture to drain airs/2017-02-13/6126/a-primer-on-corrosion-under-insulation-
cui
away from pipes. The spacer system in the rendering 5. ‘Corrosion costs and preventive strategies in the United States’,
above features specially shaped silicone spacers that NACE International, (2002), https://higherlogicdownload.
help shed water away from the piping surface. s3.amazonaws.com/NACE/cedda8a4-c3c0-4583-b1b6-
3b248e6eb1f2/UploadedImages/Resources/pdf/ccsupp.pdf

June 2020 42 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
Boosting
profitability
with
butylenes
Nik Larsen and Tiffany Clark,
Marathon Petroleum Corp., USA, with
Melissa Clough Mastry and Namal
De Silva, BASF, USA, examine new
FCC catalyst technology which has
maximised butylenes production and
raised profitability in refinery trials.

I
n the US, alkylate capacity is expanding1 with ongoing
refinery capital projects and tight oil continuing to gain
traction. Both of these factors will influence higher butylene
products pricing and indirectly affect the value of high
gasoline octane blending components. Furthermore, according
to a recent survey2 of fluidised catalytic cracking (FCC) catalyst
requests, the most desired product of US-based refineries is LPG
olefins, with just 3% of those surveyed only wanting propylene.
The remainder of those surveyed requested only butylenes or
butylenes over propylene. With butylenes demand continuing
to grow, the need for advanced FCC catalyst technologies to
meet these demands will also continue to grow.
FourteTM is a butylene enhancing FCC catalyst
demonstrating positive economic benefit in refinery use of over
US$1.40/bbl through its selectivity shift and yield
improvements. This catalyst technology and four refinery
applications are reviewed in this article.

Butylenes production
A traditional method to generate butylenes is to simply reduce
hydride transfer via a rare-earth decrease of the ultra-stable Y
zeolite (USY) of the FCC catalyst. Unfortunately, this also
reduces the overall catalytic activity and can in fact negatively

HYDROCARBON 43 June 2020

ENGINEERING
 Table 1. Delta yield shifts based on operating data and heat balanced modelling for impact butylenes
Trials 1 to 4
production through
Delta yield (trial minus incumbent) Operating yields Heat balanced modelling (optimised) lower conversion.
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Increasing matrix also
Dry gas (wt%) +0.1 No change -0.04 -0.1 +0.1 +0.1 n/a favours butylenes
Propylene (vol%) +1.3 +1.2 +1.5 +1.0 +1.0 +0.1 +1.3 selectivity. However,
increased matrix can
Butylenes (vol%) +1.1 +0.7 +1.3 +1.0 +1.0 +1.0 +1.0
also lead to higher
Gasoline (C5 - 450°F/232°C) (vol%) -3.3 -1.9 -0.03 -2.5 -1.6 -1.6 +0.2 delta coke and dry gas
LCO (450 - 680°F/360°C) (vol%) +0.8 +0.9 -0.7 +0.5 +0.3 -0.2 -1.0 production. A common
Slurry (680°F/360°C+) (vol%) -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 -0.7 -0.2 -0.2 -0.1 method to produce
Gasoline RON +2.2 +1.1 +0.8 +1.5 +0.9 +1.6 +1.0
butylenes is to use
ZSM-5 technologies.
The ZSM-5 zeolite is a
shape-selective zeolite designed to crack light olefins
(i.e. primarily C5 – C8) into C3 and C4 olefins. However, it
selectively produces twice as much propylene as butylenes,
thus making a strategy involving only ZSM-5 an unprofitable
solution for many refineries. For a refinery that is LPG
constrained and aiming to maximise butylenes, any LPG created
with selectivity of propylene being excessively higher than
butylenes will negatively impact refinery economics. Yet
another method to produce butylenes operationally is to
increase reactor temperature to increase conversion. While this
does result in higher LPG olefins, it also results in a higher dry
gas yield, which can limit a refinery’s wet gas compressor unit.
Figure 1. Butylenes selectivity boosted by FourteTM as
evidenced by Ecat data in Trial 1. BASF has developed a novel technology platform called
Multiple Framework Topologies (MFT) to eliminate many of the
drawbacks of conventional butylenes maximisation approaches.
Additional features were also demonstrated in recent trials.
Gasoline octane can often be improved with an MFT-based
catalyst. In some cases, bottoms upgrading was a target to
minimise low value fuel oil. In all cases, a positive economic
benefit was seen in the applications using this catalyst
technology.
Fourte is the first catalyst offered from the MFT technology
platform. It combines multiple features to maximise conversion
to LPG olefins with a selectivity boost towards butylenes. The
first key feature is inherent low hydrogen transfer, which aims to
maintain LPG olefins vs saturating them during the FCC
reactions. Decreased hydrogen transfer is partially enabled by
controlling acid site density. In normal applications, lowering
acid site density means low catalyst activity. However, the
in-situ manufacturing route allows the introduction of the
second feature: FCC catalysts can be made with low acid site
density without sacrificing activity by boosting activity via
higher surface area. The third feature is a speciality matrix
designed for LPG olefins selectivity. In the high Z/M catalyst
space, the application of the speciality matrix technology
allows for higher selectivity of butylenes. The fourth and most
significant feature of MFT is the utilisation of olefins-selective
zeolite frameworks, in addition to the active USY, which are
selective to boost butylenes generation. Since the commercial
introduction of Fourte, it has successfully delivered profitability
for several refineries. This article aims to summarise the results
of trials at four of Marathon Petroleum Corp.’s (MPC) FCC units.

Figure 2. Octane, butylenes, and bottoms upgrading

Case study
operation data analysis in Trial 2. MPC’s objective for its FCC fresh catalyst suppliers is to help
maximise FCC profit given supplied pricing by maximising liquid

June 2020 44 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
volume yield of higher value products (LPG olefins, gasoline)
while minimising low value products such as dry gas, coke and
slurry, while staying within applicable unit constraints. In each of
these cases, MPC and BASF worked together to design the right
catalyst for each unit and to ensure a smooth catalyst trial.

Trial 1
The first application of the new catalyst was at a US refinery
seeking increased FCC profitability. The gasoline octane target
was twofold: to increase the FCC gasoline octane and increase
FCC butylenes to fill the alkylation unit to generate more
alkylate for the refinery’s gasoline blending pool. The first step
to the trial was a catalyst selection process, which involved
in-depth catalytic pilot plant testing, modelling, and sensitivity
studies. This process identified the economic potential of the
Fourte catalyst for this FCC unit. The predicted economic
benefit of using a new catalyst was US$0.69/bbl, leading to
significant profitability generation for the refinery. Predicted
economic benefits came from increased butylenes production,
increased FCC gasoline octane, reduced slurry yield, and
reduced delta coke.
After executing a trial plan, the catalyst entered the FCC
unit and was expected to equilibrate within six months. During
the trial, both BASF and MPC worked closely together to
monitor it via multiple methods: monitoring of weekly
equilibrium catalyst data, monitoring of refinery operating data,
and utilising a heat-balanced model to monitor the effects of Figure 3. Butylenes and total liquid yield boosted as
evidenced by operation data analysis in Trial 3.
operational changes, including feed changes. The weekly
equilibrium catalyst data showed a clear trend: butylenes
selectivity increased drastically, while bottoms upgrading was
also seen to improve. The operating data painted a similar
picture, with the feed to the alkylation unit increasing, delta
coke (and regenerator temperatures) decreasing, and slurry
upgrading to LCO and lighter products. In the end, pilot plant
testing utilising refinery feed and equilibrium catalyst samples
before and after the trial confirmed the results: the new catalyst
provided the expected yield shifts, and the heat-balanced
modelling exercised by MPC confirmed an economic impact of
US$0.85/bbl improvement over the incumbent catalyst.

