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Lecture 01

Business:
Definition:
Any activity to earn profit.
The word “business” is derived from the term “busyness.”
 Entrepreneurship
A phenomenon in which a person searches for an opportunity and try to avail it.
 Components of business
Industry
Commerce
 Industry
Conversion of raw material into finished goods.
This is a form utility.
 Types of Industry
Primary Industry
Extractive Industry _ Extraction of underground resources.
Genetics _ People doing business by changing genes.

 Types of industries
Secondary Industry
Construction _ Construction of buildings, roads, bridges etc.
Manufacturing _ Conversion of raw material into final goods.
Services _ Banking, consultancy, accountant, Lawyer, Interior decorator, designer, music composer etc.
 Commerce
All those activities which start from the warehouse of the manufacturer to the buyer.
 Types of commerce
Trade
Trade means buying and selling

Aid to trade
Institutions that are meant and build to assist and support the trading process.

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 Factors of production
Labor _ People working in an organization.
Capital _ Amount invested by investor in the business.
Entrepreneurship _ Management ability of the people who are running the business.
Physical Resources _ Land, labor, building, vehicles, machinery etc.
 Economic System
A system for allocation of resources.
 Types of Economic Systems
Planned Economy
Free market Economy
 Types of environmental forces
External Forces
Factors found outside an organization.
These factors are not controllable by the organization.
Types of environmental forces
Internal Forces
Factors within the organization.
These are controllable by the organization.
 SWOT Analysis
Strengths
Weaknesses
Opportunities
Threats
Lecture 02

 External Factors
Economy of the country
Per capita income of the country
General employment or unemployment
Economic Growth
Exchange rate
Inflation rate
 Demographic factors
Demographic factor is a study of population
Population brings customers.
Population tells the size of market and nature of customers.
Total Population
Population Distribution
Distribution on the basis of gender
In Pakistan female population is further divided into two categories:
Household Women
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Working Women
Population growth rate
The rate at which population of an area increases/decreases.
 Political and Legal factors
Political Factors
Preference and priorities of the Government
Attitude of the Government towards Exports
Government taxation policy
Legal factors
Laws related to Health
Laws related to Imports and Exports
Laws related to Taxation
Laws related to Packing
Laws related to Child Labor
Laws related to Labor Union
 Technological Factors
Business people have to pace with the technological advancements.
 Socio cultural Factors
Religion
Followers of one religion have influence over the buying behavior of the society.
 Natural Factors
Act of God
Natural factors are out of our control
Business people will develop product considering natural resources

Lecture 03

 Sole Proprietorship:
Definition
Sole Proprietorship is that type of business which is owned by one person.
 Advantages of Sole Proprietorship
Freedom in formation
The easiest to establish
Individuals are allowed to decide without interference of any other person.
Easier to transfer the ownership of the business
People wholly solely enjoy the ownership of the business and profits
Individual has unlimited opportunity to expand the size of the business
Individual can keep the secrets of the business intact
Individual has personal interest in the business
Owners can make speedy decisions
Easy to dissolve

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 Disadvantages of Sole Proprietorship
Limited amount of capital
Continuity problem
Sole Proprietorship has limited life and is dependent on the owner
Owner of the business has unlimited liability towards people whom he has to pay
 Partnership
A relationship of the people to share investments and profits
Partnership act 1932 governs all affairs of the partnership
 Advantages of Partnership
More capital
Relatively easier to form
Sharing of responsibility
Light credit standing
Business can have more loan from various sources
Secrecy
Public Confidence
Better Decision
Easy to dissolve
Lecture 04

