Teaching Strategies and Methodologies for Teaching

and Learning
 TRADITIONAL TEACHING STRATEGIES

1. Lecture – (Greek word “lectura” which means to read). Highly structured

method where the teacher acts as the resource person and transmitter of
knowledge/information to learners; oldest teaching method. Students had to
depend largely on the instructor’s lecture.

 
Purposes:

 Efficient means to introduce learners to new topics and placing the topic into
the perspective of what is already known.
 Stimulate students’ interest by pointing out how the facts apply to the lives,
work or occupation of the listeners or students.
 Inspire people to apply or emulate the worthy personalities or information that
were conveyed in the lecture.
 It helps the student to integrate or synthesize a large body of knowledge from
several fields or sources more readily from the lecturer as he bring knowledge
& experience which is not possible for the student to acquire by merely
reading the textbook.
 It can clarify difficult portions especially when supplemented by graphics,
charts, audiovisuals.
 Valuable where knowledge is advancing rapidly and up-to-date textbooks are
not available especially if the lecturer is a clinician working in an area of
specialty.

 
Advantages:

 Economical – in terms of student time

 The lecturer can enhance the textbook by enriching a topic and managing it
come to life with his wealth of personal experience and enthusiasm for the
subject.
 The teacher serve as a role model for students
 It helps students develop their listening abilities. They are disciplined to listen,
remember, track arguments, know when to take down notes and relate what
is being said to the assigned reading.

 
Disadvanatges:

 Places learners in a passive role of a sponge, just there to soak up

knowledge
 Few teachers are good lecturers and therefore cannot achieve class
objectives by the lecture method; much less serve as a good role models.

 
10  Important Points About Lecturing (Lowman, 1984):

1. Fit the lecture materials to the available time

2. Express concepts in the simplest possible way and define technical terms
using them
3. Arouse the students’ interest, expressing your expectations positively and
sharing the formulation of the course objectives with the students
4. Follow a prepared outline but deliver the lecture with spontaneity
5. Use different methods to prevent monotony and boredom
6. Develop a varied and interesting teaching style consistent with your values
and personality
7. Give students enough time to digest the contents of the lecture and ask
questions
8. Conclude the lesson by connecting what was taken up today to what will be
covered during the next meeting
9. Be guided by your students during the lecture by tuning in to their reactions or
feedbacks and modifying your approach when needed
10. Observe good interpersonal relationships with your students by remembering
that all of you are primarily persons, and secondarily, students and teacher.

 
Organizing the lecture:

1. Introduction

 Provide an outline which can be written on the board or shown on an

overhead projector before the start of the lesson
 Specify ground rules like entertaining questions at the conclusion of the
lecture or at the end of each segment or subtopic of the lecture.

2. Body of the Lecture

 There should be a logical flow of information from one point to another

 Avoid including too much material in the lecture to prevent a rambling
presentation and giving the audience an impression of being unprepared.
 The teacher should be sensitive to the feedbacks or reactions of the students
especially to non-verbal cues that may indicate boredom, lack of
 understanding or daydreaming. Maintain eye contact and exude warmth,
enthusiasm and motivation to effectively and efficiently deliver the lecture.

3. The Conclusion

 Achievement of closure or the successful termination of the lecture

 Provides students with the needed sense of achievement
 Instructional Closure – reached when the class is completed and the teacher
has shown the link between past and new knowledge.
 Cognitive closure – reached when the student has reached closure and
makes the link between old and new knowledge. Provides the more relevant
learning goal.

Three Approaches to help students toward closure:

1. Review and summary

2. Application of what has been learned to similar situations
3. Extend what has been learned to new situations – “transfer of knowledge”
from one situation to another
o Transfer of learning – may be the most significant criterion of
learning
o Extent or degree by which knowledge and abilities learned or
studied in one situation are applied to a new or different situation
o Transfer occurs when the learner recognizes the similarity between
the learning situation and the ransfer situation
o Transfer will occur to the extent that students expects it to occur.

1. Discussion
2. Group Discussion – formed when more than two persons are gathered to
discuss and resolve an issue, problem or idea under the guidance of one of
its members.

 The larger a group is, the less it can accomplish

 Students can be broken down into smaller groups or sections to be facilitated
by their own section instructor so that gray areas or muddy points can be
clarified and further discussed.