Trial 2 Figure 4. Butylenes boosted by the new catalyst as

Another application of BASF’s catalyst occurred at a different evidenced by analysis in Trial 4.
MPC refinery, whose aim was also to maximise the value of the
FCC product yields from its mixed gas oil feed. The refinery’s
product pricing showed that maximising butylene yields to the equilibrium catalyst data, shifts in operating yields, and unit
alkylation unit and increasing FCC naphtha octane were the constraints. Refinery operating data showed clear improvements
main value drivers. A seasonal sensitivity analysis, along with in butylene selectivity, butylenes yield, FCC naphtha octane, and
tiered pricing, was performed with minimum and maximum bottoms upgrading. The catalyst maintained similar activity at
feed rates and alternative butylenes and octane pricing to constant catalyst addition rates. A post audit of the trial using
demonstrate that the catalyst technology would be the most operating data analysis and ACE data analysis concluded that
profitable option, even with shifting refinery economics and the catalyst achieved the predicted yield benefits. Trial data
operations. Predicted performance was estimated to be showed that the predicted performance closely matched
US$1.05/bbl, due to significant improvements in butylenes and commercial yields. The final operating data confirmed an
FCC naphtha octane along with an improvement in bottoms improvement to FCC margins of US$0.99/bbl.
upgrading.
Due to the strong economic incentive, an in-depth Trial 3
sensitivity analysis, and previous commercial trial performance, In the third commercial FCC application, the refinery wanted to
the refinery decided to proceed with a trial. The catalyst was maximise high valued butylenes while minimising low value
turned over in three months. Throughout the trial, BASF worked products. In this example, the refinery was optimising against
closely with the refinery to monitor the catalyst trial with multiple constraints. After an intensive catalyst testing

HYDROCARBON 45 June 2020

ENGINEERING
 campaign, Fourte showed significant promise for increased the operational changes. The new catalyst delivered higher
FCC profitability. After writing a joint trial plan with the bottoms upgrading, higher gasoline RON, higher LPG olefins,
refinery engineers, the trial was executed and turnover to the and higher conversion. The combination of these effects,
new catalyst was monitored. after normalising for feed and operating conditions, led to a
The catalyst inventory was 80% turned over within profitability increase of US$1.41/bbl for the refinery.
two months. The catalyst trial demonstrated the positive
features of changing catalyst: delta coke and dry gas were Conclusion
both decreased, leading to decreased regenerator temperature With the introduction of the Fourte catalyst based off MFT,
and an increase in valuable liquid products. In terms of MPC and BASF have demonstrated that this technology can be
butylenes, both an increase in absolute yield and an increase in highly profitable for refineries that prefer increased butylenes
selectivity of butylenes in the LPG stream were identified. selectivity. The R&D work combining matrix technology, shape
Finally, to take advantage of high gasoline octane pricing, the selective zeolites, controlled acid site density, and the
gasoline octane was also improved. The post audit showed an maintenance of catalyst activity was the recipe for success.
increase in profitably of US$0.33/bbl. The catalyst has been successfully demonstrated in multiple
commercial FCC trials where significant profitability
Trial 4 improvement was achieved. In these examples, profitability
In the fourth trial, the refinery’s goal was to increase the FCC improvements ranging between US$0.33/bbl and US$1.41/bbl
profitability by taking advantage of opportunistic economics. were achieved. This is the first catalyst offering from the MFT
At this refinery, LPG was the highest valued product and a technology platform with R&D improvements to the platform
premium on gasoline octane was a big driver. The refinery had already showing further benefits in butylenes to propylene
room to increase conversion. In terms of LPG, butylenes were selectivity.
valued higher than propylene, but propylene still outweighed
other products including LCO and slurry. In this case, the
refinery could take advantage of an overall increase in both References
1. ‘World Analysis: Butylenes’, IHS Markit, (2017).
propylene and butylenes, with a preference for butylenes. 2. Internal BASF survey carried out based on RFP data received during
The initial post audit showed a large octane boost of the FCC 2017 – 2019 period.
gasoline and an increase in LPG olefins. The trial was
completed and compared to the incumbent catalyst. Because Note
The authors would like to thank Yorklin Yang, Andrew Novotny, Daniel
of the many changes during the trial, the catalyst change had Neuman, Bilge Yilmaz, and Vasileios Komvokis for their contribution to this
to be evaluated using a heat balanced model to account for article.

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 BEYOND
ESTIMATION
Carl Fitz, API Technical Data
Committee, USA, looks at
improved property methods for
hydrotreater separator design.

H
ydrotreating will continue to be an
important process in the refinery of the
future. The reactor effluent flows
through hot and cold high pressure (HP)
separators that produce hydrocarbon product
streams, a hydrogen rich stream (which is
recycled), and a sour water stream. This article
illustrates API Technical Data Committee
approved property methods that accurately
calculate the flowrate and composition of each
of these streams.

HYDROCARBON 47 June 2020

ENGINEERING
 Table 1. Hydrocracker A
Hot high pressure separator K value Cold high pressure separator
Feed Vapour Liquid SRK Measured Feed Vapour Liquid 1 Liquid 2
Temperature (˚F) 400 400 400 130 130 130 130
Pressure (psia) 1000 1000 1000 980 980 980 980
Component mol%
H2 56.25 87.14 6.968 12.5 12 86.39 92.58 4.085 1.87E-03
H2S 6.25 7.533 4.203 1.79 2.13 7.47 7.1 13.71 0.36
Hydrocarbon 37.50 5.327 88.83 0.06 0.074 5.28 0.044 82.02 8.30E-06
fraction
Water 0 0 0 0.86 0.271 0.178 99.64
lb mol/hr 1600 983.5 616.5 992 922.8 63.38 5.865
lb/hr 81 600 10 900 70 700 11 085 4052 6927 106

Table 2. Hydrotreater B
hydrogen sulfide (H2S).
Hot high pressure separator Cold high pressure separator Hydrocracking uses a catalyst
Feed Vapour Liquid Feed Vapour Liquid 1 Liquid 2 and hydrogen to turn heavier
Temperature 400 400 400 130 130 130 130 feedstocks into lighter, more
(˚F) desired products. In both
Pressure 320 320 320 300 300 300 300 these processes, excess
(psia) hydrogen is used which must
Component mol% be separated, treated, and
H2 55.00 75.17 2.086 74.49 88.81 1.238 5.48E-04
recycled. The desired
hydrocarbon products must
H2S 6.25 8.025 1.592 7.95 8.4 5.674 0.142
be separated from the
CH4 0.63 0.84 0.06 0.83 0.979 0.077 2.91E-04 contaminants. The required
C2H6 0.63 0.817 0.122 0.81 0.898 0.335 1.96E-04 separations must be
Hydrocarbon 37.50 15.15 96.14 15.16 0.139 92.51 8.25E-05 calculated accurately.
fraction Figure 1 is a simplified flow
Water 0 0 0 0.76 0.776 0.169 99.86 diagram showing the product
from a hydrotreater separated
lb mol/hr 1600 1158 442 1158 969 188 1
using hot and cold HP
lb/hr 82 100 27 700 54 400 27 848 5230 22 600 18 separators. In the hot HP
separator, most of the
upgraded hydrocarbon is recovered in the liquid
product stream. The overhead vapour stream is sent
through a heat recovery exchanger (not shown) and
wash water is added to reduce plugging in the air
cooler. The hot stream is cooled using an air cooler and
sent to the cold HP separator. The vapour steam
contains the hydrogen to be sweetened and recycled. A
sour water stream and a sour hydrocarbon liquid are
also produced.
The next sections of this article will illustrate how
the methods of the API Technical Data Book (TDB) may
be used to estimate the flow rates of components in
this section of the hydrotreating process.
Figure 1. Hot and cold high pressure separators.
Hydrocracker A
In both hydrotreating and hydrocracking, hydrogen A hydrocracker operating at 400˚F and 1000 psia is fed
is used to upgrade the quality of a hydrocarbon hydrogen and a petroleum cut containing sulfur. The
feedstock. The required hydrogen partial pressure is product stream contains hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide,
determined by the desired outcome. Higher pressure and a petroleum fraction characterised as follows:
increases ring saturation. Lower pressures can be used 322.1˚F mean average boiling point (MABP),
when contaminants are easy to remove. In 0.797 specific gravity (sg), 127.4 molecular weight,
hydrotreating, sulfur is removed from the hydrocarbon g/gmol (MW). Vapour-liquid equilibrium (VLE) involving
stream catalytically by using hydrogen to produce hydrogen at high pressure is difficult to calculate

June 2020 48 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
accurately when a petroleum fraction is involved. Kabaddi-Danner modifications to accurately describe
Hydrogen solubility is much lower in aromatics than in hydrocarbon-aqueous systems.
paraffins at hydrocracker conditions. The API TDB The results are summarised in Table 2. As expected,
version of the Soave-Redlich-Kwong (SRK) equation was by operating at a lower pressure, less hydrogen and
used to characterise the VLE. This implementation of hydrogen sulfide are lost to the hot HP separator liquid
the cubic equation of state includes interaction product. However, more of the hydrocarbon product
parameters and modifications designed to accurately remains in the vapour stream which flows to the cold
describe hydrogen-hydrocarbon behaviour. HP separator. This hydrocarbon product is then
The vapour and liquid product stream flow rates from recovered in the cold HP separator sour liquid stream.
the hot and cold HP separators are summarised in Table 1. The amount of hydrocarbon in the sour water and
The API TDB gives the measured VLE K-values for the hot water in the sour liquid hydrocarbon is predicted
HP separator. The K-values indicate the distribution of accurately using the Kabaddi-Danner modifications to
both hydrogen and hydrogen sulfide between vapour and the SRK.
liquid phases has been described well. Wash water is
added to the vapour stream which feeds the cold HP Conclusion
separator. Additional sour hydrocarbon liquid is recovered Hydrocracking and hydrotreating are important
here. The vapour stream recovers most of the recycle technologies for converting hydrocarbon feedstocks
hydrogen which next goes to amine sweetening. A sour into products which meet tight environmental
water stream is also produced. regulations. The post reactor separation steps are key
to estimating product streams and calculating the
Hydrocracker B hydrogen recycle. The phase behaviour of hydrogen,
To provide a comparison with the hydrocarcker A petroleum fractions, hydrogen sulfide, and water must
example, a calculation was made for a hydrotreater be modelled accurately. This information is needed for
operating at 400˚F and a lower pressure, 320 psia. A the cost-effective design and safe and efficient
small amount of methane and ethane have been added operation of process units.
to the hot HP separator feed from the previous
example to illustrate the effect of light ends. Again, the Bibliography
1. American Petroleum Institute Technical Data Book –
API TDB version of the SRK equation was used for the
11 th Edition, Chapter 8: Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium K-Values,
calculation. The API TDB SRK also includes special Example contained in ‘Comments on Procedure 8D1.6’.