 Disadvantages of Partnership
Unlimited Liability
Partners will have to pay all the debts of the business even from their personal property.
Shorter Life
Partnership ends when one of the partners dies or becomes insane
Limited Capital
Partners run the business from their own capital. Sometimes, that capital becomes limited to meet the
requirements of the business.
Lack of interest
Profit is divided among the partners. So, partners do not take keen interest in the business.
Slow Decision Making
Partners might have different point of view regarding a particular matter. So, decision making is relatively
slow.
It is difficult to transfer the rights of partnership.
There is always a chance of conflict.
 Types of Partners
Active Partner is one who participates in all the affairs of the business.
Secret Partner is one who has invested in the business but he/she is not known to general public.
Sleeping Partner is one who is not very active in the affairs of the business.
Senior Partner is one who has invested the maximum amount in the business.
Junior Partner is one who has invested the minimum amount in the business.
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 Types of Partnership
Partnership at will
Life of the partnership depends upon the will of the partners.
Limited Partnership
That business in which at least one partner has the limited liability.
Investor is liable to the amount; he/she has invested in the business only. This is called Limited Liability
There will be at least one partner who has the unlimited liability.
Particular Partnership
Partnership formed for a particular purpose.
It is dissolved automatically at the achievement of the purpose.
Termination of Partnership
By Notice
A partner can terminate partnership by giving notice to other partners due to any reason.
Upon Death
Partnership will automatically be terminated at the death of any partner.
Partnership Deed
A document that contains the terms and conditions of the business.
 Contents of Partnership Deed
Date on which the agreement was made.
Name of the business.
Nature of the business.
This clause will cover the scope of the business.
Names, addresses, telephone Numbers and emails of the partners.
Capital of the business.
If duration is attached with any business that should clearly be mentioned in the partnership deed.
Duties of the partners.
Whether any partner is entitled to salary. If yes, how much amount should be given to him as salary.
Profit distribution ratio.
Whether partners are entitled to withdraw money from the business. If yes, procedure of withdrawals
should also be written in the partnership deed.
Arbitration
In case of a conflict, how that conflict would be resolved before going to the court.
The partner should read the partnership deed carefully, add as much clauses as possible and never take
anything for granted.
 Rights of the partners
Every partner has the right to:
Participate in all the affairs of the business.
Get his/her share of profit from the business.
Leave the partnership according to the terms and conditions of the partnership deed.
Claim the salary against his/her services.
Participate in the management of the business.

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Lecture 05

 Duties of Partners
Partners have to maintain accounts which describe the true picture of the business.
Partners should use their powers within limits specified in the partnership deed.
Partners are responsible to provide accurate information to Government bodies.
Partners are responsible to pay their share in case of loss to the business.
It is duty of every partner to obey the decision that has been made in the partnership.
Partners should not disclose any secret information about the business to any other person.
It is a moral obligation and legal responsibility of the partners not to use firm’s forum to take any
advantage without intimating to other partners.
 Joint Stock Companies
Joint Stock Companies are formed under the Companies Ordinance 1984.
Joint Stock Company is an association of persons for making profit.
 Advantages of Joint Stock Companies
We can expand the business
Credit facility
More capital
With more capital and more expertise, companies have more chances to earn more profit.
Expansion in the scale of business
Responsibility of investor is limited to the face value of shares. This is called Limited Liability.
If one person dies or leaves the country, it does not have any impact on the business.
Life of the joint stock company is longer than sole proprietorship and partnership.
It is easy to transfer rights.
Company can hire better experts which results in better management.
Public place more confidence in companies rather than in any other form of business.
Anyone can exit from joint stock company by selling his/her shares.
 Disadvantages of Joint Stock Companies
Formation of Joint Stock Company is very lengthy, very complicated and very technical job.
Lack of interest.
There is not much secrecy found in companies.
Companies pay double taxation to the Government.
Delayed decision making
Power is centralized because there are few people who hold major portion of company’s shares.
 Public Limited Company Vs Private Limited Company
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Number of members
For a public limited company, minimum numbers of members are seven.
For a private limited company, minimum numbers of members are two.
Issue of shares
Public limited company is bound to promote issue of shares to general public through media.
There is no such provision for private limited company.
Name of the company
Public limited companies add the word “Ltd.” with their name.
Private limited companies add the word “(Pvt) Ltd.” with their name.
Annual report
Public limited companies have to present their data to general public.
There is no such provision for private limited company.
Transfer of shares
It is easy to transfer shares in public limited companies.
In private limited company, shareholder cannot transfer the shares without the consent of other members.
Statutory meeting
It is obligatory for the public limited company to hold statutory meeting.
There is no such obligation for privet limited company
Submission of annual report
It is obligatory for the public limited companies to submit their annual report to registrar Corporate Law
Authority.
It is not necessary for private limited company.
Taxation
Public limited company pays double taxation at different income tax rates.
Private limited company pays tax only once at different income tax rates.