1. Group Conferences – enable students to compare notes and experiences

and may even help each other in identifying alternative ways of solving
nursing problems (i.e. post clinical nursing conferences)

 
Purposes of Discussion:
  Apply the principles and concepts of previously introduced body of knowledge
and to transfer their knowledge to new situations
 Clarify information and concepts in the discussion with explanation from the
instructors
 Learn the process of group problem solving

 
Discussion Techniques:

 Properly instruct your students on what they should do, see, or read so that
they can effectively participate in the forthcoming discussions
 Set the ground rules
 Physical arrangement like setting the chairs in the circle will allow for better
communication, more eye contact, participation and better hearing.
 Plan a discussion starter which will set the mood and tone of the discussion
or “get the ball rolling.”

 
Four Discussion Leadership Skills To Keep the Discussion on Track:

 Focusing
 Refocusing is redirecting the group’s attention
 Changing the focus
 Recapping

 
Discussion Stoppers (What to Avoid):

 Insufficient wait-time
 Rapid reward
 Programmed answer
 Nonspecific feedback questions
 Teacher’s ego-stroking
 Low-level questions
 Intrusive questioning
 Judgmental response to student’s
 Cutting students off
 Creating a powerful emotional atmosphere and then ignoring feelings and
responses

 
 1. Questioning – what teachers need to give and what they need to ask from an
important facet of teaching strategies. It is a situation where the teacher is
probing or inquiring from the student as a feedback mechanism to find out if
they have already grasped or understood the lesson or the matter being
discussed.

 
Types of Questions:

1. Factual or descriptive questions

2. Clarifying questions – are illuminating, revealing, informative or enlightening
questions which can be done in five ways:
3. Asking clarifying questions
4. Requiring students to justify
5. Refocusing the students attention where the teacher may ask a student to
clarify or explain a different but related issue.
6. Prompting the students like suggesting or giving a hint or reminder.
7. Redirecting the question so that other students may participate in the
discussion

3. Higher-order questions

Specific Functions of Higher-Order Questions:

1. Seek or obtain an evaluation (assessment or appraisal)

2. Seek or search for inferences (ideas or suppositions based on facts or
premises)

Deduction – is a conclusion drawn form generalization

Induction – requires the student to derive the generalizations or theories and concepts
from a collection of examples or specific data

3. Seek comparisons – help students establish whether ideas are related or

unrelated, similar or dissimilar or if they contradict each other.

1. Using Audio-visuals – can greatly enhance teaching and stimulate the

student’s interest and participation (i.e. handouts, chalkboards/whiteboards,
overhead transparencies, DVD’s/VCDs). In selecting the appropriate media or
medium, the instructor should be guided primarily by the learning objectives.

 
 1. Interactive Lecture – a mixture of lecture and audiovisuals (i.e. combination of
lecture/discussion, film showing, board work)

1. ACTIVITY-BASED TEACHING STRATEGIES – these strategies focus on the

learner as the active participant in learning and include cooperative learning,
simulation and games, case studies, problem-based learning and self-
learning modules
2. Cooperative Learning – system of learning where the group are aware that
they are not only responsible for their own learning but also for the learning of
others (Lindauer & Petrie, 1997)
3. Formal
4. Informal groups
5. Base cooperative learning groups

1. Simulation – is an imitation, recreation or representation of the structure or

dynamics or a real thing or a situation (i.e. role-playing, practice of skills,
return demonstration)
2. Written simulation
3. Role-played simulation
4. Mediated simulation

 Video-taped simulation
 Electronic reproductions
 Physical simulators

1. Computer simulation

1. Case Studies – analysis of an incident or situation in which characters and

relationships are described, factual or hypothetical events transpire, and
problems need to be resolved or solved.

1. Problem-based learning – is an approach to learning that involves exposing

the students to real-life problems and working together in small groups,
analyzing the case, deciding what information they need and then solving the
problems.

 
 1. Self-learning Modules – are also called self-directed learning modules, self-
paced learning modules, self-learning packets, and individualized learning
activity packages.

Contents:

1. Introduction and instructions

2. Behavioral objectives
3. Pretest
4. Learning Activities
5. Posttest

1. Critical Thinking Approach – views learning as a shared responsibility

between the teacher and the learner. Learners are empowered because they
have control of the learning process and in this set-up, the teacher acts as a
mentor (advisor, counselor, guide) and facilitator.