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 A
flywheel
for H2S
removal
Michael Ray, ThioSolv LLC, USA,
discusses an innovative process
to remove hydrogen sulfide from
a gas stream.

R
emoving small amounts of hydrogen sulfide
(H2S) from gas streams tends to be problematic.
The solutions are usually very capital cost
intensive such as amine/Claus, liquid oxidation
or capturing the H2S chemical process that creates a
waste stream. This becomes more problematic if there
is any ammonia in the stream, such as what comes off a
small hydrotreater. There is another solution where the
capital cost is low, has reasonable operating costs,
captures any ammonia that may be in the gas stream,
and the licensor takes the product. This technology is
proven and operating.
This article will discuss a process that can react H2S
from gas streams containing hydrogen (H2), light
hydrocarbon gases, carbon dioxide (CO2) or other inert
gas streams, as well as react/remove ammonia (NH3)
and sulfur dioxide (SO2) from gas streams if sources are
available. The focus of this discussion will be on the use
of this process to remove H2S and any NH3 from
off-gases from hydrotreating or small dilute H2S gas
streams. There are currently two plants in operation
utilising this SimpliSWAATS process technology. The
product made from the process is ammonium
thiosulfate (ATS), which is sold into the fertilizer market
by the process licensor.
The SimpliSWAATS process contains elements of the
patented SWAATS process, which is typically used for

HYDROCARBON 51 June 2020

ENGINEERING
 the bisulfite contained in the
circulating solution.
The process has two stages of
contact with the gas and a scrubbing
section prior to the gas exiting the
unit (Figure 1). The two stages of
contact have circulating liquid where
a portion of the liquid is circulated
from one stage to the other
continuously and a slip stream of
product is pulled from the first
contact zone from the circulating
streams. The key process components
Figure 1. SimpliSWAATS Process – gas path. to watch in the process are the pH of
the circulating solution, the density
of the liquid, the temperature of the
liquid vs the gas, the velocity of the
gas in the contact zone, and the
amount of reagent circulating in the
process.

Process front-end
reactions
In the first stage of contact, the H2S
containing gas flows counter current
to a solution at a pH of 7.5 – 8.5 and
containing 45 – 52 wt% ATS,
3 – 5 wt% ammonium bisulfite (ABS),
Figure 2. SimpliSWAATS Process – liquid side. NH3, a small amount of ammonium
sulfate byproduct from the process,
the processing of amine acid gas and sour water stripper with the remainder being water. The
gas (SWSG) within refineries balancing with purchased final product, ATS, has a composition that provides the
ammonia. The SWAATS process can also only process fertilizer industry with 12% available nitrogen to the
amine acid gas with purchased ammonia by burning crop in the form of ammonium ions and 26% sulfur in
two-thirds of the H2S to SO2, which reacts with a the form of primarily thiosulfate ions. The pH of the
circulating ATS solution rich in ammonium solution is controlled by the addition of NH3 to the
bisulfite/sulfite. The reaction process requires more process, converting a portion of the bisulfite to sulfite,
NH3 to balance the nitrogen and sulfur in equal molar but for simplicity all sulfite solutions will be referred to
ratios and reacts out the other one-third of the H2S to as ABS, and the additional NH3 will be treated as a
produce the article of commerce, ATS. The process is separate addition controlling the bisulfite to sulfite
typically for larger streams of H2S due to the capital ratio and pH. The reaction of the ABS in the circulating
cost of the burner/waste heat boiler train in the solution in this first stage with the added ammonia and
process. the H2S in the feed gas produces ATS. The simplified
equation for this reaction is represented by the
Unit operation following:
The operating unit that is the subject of this article
provides a gas stream to the SimpliSWAATS unit that 4NH4HSO3 + 2H2S + 2NH3 = 3(NH4)2S2O3 + 3H2O
contains approximately 88 mol% H2, 4 mol% H2S,
4 mol% C1, and 0.25 mol% NH3, with the remainder of The article of commerce is an ATS solution that
the gas stream being C2 – C6 hydrocarbons. The contains approximately 40% water and 60% salts. The
process was designed to remove 99+% of the H2S and reaction rates vary with the NH3/H2O forming
all of the NH3, leaving the remaining gases, which are NH3OH- + H+, pulling the NH3 into solution to react
typically sent to a burner/boiler. The process has an with the ABS very quickly. The ABS/H2S/NH3 to ATS is a
online H2S analyser in the gas entering the unit and on much slower reaction, which sets the design for the
the exit gas from the unit. The feed gas is designed for packing height and velocity through the first reaction
the exit gas from the SimpliSWAATS less than 100 ppmv tower. Both of these reactions are exothermic, which
and in practice contains less than 1 ppmv of any sulfur aids in the process design. The solution in both the first
containing gases. The analyser on the gas exiting the contact stage and the second contact stage need to be
plant monitors both H2S and SO2. The potential of SO2 at a higher temperature than the incoming gas. The
emissions is based on the vapour pressure of the SO2 in reason for the higher temperature is the requirement to

June 2020 52 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
ensure that all hydrocarbons entering the feed remain in
the gas as it exits the plant.
The feed gas enters the process and prior to the first
stage of contact a second gas stream of NH3 mixes with
the gas as it travels up through the contact zone. The
circulating solution in this first contact zone contains
48 – 54% ATS and 4 – 6% ABS, with the remainder being
a small amount of byproduct ammonium sulfate and
approximately 40 wt% water. The ABS content of the
circulating solutions in each stage of contact is referred
to as the amount of ‘buffer.’ The buffer, plus the NH3
and H2S, produces the ATS. Too much buffer and it is
not possible to make a product that meets market
specifications. Too little buffer and there is the
potential of producing a black product that contains
H2S. The blackish product will continue to react the H2S
Ammonia Problems taking
to ATS. This ATS product will be clear and colourless or your Claus Capacity?
will be slightly yellow in colour and may smell of
ammonia or SO2. This slip stream of product coming
from the circulating solution will be sent to storage
• Claus is too large and expensive for the
based on the density of the solution. The typical end
product going to storage will have a specific gravity of amount of H2S produced?
1.34 and a pH of 7.0 – 7.5.
A portion of the circulating solution from the first • Liquid oxidation too costly and does not deal
contact zone is sent to the second contact zone where
with ammonia?
the solution is mixed with a solution containing a higher
ABS concentration and lower pH (Figure 2). The ABS in
circulation lowers the pH of the circulation solution.
The solution from the first contact zone that mixes into Solve it all with ThioSolv’s SWAATS for
this circulation will have a pH of 7.0+ from the high the big jobs and SimpliSWAATS for the
sulfite to bisulfite ratio plus the gas exiting the first
smaller problems..
contact zone will contain a small amount of NH3. These
sources of ammonia raise the pH of the solution in the
second contact zone. The ABS added to the second Turning H2S into an environmentally friendly
contact zone has a pH of approximately 5.0 in most
commercially available sources. A 6.1 – 6.3 pH at the top fertilizer for 14 years.
of the circulation is the target to control the process
and minimise the emissions.