Lecture 06

 Promotion Stage
Initiation of idea
Further discussion with other people
Collection of further information regarding sales, profitability, availability of machinery, restrictions of
the Government etc.
Some other factors
Is there a need for a license for this business?
Is N.O.C required from the Government?
Promoters have applied for license and permission.
If copyrights are involved, permission of the principal company is also required.
People started work for getting their own name and business registered.
Requirement of funds.
 Preparation of Documents
Memorandum of the company
A document that contains Name, address, objective and capital of the company.
Articles of association
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A document that contains rules and regulations of the company.
Prospectus
Prospectus is an initiation for offer.
 Incorporation Stage
All the documents will be filed to the registrar joint stock companies to seek permission for the business
along with the registration fee.
Experts will examine these documents and make sure that all claims are justified or not.
If they are satisfied, a certificate of incorporation will be issued to the company.
 Collection of Capital
Promoters will inform the general public that business is going to be started.
They will ask the people to invest in the business.
This is capital subscription stage.
Share or stock is the smallest unit of investment.
Stock exchange is a market where people exchange their shares.
Debenture is a kind of loan which is acquired from the market.
Certificate of commencement is issued by the Government when commencement of business is allowed.
Clauses of Memorandum of Association
Name of the business
We cannot suggest a name that has already been registered.
We cannot suggest a name after our National Heroes.
Registered office of the company.
Objective clause of the business.
Authorized capital of the company.
Liability clause
Liability of the investor is limited to the extent of investment in the business.
Association clause.
 Articles of Association
Share capital of the company.
Procedure to change the capital.
Procedure for meetings.
Procedure for voting.
Appointment of directors.
Directors are the officials of the company who are appointed to run the affairs of the business.
Duties and authorities of directors.
Rights of shareholders.
Meetings.
Meeting of shareholders.
Meeting of directors.
Disqualifications.
Seal of the company.
Distribution of dividend.
Profit distributed among shareholders is called dividend.
Decision for retained earnings.
Retained earning is a part of the profit retained by the company for future operations.
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Appointment of auditors.
Winding up of companies.

Lecture 07

 Shareholders’ meetings
Statutory Meeting is the first meeting after commencement of business.
Annual General Meeting is the meeting of the company once in a year.
Extra Ordinary General Meeting.
 Statutory Meeting
Section 77 of The Companies Ordinance 1984 deals with such type of meeting.
The company must give 21 days notice to shareholders prior to the meeting.
Matters to be Discussed:
Amount of capital acquired.
Details of machinery purchased.
Details of development in all areas of the business.
Sometimes, issue of share capital does not give minimum amount set by the company.
Underwriters are those organizations which guarantee the company to buy the remaining shares, if
minimum requirement is not met.
Statutory report will also tell about the underwriters and commission paid to them.
Information about arrears to be received by the company.
 Annual General Meeting
All shareholders will participate in this meeting which is held once in a year.
The company must give 21 days notice to shareholders prior to the meeting.
Objectives of Annual General Meeting
Election of directors for the next year.
Appointment of auditors.
Auditors will review the annual accounts of the company and report on the accuracy of these accounts.
Shareholders will elect and approve the appointment of auditors.
If auditors are already hired, the shareholders will review their performance and decide whether to
continue with current auditors or to change them.
Auditors will also be asked whether they are willing to work with the company or not.
Declaration of dividend.
Decision for directors’ remuneration.
Auditors will report on the companies accounts in terms of:
Accuracy
No fraud found
Conformity with the Companies Ordinance 1984.