      Strategies that enhances Critical thinking;

1. Discussion
2. Asking effective questions – the high-order level questioning which requires
responses supported by explanations, theories, evidences or reasons
develop critical thinking and creative skills.

 Socratic Method
 Structured controversy

3. Text interaction
4. Concept mapping

 
III. COMPUTER TEACHING STRATEGIES: “Information Age”
How Have Computers & the Information Age Technology Affected the Educational
Landscape:

 The ease with which information is made available, updated and

disseminated makes teaching and learning more interesting and challenging
 The use of computers as a teaching strategy has mainly enhanced cognitive
learning and mastery of skills
 Computer s make learning through mastery possible where the student can
continuously use the computer in a 24/7 basis or until he or she has
thoroughly learned or mastered the skill or concept
  Computers provide immediate performance feedback to the learner either to
praise a correct answer or institute corrective measures for wrong answers.

 
Definition of Terms:

 WWW – World Wide Web

 Internet
 Web browser
 Web page
 Search engine and search directories

 
The Use of Technology in Education & Patient Care:

1. There is role reversal as far as the teacher or educator is concerned from

sole provider or ultimate source of knowledge or information to facilitator of
learning by:

 Assisting the learner to refine the problem

 Helping the learner find the needed information
 Guiding the learner to critically evaluate the information on hand.

2. Some schools have adapted virtual reality, like a program for teaching
venipuncture, and computer simulation in their nursing arts laboratory. E-
nursing is also used as a mode of instruction in some colleges of nursing in
the Philippines.
3. The learner is given more freedom to explore the learning environment,
design the learning objectives and content, and vail more practice time in
order to gain mastery of skills and concepts on a 24/7 basis which is not
possible in the traditional mode of education.
4. The patient or the learner can be taught how to avail of more information
related to his illness and care.
5. The patient-nurse interactive dialogue or exchange of information and ideas
is now being done in most of the advanced countries where nurses can
interact with health care consumers anytime, in any setting.

 
Technology in Nursing Education and Communication

1. Distance education

 Learning is achieved through online courses with the internet becoming the
primary vehicle for delivering distance education
  Offers a more flexible approach to learning
 Distance learning (Bastable 2003) is a flexible telecommunications method of
instruction using video or computer technology to transmit live, on-line or
taped messages between the instructor and the learner who are separated
from one another by time and/or location.
 Some techniques used in distance learning:
 Online courses
 Correspondence courses
 Independent study
 Videoconferencing

2. E-Learning:
o E-learning training modules can be accessed via the WWW
o The module can be completed within 15 to 30 minutes
o Can be customized or personalized to meet the learning needs of
the individual
o Interactive and reality0based where patient simulation can be
created to allow the participant to manage the care of a virtual
patient

3. Internet – a huge global computer network of which the WWW is a

component, established to allow transfer of information from one computer to
another.

 
Strategies that use Computer Assited Instruction (CAI) in Nursing:

 The simplest form

 Drill-and-Practice
 Simulation – the computer is used as;

 A vehicle or medium to present a copy or model of a real life situation

 Provide data requested by the student
 Incorporate the student’s decision into the system
 Provide the student with feedbacks regarding the decisions he or she made
using the inquiry or dialogue pattern of communication

4. Games
  Assess stretegies
 Give result or effects of decision made
 Introduce variables that alter the course of events

1. TEACHING PSYCHOMOTOR SKILLS

2. Keep skill instruction separate from the cognitive and affective behavioral
components. Do not interfere by asking questions which require a cognitive or
affective response while the learner is performing the procedure as mastery
skills require a great deal of concentration and focus.

 In psychomotor skill development, performing a skill is not equivalent to

learning a skill.
 Contact with or supervision by the instructor is a very important element in
teaching nursing students
 Initially motor skills should be practiced first in the nursing skills laboratory to
provide a safe and non-threatening environment for the novice.