Process back-end reaction

The second contact zone, where the ABS is added as a
70% solution, can also be made by adding SO2 and NH3
to the vapour travelling up through the second contact
zone. The pH of this section is controlled by the
amount of higher pH solution coming from the ATS
section, NH3 in the gas coming from the first stage of
contact, plus the process has the ability to trim with
NH3. The ABS solution typically has a pH range of
4.8 – 5.2 in the commercial grade. If the components
are added as gases (SO2 and NH3 in equal molar ratio) to
produce the ABS, it is important to keep the circulating
solution above 5.5 pH and preferably to operate at
6.1 – 6.3 pH. If the pH of the solution falls below 5.5 and
particularly below 5.0 pH, the ATS in solution can
decompose, creating more sulfates, which quickly
changes the pH level in the process. Also, as the pH
increases above 6.3, there is a likelihood that NH3
emissions will occur. The same is true if the pH drops Thiosolv, LLC.
much below 5.9, as there will be increased potential of
SO2 emissions.
832-443-0952
[email protected]
www.ThioSolv.com
 The composition of the solution in the second Final scrubbing section
contact zone is approximately 45 – 48 wt% ATS and The last section of the plant is the final water scrub.
7 – 10 wt% ABS, with the remainder being water. The This is a circulation of water before the gas exits the
density will be less than the finished product due to the process to capture NH3 and SO2 that comes off the
fact that a portion of the ABS circulated back to the second contact zone. A key component to the
first contact zone will react with more H2S. effectiveness of this section is to control the amount of
The second contact zone’s primary function is to salts in the solution. The water, as it captures NH3 and
remove the last traces of H2S and to prepare an ATS rich SO2, makes ABS that can be used for makeup water to
solution with high buffer capacity to circulate back to the process or sent to sewer depending on the water
the first contact zone. The composition of the solution balance. The higher the concentration of the salts, the
in the second contact zone is not significantly different higher the vapour pressure of the components and
than the circulating solution in the first contact zone. more potential for emissions.
The key difference is the amount of buffer the solution The process consists of small equipment and piping,
contains. As a portion of the solution from the second keeping the cost of construction low. Since this tends
contact zone circulates back to the first contact zone, it to be a critical piece of equipment in the process plant,
adds buffer to the solution. The circulations between all of the rotating equipment and pH probes are
the two contact zones are balanced to maintain the designed with online spares. The plant is constructed
ATS/ABS ratio in the corresponding solutions. out of 316SS and has a very long life on the vessels.
The SimpliSWAATS process is like a big flywheel
where solution is sent from the front to the back of the Conclusion
process and the back to the front. In one case, a portion In conclusion, SimpliSWAATS is an excellent solution
of the circulation is taken out as product from the ABS for gas streams containing H2S in small volumes, small
contacting with the H2S in the feed gas, making ATS, gas streams containing ammonia or streams of H2S from
and in the other buffer is added or made to prepare the amine units that contain high CO2 concentrations. The
solution for capturing the last of the H2S and any solution is not suitable for large volumes of H2S that are
ammonia coming from the first contact zone and typically processed using a Claus. It is a proven
sending the higher buffer solution back to the first alternative where a gas stream is less than
reactor. The circulation in each contact zone is about approximately 6 tpd or has a lot of CO2 or some
100 times the volume as the product going to storage. ammonia in it.

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 Handling high
sulfur Ayla Öngören, Sercan Yaman, and Murat Ercan, Tüpraş, Turkey,
provide an overview of the research into chemical injections as a
method of hydrogen sulfide disposal in Turkey’s Batman Refinery.

B
atman Refinery is the only refinery with 100% Measurement determined that the source H2S is the
domestic crude oil processing capacity in Turkey. highest source of atmospheric top reflux boot water. At
Due to the high sulfur content of domestic the source of the water, the H2S rate measured more
crude oil (approximately 4%), high hydrogen than 100 ppm. This value is very high in terms of human
sulfide (H2S) is released in the wastewater of Plant-100 health, as it is known that if exposure to H2S is higher
and Plant-1100’s crude oil units. than 5 ppm, there can be a permanent effect on the
This article describes the studies conducted on the human nervous system.
disposal of the H2S in wastewater, which is carried out in In the scope of this study, the literature on the
the refinery’s crude oil units. physical and chemical properties of H2S has been
Since Batman Refinery has no sour water stripping investigated and H2S was transformed into the harmless
unit (SWS), high H2S wastewater generated in process sulfate ions (SO42-). Caustic (NaOH) and hydrogen
unit and auxiliary units goes to the wastewater peroxide (H2O2) chemicals are used in this context.
treatment plant (WWTP) with closed channel oily water The atmospheric top reflux boot water formed from
system (OWS) connections. In this context, hydrocarbon the crude oil units is generally acidic and the pH values
and H2S gas can be released in closed channel from the are between 5.5 – 6.5. H2S is present in the gas phase in
vents. In addition, the WWTP inlet pool and the this pH range and S2- ions are less in the wastewater.
dissolved air floatation (DAF) pool also have high H2S. Thus, the gas phase H2S (g) was first dissolved in water

HYDROCARBON 55 June 2020

ENGINEERING
 and converted into sulfide (S2-) and hydrosulfite (HS-) injection system installed in the Plant-1100 crude oil
ions. H2S (g) solubility is inversely proportional with unit. It also includes actions that require long-term
respect to pH. As pH increases, H2S (g) dissolves in water investments.
and composes HS - and H+ ions. Futher dissolution forms
S2- and H+ ions. Laboratory applications
Caustic was used to increase the pH of the Chemical injection was first carried out in the
wastewater. The pH of the wastewater with caustic laboratory and attempts were made to optimise the
injection is 9.5 – 10. Thus, gas phase H2S is converted to amounts of caustic and hydrogen peroxide.
S2- ion. After this step, S2- ions were converted to SO42- In the first analysis, the alkaline environment was
ions by H2O2 injection and SO42- ionised wastewater studied. Increasing amounts of H2O2 were injected in an
dissolved in water was sent to the WWTP. attempt to determine the appropriate level. It was
In this way, the odour caused by H2S closed channels found that the sulfur in the water is slightly reduced
and the vent of the OWS was prevented. without alkaline conditions; and a slight increase in
Oxidation reactions for pH values are as follows:1 sulfate occurred. However, it was observed that the H2S
value measured by the gas detector did not decrease
HS - + H+ + H2O2 → S0 + 2H2O (pH = 7) by much.
HS- + 4H2O2 → SO42- + 4H2O + H+ For the sample of 1 l, it was found that a 15 ml
S2- + 4H2O2 → SO42- + 4H2O (pH = > 7) injection of H 2O 2 reduced sulfur. Yet despite the
decrease in sulfur, it was observed that gasified H2S did
The wastewater pH was adjusted depending on the not decrease. It was determined that the decrease in
rate of oxidation of S2- and HS - ions and the amount of pH caused the sulfur to turn into the H2S form.
H2O2 consumption as stoichiometric. Then, it was found that gas phase H2S could be
In this sense, three pH ranges were examined. These removed by a 10 ml injection of 1 mol NaOH. It was
are neutral pH, low alkaline pH (7 – 9) and high alkali pH decided that the pH should be close to 9. After the
(> 9.2). When the three pH ranges are examined, the addition of NaOH, 10 ml of H2O 2 was considered to be
optimum solution was found to be around pH 9 sufficient, and the pH decreased to 7.
(low alkaline) and it was found that the chemical Experiments with a commercial deodorising
consumption was optimal. chemical did not provide H2S removal. However, H2S
was dissolved in the liquid phase when it was reduced
Applications to pH 9 with NaOH. 10 ml of 1 mol NaOH and a 10 ml
This section of the article describes the applications H 2O2 injection should be performed for 1 l of reflux
for the disposal of the H2S at the source of the package water, although the chemical injection changes
according to the pH (Table 1).
Table 1. Results of analysis performed
1 l sample 1st analysis 2nd analysis 3rd analysis
Field application
Proper pH ranges and chemical amounts were
NaOH injection (ml) 0 10 10
determined after laboratory scale studies. The field
H2O2 injection (ml) 0 0 10 study was then started and the injection points were
Sulfur (ppm) – 386 28 determined.
Sulfate (ppm) – 172 517 10 Bé˚ NaOH (7% w/w NaOH) and a 35 – 50% H2O2
solution were used in the field. Although the chemical
H2S (g) (ppm) 76 2.6 0.7
dosage amounts of the crude oil processed in the units
pH 6.7 8.3 6.6 varied according to the sulfur content and the amount
of wastewater, approximately 150 ml/min. NaOH and
100 ml/min. H2O2 were injected to the OWS per t of
wastewater for 4% sulfurous crude oil.
Chemical injection points were determined to be
caustic from the point where the atmosphere top
reflux drum was poured into the closed trench and
hydrogen peroxide to the first closed trench
connection.
After chemical injection, continuous measurements
were made from the wastewater and the point where
the gas phase first came into the atmosphere.
Figure 1. Chemical injection field application.
The pH and H2S measurements were made from the
first and second sample
Table 2. Field measurement results (crude oil unit) points in Figure 1 and
reported on a shift basis. H2S
1st sample point pH 2nd sample point pH 1st sample point H2S (ppm) 2nd sample point H2S (ppm)
was not found in these
9.5 7 30 0 measurements.

