Chapter

Three

Chapter Three
3. Developing a cost effective strategy for wireless communication

3.1. Wireless Media Access Control

The Media Access Control (MAC) data communication protocol sub-layer, also known as the
Medium Access Control, is a sub layer of the Data Link Layer specified in the seven-layer OSI
model (layer 2). The hardware that implements the MAC is referred to as a Medium Access
Controller. The MAC sub-layer acts as an interface between the Logical Link Control (LLC)
sublayer and the network's physical layer. The MAC layer emulates a full-duplex logical
communication channel in a multi-point network. This channel may provide unicast, multicast or
broadcast communication service.

Advantages of wireless MAC

 Access Control protocols define rules for orderly access to the shared medium
o Fairness in sharing
o Efficient sharing of bandwidth
 Need to avoid packet collisions at the receiver due to interference
o Different types:
 Contention protocols resolve a collision after it occurs or try to avoid it.
These protocols execute a collision resolution protocol after each collision
 Conflict-free protocols (e.g., TDMA, FDMA, CDMA) ensure that a
collision can never occur.
 Mobility
 Energy Constraints
 Wireless MACs have been studied heavily since 1970s
3.1.1. Medium Access Systems
Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) is used for allocating a separated space to users in
wireless networks. A typical application involves assigning an optimal base station to a mobile
phone user. The mobile phone may receive several base stations with different quality. A MAC
algorithm could now decide which base station is best, taking into account which frequencies
(FDM), time slots (TDM) or code (CDM) are still available. The basis for the SDMA algorithm

Page 1 of DMU Compiled By: Atalo

9
is formed by cells and sectorized antennas which constitute the infrastructure implementing
space division multiplexing (SDM). SDM has the unique advantage of not requiring any
multiplexing equipment. It is usually combined with other multiplexing techniques to better
utilize the individual physical channels.
Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) describes schemes to subdivide the frequency
dimension into several non-overlapping frequency bands.
Frequency Division Multiple Access is a method employed to permit several users to transmit
simultaneously on one satellite transponder by assigning a specific frequency within the channel
to each user. Each conversation gets its own, unique, radio channel. The channels are relatively
narrow, usually 30 KHz or less and are defined as either transmit or receive channels. A full
duplex conversation requires a transmit & receive channel pair. FDM is often used for
simultaneous access to the medium by base station and mobile station in cellular networks
establishing a duplex channel. A scheme called frequency division duplexing (FDD) in which
the two directions, mobile station to base station and vice versa are now separated using different
frequencies.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) :A more flexible multiplexing scheme for typical
mobile communications is time division multiplexing (TDM). Compared to FDMA, time
division multiple access (TDMA) offers a much more flexible scheme, which comprises all
technologies that allocate certain time slots for communication. Now synchronization between
sender and receiver has to be achieved in the time domain. Again this can be done by using a
fixed pattern similar to FDMA techniques, i.e., allocating a certain time slot for a channel, or by
using a dynamic allocation scheme.

Listening to different frequencies at the same time is quite difficult, but listening to many
channels separated in time at the same frequency is simple. Fixed schemes do not need
identification, but are not as flexible considering varying bandwidth requirements.
Code Division Multiple Access systems apply codes with certain characteristics to the
transmission to separate different users in code space and to enable access to a shared medium
without interference.

All terminals send on the same frequency probably at the same time and can use the whole
bandwidth of the transmission channel. Each sender has a unique random number, the sender
XORs the signal with this random number. The receiver can “tune” into this signal if it knows
the pseudo random number, tuning is done via a correlation function
Disadvantages:
 higher complexity of a receiver (receiver cannot just listen into the medium and start
receiving if there is a signal)
 all signals should have the same strength at a receiver
Advantages:
 all terminals can use the same frequency, no planning needed
 huge code space (e.g. 232) compared to frequency space
 interferences (e.g. white noise) is not coded
 forward error correction and encryption can be easily integrated

3.1.2. Wireless MAC issues

Wireless medium makes the MAC design more challenging than the wire line networks.
The three important issues are:

1. Half Duplex operation –> either send or receive but not both at a given time
2. Time varying channel

3. Burst channel errors

Half Duplex Operation

In wireless, it is difficult to receive data when the transmitter is sending the data, because:

 When node is transmitting, a large fraction of the signal energy leaks into the receiver
path
 The transmitted and received power levels can differ by orders of magnitude
 The leakage signal typically has much higher power than the received signal ->
“Impossible to detect a received signal, while transmitting data”
 Collision detection is not possible, while sending data – CSMA/CD (Ethernet MAC)
cannot be used as it is
 As collision cannot be detected by the sender, all proposed protocols attempt to minimize
the probability of collision -> Focus on collision avoidance
Time Varying Channel
Three mechanisms for radio signal propagation

 Reflection – occurs when a propagating wave impinges upon an object that has very large
dimensions than the wavelength of the radio wave e.g. reflection occurs from the surface
of the earth and from buildings and walls
 Diffraction – occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and the receiver is
obstructed by a surface with sharp edges
 Scattering – occurs when the medium through which the wave travels consists of objects
with dimensions smaller than the wavelength of the wave
 The received signal by a node is a superposition of time-shifted and attenuated versions
of the transmitted signals. The received signal varies with time
 The time varying signals (time varying channel) phenomenon also known as multipath
propagation
 The rate of variation of channel is determined by the coherence time of the channel
o Coherence time is defined as time within which the received signal strength
changes by 3 dB
 When a node’s received signal strength drops below a certain threshold the node is said
to be in fade
 Handshaking is widely used strategy to ensure the link quality is good enough for data
communication
 A successful handshake between a sender and a receiver (small message) indicates a
good communication link
Burst Channel Errors
 As a consequence of time varying channel and varying signals strengths � errors are
introduced in the transmission (Very likely)
 For wireline networks the bit error rate (BER) is typically i.e. the probability of packet
error is small
 For wireline networks the errors are due to random noise
 For wireless networks the BER is as high as
 For wireless networks the errors are due to node being in fade as a result errors occur in a
long burst
  Packet loss due to burst errors - mitigation techniques
o Smaller packets
o Forward Error Correcting Codes
o Retransmissions (Acks)
3.1.3. MAC Performance Metrics
There are hundreds of MAC protocols proposed for wireless networks. We need performance
metrics so that we can compare one protocol from the other
The key metrics are:
o Delay: Defined as the average time spent by a packet in the MAC queue, i.e. from the
instant it is en-queued till its transmission is complete. Sensitive to traffic characteristics,
so two MAC protocols should be compared under identical traffic conditions
o Throughput: Fraction of channel capacity used for data transmissions. MAC need to
maximize throughput while keeping the access delay to minimum. For a P bits message
size, on a channel of capacity C bits/sec, T seconds are elapsed, So throughput of the
channel is

o Fairness:
 When all nodes are treated equally, and no node is given preference
 Leads to fair sharing of bandwidth
 Traffic with different priorities can bias this definition
 For multimedia traffic, usually the MAC is considered fair when (voice, data,
video) get their allocated bandwidth
o Stability: System need to be stable if instantaneously high load is seen by the MAC
o Robustness against channel fading
 Wireless channel is time varying and error prone
 Fading may make channel unusable for short durations
 MAC needs to work reliably while channel in fade
o Power Consumption: Wireless nodes have limited battery power ->MAC should conserve
energy
o Support for multimedia:
 MAC should support multimedia applications (voice, video, data)
  Multimedia data implies data with real-time constraints
 By using priorities and scheduling – delay can be controlled and/or guaranteed

3.2. Planning the WLAN

When implementing a wireless network solution, it is important to plan before performing any
installation. This includes:
 Determining the type of wireless standard to use
 Determining the most efficient layout of devices
 An installation and security plan
 A strategy for backing up and updating the firmware of the wireless devices.

Wireless Standard
It is necessary to consider several factors when determining which WLAN standard to use. The
most common factors include: bandwidth requirements, coverage areas, existing
implementations, and cost. This information is gathered by determining end-user requirements.

The best way to learn end-user requirements is to ask questions.

 What throughput is actually required by the applications running on the network?
 How many users will access the WLAN?
 What is the necessary coverage area?
 What is the existing network structure?
 What is the budget?