 
Teaching Methods Most Commonly Used in the Psychomotor Domain

 Demonstration and return demonstration

 Self-directed study
 Role-playing, peer teaching

 
Methods of Evaluation:

 Written or oral tests, return demonstrations, case studies

 Observation, interview, self-reports and self-monitoring
 Journals or learning feedback diaries

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CLINICAL TEACHING
Clinical Teaching

 Designed to provide students with the opportunities to have actual contact

and interaction with the patients or clients and to apply what they have
learned in the classroom, community and nursing skills laboratory with its
simulated environment to real-life settings.
Purpose of Clinical Laboratory (De Young 2003)

1. The clinical setting offers the students the opportunity to apply the theoretical
concepts, rationales, procedures and propositions they have learned in the
classroom
2. Skills learned in the nursing arts laboratory are perfected in the clinical area
3. Skills of observation, problem solving and decision making are refined and
honed in the clinical settings which are applied as the students interact with
their patients in varying situations and conditions
4. In the real clinical setting, the student is aided by the clinical instructor on how
to organize all the data that they are able to compile, as well as the
intellectual and psychomotor skills they must perform
5. 5. Cultural competence, which is the ability to interact meaningfully, properly,
comfortably and effectively with culturally diverse patient is a skill that must
be developed in the student nurse.
6. Student nurses learn the skills of socialization, which behaviors and values
are acceptable or unacceptable, and where responsibility and accountability
for one’s actions is demanded and expected.

MODELS OF CLINICAL TEACHING

1. Clinical Instructor is in charge of 8-12 students in a clinical area who are each
assigned to a certain number of patients based on the requirements set by
the CHED.
2. Students are trained in the nursing skills laboratory until they are proficient in
the skills required by a certain nursing procedure.
3. A clinical nursing course to be conducted in the classroom has been
proposed by Packer (1994).

Daily Activities
Making the student assignment:
- Individual assignment
- Dual assignment
- Alternative assignment
- Preceptorship
CONDUCTING CLINICAL LABORATORY SESSION
Pre-conferences
Practice Session
Working with students during follow-up activities which include:
  - Post-care conferences
  - Logs and diaries
  - NCP
  - Nursing or walking rounds
  - Shift report
 
CONDUCTING CLINICAL LABORATORY SESSION
Evaluation of student learning and performance in the clinical setting where the primary
responsibility of the teacher is to give feedbacks and suggestions about their
performance.  
Progress Conference Between the Teacher and Student. All the data collected and
grades or ratings given should be discussed orally with the student and the written form
should be shown to the student to read before signing if the student agrees with the
evaluation and the grade or rating that the instructor has given.
CLINICAL EVALUATION PROCESS
Formative evaluation – a continuing evaluation process.
Summative evaluation – usually given at the end of the student’s learning experience.
 
Providing Positive Feedback 
Specific Behaviors to be Evaluated and Graded

1. Appropriate use of the nursing process as documented in the NCP and as

demonstrated by the way patient care is given
2. Skillful demonstration of nursing interventions and procedures
3. Ability to use materials, equipment and machines efficiently, effectively and
judiciously
4. Observance of patient’s safety, comfort and privacy in the execution of
procedures
5. Ability to communicate therapeutically with the patient and/or the family
6. Demonstration of professionalism, proper decorum, punctuality and good
personal hygiene and grooming

DISCHARGE PLANNING
- prepares the client to move from one level of care to another within or outside the
current healthcare facility.
- It is planning the continuity of care to ensure that the patient and the family’s needs
are consistently met as the patient is transferred from the acute care setting to home
care.
- traditionally, this only involved being discharged to the hospital to the home, but today
discharge planning includes other settings like childhood centers, rehabilitation units,
drug treatment centers and one unit area of the hospital to another.
- discharge planning for homecare should be planned with the client and family
members to ensure the success of the continuing treatment and rehabilitation, prevent
post discharge complications and minimize the chances for readmission to the hospital.
- the nurse’s role is to provide the necessary health education/information, training in
performing certain nursing procedures or interventions and proper handling and care of
certain equipment or materials.
Essential Components of Discharge Planning

1. Assessing the strength and limitations of the patient, the family or support
person and the environment
2. Implementing and coordinating the plan of care
3. Considering the individual, family and community resources
4. Evaluating the effectiveness of the plan of care

Guidelines for Discharge Planning

1. Assessing and identifying health care needs

2. Assessing the patient’s ability to perform activities of daily living (ADL)
3. Setting mutual goals with the patient which are realistic and attainable.
4. Giving health teachings related to the patients’ post discharge or home care
like medications, procedures and treatments, diet, referrals, to ensure the
patients’ and families cooperation and compliance.