June 2020 56 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
 The sampling site measurements on the
Table 3. Field measurement results (WWTP unit)
crude oil unit are shown in Table 2.
In addition, measurements were made at DAF inlet values Entrance of the WWTP pit
the WWTP entry and the DAF pool entrance. Temperature (˚C) H2S (ppm) Temperature (˚C) H2S (ppm)
The wastewater supplied from the crude oil 31 0 30 0
unit was circulated to the DAF pool in the
WWTP approximately two days later, the water and converted to S2- ions. After the residence
results of which can be found in Table 3. time distance required for the pH to rise, H2O2
injection was made and dissolved S 2- was oxidised and
Environmental effect converted to SO42- ions. In this way, a compound in the
H2S was removed by a chemical injection system gas phase was converted to dissolved and harmless
installed in the crude oil unit. Odour formation is ions so the odour from H2S was prevented.
prevented throughout the closed ducts and in the Continuous measurements were made on the basis
WWTP unit. It was also checked that the concentration of shifts at the points where the gas phase of the
of SO42- formed did not damage the WWTP activated wastewater came into the atmosphere during the field
sludge system and was below the discharge limits. application phase, and pH and H2S (g) values were
reported. H2S (g) values measured above 100 ppm in
Conclusion both the crude oil unit and WWT unit were measured
In the Batman Refinery crude oil unit, a survey was as 0 ppm after the project. As a result, the project
conducted to dispose of H 2S at the point where the contributed to both the environment and employee
wastewater was formed and a package injection system health with a low cost.
was established.
In the research, the solubility and oxidation References
1. ‘Sulfide Oxidation with Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2)’,
properties of H2S have been utilised. The caustic
USP Technologies, http://www.h2o2.com/industrial/
injection of the wastewater from the drain point to the applications.aspx?pid=105&name=Sulfide-Oxidation
closed channel was carried out and the pH was 2. ‘Controlling reduced sulphur compounds’, Solvay Interox,
(2001), https://www.solvay.com.au/en/binaries/Contolling%20
increased to 9. H2S in the gas phase was dissolved in reduced%20suphur%20species-202502.pdf

5()&200
PREMIER TECHNICAL CONFERENCE

2020 GALVESTON, TEXAS

2 – 6 November, 2020

TRAINING | CONFERENCE | EXHIBITION eREFCOMM

- DELAYED COKING - INTERACTIVE WEBINARS
- FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING - E-LEARNING
- SOLVENT DEASPHALTING - VIRTUAL CONFERENCES
- SULFUR RECOVERY
June 2020 58 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
Decisions,
decisions
Edward Cass, Paratherm, USA, looks at the chemistry of heat transfer
fluids and what must be considered when selecting them.

I
n the oil and gas sector, the term ‘downstream’ generally decision. Herein is a look at the various types of hydrocarbon
refers to the facilities responsible for removing impurities fluids available on the market, key performance differences,
and converting oil and gas raw materials into useful and recommendations for matching a fluid to an application.
products for other industries and the general public.
Critical outputs of the downstream sector include gasoline, jet Hydrocarbon HTFs
fuel, heating oil, asphalt products, lubricants, and myriad The chemistry of a given HTF dictates its specific
others. While they account for only a very small portion of physiochemical properties and operating range. HTFs have
hydrocarbon end-uses, heat transfer fluids (HTFs) are a niche historically been divided into two categories – mineral oil and
but important output of downstream production.1 synthetic. Most of the time, the minimum and maximum
Hydrocarbon-based HTFs have well-established advantages operating temperatures are enough to help narrow whether a
over steam, glycol or direct heating process operations. These synthetic or a mineral oil will be most suitable for a given
fluids are specifically engineered for heat transfer service, with application. However, there are subcategories of both fluid
an ideal combination of purity, stability and efficiency to meet types worthy of further examination. Mineral oil is a catch-all
the demands of various industrial heating processes. There are term, which includes different grades and purities of paraffinic
many suppliers and product options available to the end-user oils, naphthenic oils, and blends thereof. Synthetic is also a
when it comes to choosing an HTF, but there are several catch-all term, collectively accounting for benzene derived
criteria the specifier should be aware of before making a final fluids with favourable heat transfer characteristics. Mineral oil

HYDROCARBON 59 June 2020

ENGINEERING
 fluids are generally considered cost-effective robust choices higher saturates content and reduced heteroatoms
for applications operating to a maximum 550 – 600˚F. (sulfur/nitrogen-containing species) means improved purity
Synthetic fluids are generally more expensive but can and stability.
provide fill-for-life performance in the mineral oil operating It is important to note that mineral oil HTFs are distinctly
range in a well-designed and maintained system. Synthetic different formulations than lubricant oils. Base oil chemistry
fluids are also the obvious choice when operating above may be similar, but many commonly used lubricant additives
600˚F. such as extreme pressure and anti-wear agents (EP/AW),
defoamers, demulsifiers, viscosity index improvers, corrosion
Mineral oil HTFs inhibitors, etc. are not rated for the high temperatures
Mineral oil HTFs (also known as hot oils) are those experienced in heat transfer systems. Many additive
formulated from the base oils produced in the downstream chemistries tend to foul heat exchange surfaces or may
refining processes. The American Petroleum Institute (API) decompose into reactive species that can catalyse fluid
classifies petroleum base oils into three groups: degradation. For this reason, it is important to specify an HTF
„ Group I – base oils with a viscosity index of 80 – 120, from a reputable supplier offering fluids that have been
and containing less than 90% saturated hydrocarbons specifically formulated for heat transfer service. If the
and/or more than 0.03% sulfur.2 supplier cannot provide thermal property data over the
„ Group II – base oils with a viscosity index of 80 – 120, operating range of the fluid, it is likely that the fluid is not
and containing at least 90% saturated hydrocarbons and ideally suited for heat transfer service.3
no more than 0.03% sulfur. Narrowing the field comes down to considerations such
„ Group III – base oils with a viscosity index of 120 as cost, operating range, and thermal stability. The cost of a
minimum, a minimum 90% saturated hydrocarbons and mineral oil fluid is generally tied to its expected
maximum 0.03% sulfur. performance, with the top tier being highly refined white oils
and specialty naphthenic blends. These fluids have proven
Mineral oil HTFs derived from all three groups are stability advantages, and many achieve food grade status.
available from various suppliers. The least expensive fluids Thermal stability is often determined using laboratory
on the market are Group I based, but these are generally ampoule tests. A candidate fluid is sealed in a test cell and
considered inferior to Group II and III type fluids due to continuously held at high temperatures. Degradation is
lower thermal stability and higher fouling potential. Most measured using gas chromatography to quantify low and
global base oil production has shifted to Group II or better high boiling species formed as a result of the thermal stress.
base oils, largely driven by modern engineering and The lower the ‘total degradation’, the better the stability.
regulatory requirements. This shift is advantageous since Figure 1 illustrates the results of such testing, comparing
several commercially available mineral oils. The samples
were held continuously at 343˚C for 500 hours. All fluids
tested are considered mineral oils, however their results vary
greatly as a result of the differences in their molecular
structure. Mineral oil E is a paraffinic mineral oil that
experienced nearly 83% degradation. Under identical
conditions, mineral oil C experienced only 21% degradation.
There is no proven correlation between ampoule tests and
fluid lifetime in practice, however an extrapolation of
laboratory results to real-life would indicate that
mineral oil C is likely to last three to four times longer in a
well-designed and maintained system.4 The highest
Figure 1. Thermal stability results of five commercially
performing mineral oils will generally have a wider operating
available mineral oils. Samples were held at 343˚C for
500 hours. range and will exhibit minimal degradation at the
recommended operating temperature.

Table 1. Typical properties of the most commonly used synthetic HTFs

Synthetic fluids in heat transfer Temperature range Vapour pressure at maximum Boiling range (˚F)
(˚F) temperature (psia)
Hydrogenated terephenyl blends 25 – 650 Below atmospheric > 700
Diphenylethane blends -40 – 650 > 50 < 525
Diphenyl oxide / biphenyl blends 60 – 750 > 100 < 500
Dibenzyl toluene blends 25 – 660 Below atmospheric > 700
Alkylated biphenyls -25 – 660 Below atmospheric 600 – 700
Diaryl / triaryl ether blends 10 – 715 > 20 < 600
Alkylated benzene blends -15 – 575 Below atmospheric > 600