The bandwidth available in a BSS must be shared between all the users in that BSS. Even if the
applications do not require a high-speed connection, one of the higher-speed technologies may
be necessary if multiple users are connecting at the same time.
Different standards support different coverage areas. The 2.4 GHz signal, used in 802.11 b/g/n
technologies, travels a greater distance than the 5 GHz signal does, used in 802.11a technologies.
Thus 802.11 b/g/n supports a larger BSS. This translates into less equipment and a lower cost of
implementation.

The existing network also affects new implementation of WLAN standards. For example, the
802.11n standard is backward compatible with 802.11g and 802.11b but not with 802.11a. If the
existing network infrastructure and equipment support 802.11a, new implementations must also
support the same standard.
Cost is also a factor. When considering cost, consider Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) which
includes the purchase of the equipment as well as installation and support costs. In a medium to
large business environment, TCO has a greater impact on the WLAN standard chosen than in the
home or small business environment. This is because in the medium to large business, more
equipment is necessary and installation plans are required, increasing cost.

Installation of Wireless Devices

For home or small business environments, the installation usually consists of a limited amount of
equipment which can be easily relocated to provide optimum coverage and throughput.
In the enterprise environment, equipment cannot be easily relocated and coverage must be
complete. It is important to determine the optimum number and location of APs to provide this
coverage at the least amount of cost.
In order to accomplish this, a site survey is usually conducted. The person responsible for the site
survey must be knowledgeable in WLAN design and equipped with sophisticated equipment for
measuring signal strengths and interference. Depending on the size of the WLAN
implementation, this can be a very expensive process. For small installations a simple site survey
is usually conducted by simply using wireless STAs and the utility programs packaged with most
wireless NICs.

In all cases, it is necessary to consider known sources of interference such as high-voltage wires,
motors, and other wireless devices when determining the placement of WLAN equipment.
 Installing and securing the AP

Once the best technology and placement of the AP is determined, install the WLAN device and
configure the AP with security measure. Security measures should be planned and configured
before connecting the AP to the network or ISP.
Some of the more basic security measures include:
 Change default values for the SSID, usernames and passwords.
 Disable broadcast SSID
 Configure MAC Address Filtering

Some of the more advanced security measures include:

 Configure encryption using WEP or WPA
 Configure authentication
 Configure traffic filtering

Keep in mind that no single security measure will keep your wireless network completely secure.
Combining multiple techniques will strengthen the integrity of your security plan.
When configuring the clients, it is essential that the SSID matches the SSID configured on the
AP. Additionally, encryption keys and authentication keys must also match.

Backing-up and Restoring Configuration Files

Once the wireless network is properly configured and traffic is moving, a full configuration
backup should be performed on wireless devices. This is especially important if a great deal of
customization is done to the configuration.
With most integrated routers designed for the home and small business markets, this is simply a
matter of selecting the Backup Configurations option from the appropriate menu and specifying
the location where the file should be saved. The integrated router provides a default name for the
configuration file. This file name can be changed.
The restore process is just as simple. Select the Restore Configurations option. Then, simply
browse to the location where the configuration file was previously saved and select the file. Once
the file is selected, click Start to Restore to load the configuration file.

Sometimes it may be necessary to return the setting to the factory default conditions. To
accomplish this select either the Restore Factory Defaults option from the appropriate menu or
press and hold the RESET button located for 30 seconds. The latter technique is especially useful
if you are unable to connect to the AP of the integrated router through the network but have
physical access to the device.

Updating the Firmware

The operating system on most integrated routers is stored in firmware. As new features are
developed or problems with the existing firmware are discovered, it may become necessary to
update the firmware on the device.
The process for updating firmware on an integrated router, such as the Linksys wireless router, is
simple. However, it is important that once the process is started, it is not interrupted. If the
update process is interrupted before completion, the device may be rendered non-operable.

Determine the version of the firmware currently installed on the device. This information is
usually displayed on the configuration screen or the connection status screen. Next, search the
manufacturer's web site and related news groups on the Internet to discover the firmware feature
set, issues that may warrant an upgrade, and whether updates are available.
Download the updated version of the firmware and store it on the hard drive of a device that can
be directly connected to the integrated router. It is better if the machine is directly connected to
the integrated router with a cable to prevent any interruption in the update process caused by a
wireless connection.
Select the Firmware Upgrade feature in the GUI. Browse to the appropriate file on the directly
connected device and start the upgrade.