June 2020 60 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
Synthetic HTFs Table 2. Summary comparison of mineral oil and synthetic HTFs
The downstream Fluid type Mineral oils Synthetics
segment produces
Pros „ Cost-effective „ High thermal stability
another class of
„ Capable to 550 – 600˚F „ Capable to 750˚F
hydrocarbons known as „ Low vapour pressures „ Good low temperature performance
aromatics. In heat „ High boiling points „ High solvency
transfer, synthetic fluids „ High flash points „ Vapour phase operation
are also known as „ User friendly/low toxicity „ Soluble degradation by-products
‘aromatics’ since they „ Little to no regulatory restrictions „ High flash and autoignition temperatures
are benzene-based „ Broad material compatibility „ More efficient vs mineral-based
chemistries. These „ Food grade available
fluids tend to have Cons „ Limited low temperature performance „ Handling and disposal
narrow boiling ranges vs „ Low to moderate solvency „ Regional regulatory restrictions
their mineral oil „ Insoluble degradation by-products „ Can have high vapour pressure
cousins, so operation in „ Low boiler accumulation „ Higher cost vs mineral-based
both the liquid and „ Often relabelled/improperly formulated „ System engineering complexity
vapour phase is „ Higher fouling tendency „ Narrowed material compatibility
possible. Synthetic „ Less efficient vs aromatics „ Narrowed supplier options
aromatic fluids can
offer many benefits over conventional mineral oil-based fluids,
such as enhanced thermal stability, better low temperature
performance, wider operating ranges and extended fluid
lifetimes. These fluids tend to be more hazardous in terms of
handling, disposal and environmental impact.
There are a wide range of synthetic HTFs available on the
market, but there are less suppliers of these specialty fluids.
Table 1 highlights the most popular synthetic varieties in use
globally. For these fluids, maximum temperature, boiling point
and vapour pressure vary widely, and many of these fluids are
suitable for operation in both liquid and vapour phase. Cost
generally increases with performance, so fluids that can
operate at temperature extremes or over a wide operating Figure 2. Simplified Seider-Tate equation for comparing
range tend to be more expensive. Temperature ratings for HTF efficiency.
synthetics are set based on laboratory tests and established
field performance.
There are a handful of other synthetic chemistries used thing to consider is the lowest temperature that any part of
for more niche applications such as silicones, cycloalkane the process will experience. The circulation pump needs to
blends, polyalkylene glycols, isomerised alkanes, be capable of moving fluid at its highest possible viscosity
fluorocarbons, esters, and polyalphaolefins to name a few. depending on the environment. Heat tracing can help
Since their use is limited to special applications, they will not overcome low temperature limitations of a fluid but can be
be discussed here. Table 2 summarises the pros and cons of expensive to implement.
mineral oil and synthetic fluids.
Heat transfer efficiency
Considerations for HTF selection More efficient heat transfer means less energy usage and
There are several considerations for proper HTF selection, potential for lower process temperatures. Thermal efficiency
however, the following provide a good starting point when is maximised with a combination of high specific heat, high
reviewing candidate fluids: thermal conductivity, high density and low viscosity. A
comparison of efficiency between two or more fluids can be
Maximum bulk temperature estimated using a simplified version of the Seider-Tate
A critical fluid property directly related to thermal stability. equation (Figure 2). Higher film coefficients equate to higher
Operating at or above the bulk temperature will ensure rapid thermal efficiency.
degradation of the fluid. The wider the gap between the
operating temperature and maximum bulk temperature, the Cost
longer the fluid will last in a well-designed and maintained As the adage goes, you get what you pay for, and it is
system. well-advised that a fluid is not chosen on price alone.
Choosing a lower cost product up front may lead to more
Low temperature properties costly fluid replacement down the road. Conversely, it is also
These are typically reported as minimum operating possible to ‘over-specify’ a fluid for a given application
temperature, minimum start-up temperature, pumpability wherein the upfront cost of a higher performing product may
and/or pour point depending on the manufacturer. The key not be justified for the process temperatures.

HYDROCARBON 61 June 2020

ENGINEERING
 Safety properties „ Pumps rated for the design temperature and flow rates
Any connection in a heat transfer system can become a required by the process.
potential leak point. Therefore, when possible it is wise to „ Gauges and controls to monitor performance and
select a fluid with a high boiling point, low vapour pressure maximise safety and efficiency.
and high autoignition temperature. Combining these „ Adequate expansion and drain structure to handle
properties helps to ensure that fire risk is minimised as much thermal expansion and discharge volume.
as possible in the event of a leak. High boiling point and low
vapour pressure mean the system can be designed to Final thoughts
operate at a lower pressure (often atmospheric). It is also Hydrocarbon based HTFs include many different chemistries,
important to consider the hazard profile of the candidate and understanding the chemistry helps the end user make an
fluid. Many synthetics present handling and environmental informed decision when selecting an appropriate HTF. A
concerns and can require dedicated waste streams for good candidate fluid will provide many years of continuous,
disposal. Conversely, most mineral oils are innocuous and efficient service on the initial charge, and routine fluid
used fluid can generally be disposed of with other analysis can help catch mechanical system issues before they
non-hazardous lubricant oil waste. become catastrophic. Mineral oils are generally not used
above 600˚F and synthetic fluids are seldom used under
Protect the investment 500˚F. For everything else, the preceding discussion should
Even the most expensive, highest performing HTF can fall be valuable to the heat transfer practitioner for making a
victim to rapid degradation if suitable controls are not in wise decision for the most suitable fluid.
place. It is wise to routinely inspect the system for leaks or
other abnormalities, and to regularly log system performance Notes
1. The scope of this article excludes silicones, glycols, and any other
metrics (pressures and temperatures, etc). Most fluid non-hydrocarbon-based HTFs.
manufacturers offer annual HTF analysis to monitor critical 2. Viscosity index is a unitless measure of the change of viscosity with
temperature, commonly associated with lubricating oils.
properties and prevent unwanted surprises. A well-designed 3. Thermal property data includes density, viscosity, thermal
system will also do well to protect the investment, and will conductivity, heat capacity, and vapour pressure over the
include provisions such as: recommended operating range.
4. A well-designed system is properly engineered to balance and
„ Nitrogen blanketing, buffer tanks or seal pots to monitor operational stresses and eliminates or mitigates fluid
minimise or eliminate oxidation. degradation pathways.

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The
future
is light
Stephen Karns, HarbisonWalker
International, USA, charts the
evolution of lightweight refractory
aggregates and monolithics.

I
n refinery and petrochemical plants, lightweight
refractory monolithics are used in applications where
high temperature insulation is needed. They can be as
light as 20 lb/ft3 to as heavy as 80 lb/ft3. Their
strength is not usually very great, but special
formulations with improved strength can improve the
life of a lining. Lightweight refractory monolithics can be
cast by hand, gunned, and in very special cases pumped
or shotcreted into place. Applications can range from
simple fired heaters to complex equipment such as fluid
catalytic cracking (FCC) units.

In the beginning
Much like concrete and mortars used for construction,
refractory concretes – especially lightweight concretes
– were historically mixed in the field with simple ratios
of raw materials. These field-mixed lightweight
refractories traditionally used three ingredients: lumnite,
haydite, and vermiculite. These were often made by
parts in a total mixture, the most common being
one-part lumnite, two-parts haydite, and four-parts
vermiculite. Hence this mix became known as LHV 124.

HYDROCARBON 63 June 2020

ENGINEERING
 Table 1. Physical characteristics of lightweight aggregates
Aggregate Loose bulk Al2O3 (%) Si2O3 (%) Fe2O3 (%) TiO2 (%) CaO (%) MgO (%) Alkali Na2O + K2O (%)
density
(lb/ft3)
Haydite 60 22.1 61.4 8.1 1.1 0.7 2.2 4.4
Vermiculite 7 11.4 44.7 6.1 1 1.7 29 6.1
Perlite 8 16 72.5 1 0.1 1.25 0.3 8.5
GREENLITE 25 25 57.6 35 1.9 2.7 0.3 0.4 1.9
GREENLITE 50 50 57.6 35 1.9 2.7 0.3 0.4 1.9

Another common mix was LHV 106; one-part lumnite, specific temperature. The limit is reached when the
zero-parts haydite, and six-parts vermiculite. When sample exceeds ± 1.5% permanent linear change after
making LHV 124, contractors would simply mix one being fired to a given temperature, as described in
shovelful of lumnite, two shovelfuls of haydite, and four ASTM C401. A quick way to assess if a raw material will
shovelfuls of vermiculite. The components of these do well in a mixture is to look at the chemical
mixes provide different properties and effects on the composition. Table 1 shows the density and chemical
overall desired needs. Lumnite is a low-grade, refractory analysis for a variety of lightweight aggregates. The best
calcium aluminate cement that provides green strength raw material components for most refractories are
along with some high temperature strength for the mix. alumina and silica, with higher alumina providing higher
Haydite is a lightweight aggregate, more on the heavy refractoriness. All other components are typically
side but more durable than lighter aggregates such as considered impurities, some impurities are worse than
vermiculite. That leaves the lightest component of the others. Iron oxide (Fe2O3) and titania (TiO2) have an
three-part mixtures, vermiculite. These old formulas got overall negative effect on refractoriness. This effect is
the job done in the past, but there has been significant magnified in the presence of a reducing atmosphere.
developments since then. Calcia (CaO) is often present in refractory mixes as a
component of calcium aluminate cement, but in the
Naturally occurring evolution case of these aggregates it is simply part of the mineral
As technology and reliability advanced for refinery composition. Both calcia and magnesia (MgO) have a
equipment, so too did the lightweight refractory negative effect on the overall refractoriness of
castables used within them. Controls were put in place alumina-silica refractory mixes. The alkali components,
to ensure the quality of these mixes, the foremost soda (Na2O) and potash (K2O), are the most detrimental
example being premixed formulas with specific property to the overall refractoriness of the material, even in
requirements. Premixing refractory concretes allowed small concentrations. As shown in Table 1, the impurities
much more control over the quality of the product by of these common lightweight aggregates are quite high.
controlling exactly how much of each component went The denser haydite has a more favourable chemical
into a mix and by controlling the quality of the raw composition in regards to high temperature usage, while
materials themselves. As lightweight monolithics the lighter aggregates contain higher concentrations of
continued to evolve, manufacturers of the premixed LHV impurities. It is based on this reasoning that lower
mixes began to make their own modifications to the density refractory mixes will typically exhibit lower
mixes. While maintaining similar densities to provide a temperature limits.
similar insulating value, a manufacturer could improve
the mix to make it easier to use. Additionally, Synthetic aggregate development
manufactures developed other variations by changing Synthetic lightweight aggregates produced by
the raw materials used. Other lightweight aggregates HarbisonWalker International (HWI) are also included in
such as perlite began to be used more frequently as it Table 1. These aggregates have a much lower impurity
provided better insulating properties. content. The reason for this is that the fireclay selected
The most basic and common lightweight aggregates as the raw material for this aggregate is of higher purity
used, even today, are haydite, vermiculite, and perlite. As than the naturally occurring lightweight aggregate
previously mentioned, haydite is a heavier aggregate previously mentioned. This fireclay is combined with
with a density of 60 lb/ft3, but its higher density comes other additives and fired at very high temperatures. The
with the benefit of an improved strength and result is a very strong aggregate with fine porosity
temperature stability over lighter aggregates. Vermiculite distributed throughout the grain. The forming process of
and perlite are both very light aggregates with loose fill this aggregate allows for the density to be controlled,
densities of approximately 5 – 10 lb/ft3. These with the most typical varieties being 25 lb/ft3 and
aggregates are very good at reducing the overall density 50 lb/ft3. To demonstrate the strength of the
of a mix, but at the expense of a much lower strength GREENLITE® 25 against vermiculite, two beakers are filled
and reduced refractoriness. The temperature limit, or evenly with each aggregate and a weight is applied. In
refractoriness, of a mix is determined by the permanent the first example (shown in Figure 1), with just 3 psi
linear change of a mixture after firing a sample to a applied to both, the vermiculite compressed 17%, while

June 2020 64 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
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 reactor and regenerator. However, there was room for
improvement.
A primary competitor at the time, AP Green,
developed the GREENLITE aggregate for use in a variety
of applications. By using the synthetic lightweight
aggregate, a unique lightweight mix could be created.
Instead of a combination of haydite and vermiculite, just
GREENLITE 25, cement, and other fine materials, could
be combined to form a finished lightweight refractory
monolithic. This formula would create a product with a
very similar, but slightly lighter density of 73 lb/ft3 and a
typical crushing strength of 3200 psi. So even with a
lighter weight that typically produces lower strengths,
Figure 1. GREENLITE synthetic aggregate and vermiculite the product with synthetic lightweight aggregates is
with 3 psi applied. Vermiculite compresses 17%, while stronger. Additionally, the temperature rating of the
the synthetic aggregate is not affected. haydite and vermiculite mixture is only 2300˚F, while the
mixture with synthetic aggregate is 2500˚F. This is due to
the higher purity of the synthetic aggregate, providing
improved refractoriness.
By using entirely synthetic aggregates in lightweight
monolithics, manufacturers can develop products that
are lighter, stronger, higher purity, higher temperature,
and more stable. Even using a combination of synthetic
with traditional lightweight aggregates can produce
superior products.
An easy ratio can be used to quickly compare the
quality of lightweight monolithics without knowing
exactly what they are made of. This is a crushing
strength to density ratio calculated by dividing the
crushing strength in lb/in.2 by the density in lb/ft3. Most
Figure 2. GREENLITE synthetic aggregate and vermiculite lightweight refractory materials with traditional
with 15 psi applied. The vermiculite compresses 42%, aggregates have a value of 5 to 15. Some of the more
while the synthetic aggregate is not affected. advanced products that still use traditional aggregates
can get up to 20, like the first product described above.
The product with completely synthetic lightweight
the synthetic aggregate did not compress at all. Figure 2 aggregates has a value of 43.8. Lightweight monolithic
shows the second example in which 15 psi was applied products, with a value higher than approximately 25,
to both. The vermiculite compressed 42% and the likely contain some kind of synthetic lightweight
synthetic aggregate was still unaffected. So, in addition aggregate to enhance the strength to weight ratio.
to having a higher purity (resulting in higher
refractoriness), the synthetic lightweight aggregates also What lies ahead
possess a superior strength. Lightweight monolithics have come a long way from the
When formulating mixes with lightweight aggregates, time when simple mixes were measured in the field with
it is common to mix the very light vermiculite aggregate prescribed ‘scoops’ of raw materials. Standardisation was
with the denser haydite to create a mix suited to the introduced with premixed bags of calcined minerals,
particular need. In the case of reactor and regenerator followed finally by the use of synthetic lightweight
walls in an FCC unit, it is important for the refractory aggregates and other advanced additives. This evolution
lining to have a good insulating value, but it must also be has produced lightweight products that are not only
durable enough to hold up to the catalyst inside the stronger than their predecessors but are also more
vessel. Many years ago, Harbison-Walker Refractories insulating and can endure higher temperatures. There is
(before the merger with AP Green that now makes up further room to grow in lightweight monolithics.
part of HWI) developed a refractory mix using haydite as Continued research and development into aggregates
the primary component to provide strength at a with micro-porosity may deliver a lower thermal
moderate weight, and a smaller addition of vermiculite conductivity. Further work with hydrophobic-coated
to keep the mix light and insulating. These aggregates, aggregates could reduce water demand and allow for
along with the necessary fine cement and matrix better strength. The study of foaming additives may
components, created a mix with a density of 80 lb/ft3 present the opportunity to eliminate the use of
and a typical crushing strength of 1600 psi (after firing to lightweight aggregates altogether in future generations
1500˚F). This product was well suited for use as a durable of lightweight refractory products. The future is looking
yet insulating refractory lining on the walls of the light.

June 2020 66 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
 Kaveh Ebrahimi and Daniel Inglis, Fluor Ltd, UK, set out design
considerations for pressure vessels during seaborne shipment in modules.

M
odularisation of process plants is an execution Some of the dominating factors in making the decision to
approach for design, procurement and construction shift the construction effort from site to a controlled workshop
that moves the majority of construction effort environment by using a modular approach include the
away from site. Large modules are primarily steel following:
structures containing process equipment, machinery, electrical „ Remote site access.
and instrumentation items and pre-assembled units (PAUs). „ Severe site weather conditions.
Modular construction involves building all or part of a „ Limited availability of regional skilled labour.
facility’s units in one or more off-site locations and then „ Poor regional security.
transporting the units to the jobsite for installation and erection. „ Schedule-driven execution.
A ‘module’ can be defined as a transportable pre-assembly
of process plant components (structural steel, piping, The module assembly and shipping execution plan must be
equipment, instrumentation, electrical, etc.) designed to known by the project team during the early stages of the
minimise site installation and commissioning labour costs. project.
Traditional ‘stick-built’ construction is performed at site Large modules can weigh more than 500 t, requiring careful
with no modularisation, but generally with steel and pipe planning and engineering to address unique design issues when
fabricated off-site. compared to stick-built construction.

HYDROCARBON 67 June 2020

ENGINEERING
 For instance, where restrictions exist during land, sea or river „ Large modules – weighing between 100 – 600 t
transportations, a module containing vertical vessels may need (conventional rigging).
to be assembled horizontally on its side in the modularisation „ Very large modules – weighing more than 600 t
yard, equipment inserted, shipped to the construction site, and (non-conventional rigging and transportation).
then erected as an entire module in a vertical position. In this „ Offshore modules – offshore facilities.
situation, it is essential that the horizontal shipping execution „ Barge-mounted modules – entire plant built on
plan be known by the mechanical, structural, piping engineers, barge(s).
and the equipment supplier. This scenario is not encountered in
conventional stick-built design and construction. Successful transportation of modules
Engineers need to identify and account for all of the It is the responsibility of the engineering contractor to design
shipping dynamic loads which may require additional temporary the modules correctly for safe transportation from yard to site
shipping steel, reinforcement of vessels or their supports, and installation.
special shipping saddles for vertical vessels, or special All types of supports can be used for pressure vessels inside
temporary brackets. modules, i.e. saddles for horizontal vessels or lugs, legs or skirts
Forces resulting from transportation acceleration on for vertical vessels.
modules must be analysed based on the specific sea route taken There are several unique issues that should be addressed for
and the particular ship characteristics. Similar transportation the design of pressure vessels and their supports in a modular
accelerations will be developed during the heavy haul and land construction:
phase lift and transport of modules. „ The correct design of pressure vessel supports may be
There are various advantages for using modularisation for governed by structural steel layout of the module,
construction instead of a traditional stick-built approach. A few therefore this needs to be carefully checked during the
of the advantages are listed in Table 1. development of the project and constantly communicated
However, with a change from a stick-built approach to a to the pressure vessel vendors.
modularisation approach for construction of process plants, „ For pressure vessels being manufactured for conventional
there are challenges that need to be addressed early on in the stick-built construction, they are usually built within a set
project. Some of the challenges of using a modularisation of specified project tolerances and these tolerances
approach are listed in Table 2. assume a standard grouting under the base plates of
pressure vessel supports. However, in a modularised
Types of modules construction, it may be beneficial to apply tighter
Various types of modules can be utilised for construction of tolerances to module items, in order to avoid excessive
process plants. Some of the most commonly used type of shimming and to ensure a suitable contact area between
modules are listed here: the base plates and module steelwork.
„ Pre-assemblies. „ Custom designed temporary supports (i.e. lugs,
„ Small or truckable modules – transported by road or rail to guides/bumpers, etc.) may be required for pressure vessels
landlocked locations (shipping envelope limitations). during transportation inside modules.
„ It is beneficial to use single base plates (with or without
gussets) over chairs or double rings.
Table 1. Advantages of modularisation of process plants „ Allowable stress of structural bolts and the maximum
Reduction in total installed cost and overall plant cost bolt size and length that can be utilised should be
Reduction of on-site craft labour checked with the structural engineering team to ensure
Achieving higher labour productivity for shop or modularisation yard
that unrealistic assumptions are not made.
„ Pressure vessels and their supports should be designed
Increasing the amount of work performed at ground level
for motions and accelerations specified in the
Construction schedule optimisation transportation specification after a careful review of
Improving quality and safety of work the route(s) that the modules might take from
fabrication yard to site.
„ Piping transport reactions at nozzles shall be
Table 2. Challenges of modularisation of process plants
considered, particularly for thin wall pressure vessels.
Increased complexity of engineering Vessel and steel structure deflections need to be
Increased steel quantities and complexity for design of steel structure accounted for when piping reactions at nozzles during
Increased complexity of road and sea transportation module transportation are calculated; results shall be
compared against the piping load values determined
Limitation on the size and weight of equipment
for the operating case. The option of adding temporary
Additional interface between engineering and procurement
pipe supports and guides should also be explored.
departments with modularisation yard
„ The design of equipment modules for sea or land
Increased complexity of activity planning and scheduling: accelerated transportation requires a joint effort involving
review of vendor data and equipment delivery
multiple disciplines from the early stages of the
Difficult pipe routing, potentially creating higher nozzle loads project. There should be a continuous exchange of
Implementation of Human Factors Engineering issues due to tight information between mechanical, structural and
available space piping design teams regarding the vessel weight,

June 2020 68 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
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 Table 3. Sample accelerations during transportation of „ Restrictions at site may also influence
modules
module design requirements (overhead
Vertical load Lateral Longitudinal piperacks, for example).
Transportation mode
Downward Upward load load „ Design of pressure vessels in modules must
Truck (motorway speeds) 1.7 g 0.5 g 0.3 g 1.8 g consider the load combinations of ocean
Truck (non-motorway speed/ 1.3 g 0.2 g 0.2 g 0.2 g transportation and wind; acceleration
multi-wheel transporter) factors increase with elevation relative to
Rail 2g 2g 2g 3g
the ship’s centre of buoyancy.
Oceangoing ship or barge 2g 2g 0.75 g 0.4 g
Table 3 shows a sample of transportation loads to
be applied for design of pressure vessels in modules.
Note that high acceleration loads during seaborne shipment can
have a significant effect on the design and adequacy of
transportation saddles or brackets. Also, vessel elevation relative
to the module base shall be considered.

Horizontal pressure vessels in modules

Horizontal pressure vessels in modules are usually supported on
saddles. Whilst for transportation of large horizontal pressure
vessels for stick-built construction the vendor may provide extra
temporary saddles that can be later removed at site prior to
final transportation, for horizontal vessels in modules it is
usually not feasible to use temporary saddles due to space and
weight limitations of the modules, and therefore the permanent
saddles need to be designed for loads resulting from ship
movements during ocean transportation. To this end, the
Figure 1. Small horizontal pressure vessel in module designer needs to carefully review the loads applied on the
(Shell Quest Carbon Capture and Storage Project). equipment during seaborne shipment and provide a safe design
by making sure the saddles have enough strength or are further
support configuration, base loads, additional support reinforced by addition of steel bracing. There may be a need to
point reactions and piping loads as the module and use temporary steel bracing to fix the saddles to the supporting
vessel design may require several iterations. It is not beams. These temporary bracings may need to be removed later
always possible to brace the vessels to the steel at site. Figure 1 shows a typical horizontal pressure vessel in
structure if the structure deflects more than the vessel module.
during transportation; for vertical vessels that cannot It is beneficial to remember that if the structural bolts on
be braced, the transportation loads will likely govern sliding saddles are tightened for ocean transport they need to
the vessel support design. be marked and loosened once the module is installed at site. In
„ Location of nozzles or temporary support lugs may be any case, structural bolts on sliding saddles cannot be assumed
restricted by location of major steel beams. to take any longitudinal loads during transportation of modules
„ Trays inside columns are usually installed at the pressure because the sliding support cannot be fixed in the longitudinal
vessel fabrication shop or modularisation yard, and they direction. This requires that the fixed saddle resists all the
need to be designed for all transportation loads, including longitudinal transport loads. Alternatively, shear stops can be
for horizontal transportation of vertical columns. It may not used at the sliding saddle to resist longitudinal loads, but these
be possible to install some internals for shipment shear stops have to be removed at site requiring further site
(e.g. column packing), for fear of it becoming damaged coordination.
during transport. It may therefore be necessary to install
such items at site. Additionally, trayed columns will need to Short vertical pressure vessels in
be inspected on arrival at site, to ensure that the trays have single horizontal modules
not been damaged or have displaced during transport. Such Short vertical pressure vessels may be shipped in their operating
works need to be identified in advance in a ‘carryover work positions in a fully-contained single horizontal module. Short
plan’, and shared with the project site team. vertical pressure vessels can be usually designed fairly easily
„ Structural bolts on sliding saddles are not usually with regards to transportation loads, and if necessary can be
considered to be load-taking during transportation of braced to the single horizontal module. Simple small vertical
modules. pressure vessels (in blue) in a horizontal module are shown in
„ A set of pre-loads should be identified for structural bolts, Figure 2.
to ensure that they stay in tension during all transportation
scenarios. Long vertical pressure vessels in
„ During road transportation there may be a need to raise multi-level horizontal modules
high voltage powerlines as necessary to meet the overhead Long vertical pressure vessels can span several horizontal
clearances required by the local regulations. modules in a multi-level horizontal module structure.

June 2020 70 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
 Depending on their size and weight, and the ocean
transportation route taken (and resulting acceleration forces),
such vessels may be installed in the lower module at the
modularisation yard or may be shipped separately to site and
then installed inside the modules. If installed for transport,
additional support guide(s) will likely be required further up the
vessel.

Vertical pressure vessels in vertical

modules
Vertical pressure vessels in smaller vertical modules may be
shipped in horizontal position to site and therefore need careful
design and engineering with regards to transportation loads.
Extra support lugs can be added to the vessel at locations Figure 2. Short vertical pressure vessel in single
coinciding with module floors as shown in Figure 3. Once the horizontal module.
equipment is shipped and erected in position at site, the extra
lugs should be unbolted from the surrounding steel structure.
Long vertical pressure vessels that extend beyond the
height of the top floor of the module will need to be reviewed
to identify the requirements for additional supports.
Figure 4 shows a typical support lug for fixing the
equipment to the surrounding steel structure during
transportation. Once the equipment is installed, the support
must be unbolted from the module structure.

Fatigue assessment of modules for

ocean transportation: a brief guideline
A transport fatigue assessment is not generally required for
pressure vessels, as long as the equipment is adequately
supported. There is no evidence to suggest that vessels shipped
within modules are more susceptible to fatigue damage
compared to those shipped loose. However, this is not the case
Figure 3. Extra lugs for vertical pressure vessels.
for the module structure itself. When the voyage duration
exceeds 10 days, it is recommended that a transport fatigue
analysis is performed, using sea-state design data obtained for
the time of year and duration of the voyage. This is of greater
importance when the structure is also subject to in-service
fatigue, the principle source of which is likely to be from
rotating equipment.

Conclusion
Whilst modularisation of process plants is becoming
increasingly popular for the construction of new facilities,
decisions must be made as to when they are effective, as
there are numerous challenges that need to be addressed
when designing equipment for modular construction.
This article has tried to provide some guidance regarding
the numerous challenges and the possible solutions for design
issues related to ocean transport of pressure vessels in
modules.

Bibliography
1. MCBRYDE, R. D. and LUPINSKI, M., ‘Modularization with Mechanical
Equipment’, Chemical Industry Digest, (November 2012).
2. BOS, A. J., and LIGTERINK, T. M., ‘Influence of Ocean Transport on
the Design of Onshore And Offshore Constructions, Modules,
Topsides, Jackets And Towage On FPSO Design’, Proceedings of the
ASME 2013 32nd International Conference on Ocean, Offshore and
Arctic Engineering.
3. LIU, Z., et al., ‘Module And Vessel Interaction Analysis for
Module Ocean Transportation’, Proceedings of the ASME 2013
Figure 4. Additional support for horizontal
32nd International Conference on Ocean, Offshore and Arctic transportation of large vertical pressure vessel.
Engineering.

HYDROCARBON 71 June 2020

ENGINEERING
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