 Extra Ordinary General Meeting

This meeting will be called when there are:

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Some extra ordinary circumstances.
Some special type of business.
Decision for debentures.
The company can change its memorandum and articles of association in extra ordinary general meeting.
 Share Capital
The capital with which the company gets registration is called Authorized Capital of the company.
The part of capital that has been offered to general public is called paid up or issued capital.
The part which has not yet been issued to general public is called un issued capital.
If people have applied for more capital than required, the company will issue the shares by balloting and
return the excess money to the general public.
If people have applied for less capital than required, whatever amount has been received will be the paid
up capital of the company.
 Winding up of the company
Voluntary winding up
The members of the company decide about winding up of the company.
Special Resolution
Members will present special resolution in the extra ordinary general meeting regarding winding up of the
company. If approved by the members, the company will be dissolved.

Winding up by court
Members have applied to the court for winding up of business.
If court feels that:
Business is not in the benefit of the society.
Objective of the business is not in line with the culture of the country.
Business is deceiving the general public.
The court will order that business should be closed immediately.

Lecture 08

 Co-operative Societies
Co-operative societies are group of people who form the business to co-operate with each other.
The main purpose of co-operative societies is to co-operate with each other through self help.
People join these organizations as volunteers.
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 Advantages of Co-operative Societies
This system provides high standard of life due to sharing of resources.
Formation is easy because Government support these kind of organizations.
People running the business have equal rights in decision making regardless of number of shares or
amount invested in the business.
Economic Democracy
People sit together and decide about the business of the society.
Elimination of middle man results in cheaper products.
Government gives financial assistance to these type of businesses.
Friendly atmosphere is developed in the society due to close relationship in the people running the
business.
Employment opportunities are created by such businesses.
A sense of mutual co-operation is developed in the society.
An opportunity to keep demand and supply in balance.
This kind of business requires less expenditure.
 Disadvantages of Co-operative Societies
People do not have sufficient capital to start such business.
Unavailability to hire professional manager because:
People do not have money in remote areas.
There are no such people in those areas.
People do not have experience of such business.
Lack of secrecy.
Unavailability of new technology.
These are not businesses in true sense. People might not have confidence in these businesses.
Banks might not provide loans to these businesses.
Interference of the Government.
 Entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurship is that ability in which an individual tries to find the opportunity, take risk and avail these
opportunities.

 Who are Entrepreneurs?

People have more entrepreneurial abilities who:
Have aspiration.
Are more strategic.
Have the vision.
 Characteristics of Entrepreneurs
Resourcefulness
Abilities
Concern of being good.

Lecture 09

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 Entrepreneurial Characteristics
Personal Interest
Interest for their own development.
Customer Relationship
Long term relations with the customers.
Desire to establish own business.
Need of control.
Ability to deal with uncertainties.
 Business Plan
A document which contains the objectives of the business and the ways to achieve these objectives.
 Components of Business Plan
There are two situations:
Buying a business.
Starting from the scratch.
Objectives of the business.
Marketing Components.
Financial Components.
 Components of Business Plan started from scratch
Objectives of the business:
Name of the business.
Name should indicate the type of business.
Name should be simple.
Uniqueness of name.
Legal considerations:
Avoid the names not encouraged by the law. e.g. National Heroes, religious personalities etc.
Location of the business.
Marketing Part:
Who will be the customers of the business?
Where are they located?
What would customers like to pay for the product or service?
What are the benefits, the customers are expecting from the product or service?
Analysis of competitors:
What is the nature of competition in the market?
Who are the competitors of the business?
How product of the business is different from product of the competitors?
Promotional Part
How will the message of the business be promoted in the general public?
How will the business be launched?
Financial Part
What will be the investment of the business and how much should be borrowed?
What are going to be expected revenues in a given period of time?
What would be the expected expenses of the business in a given period of time?
What would be net income or net profit in a given period of time?

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Is the business feasible or not?
Administrative Part
What would be the structure to handle the business?

Lecture 10

 Franchising
An agreement between two parties in which one party passes on the rights to the other party.
Rights include:
Right to use the trade mark.
Right to use the name.
Right to use systems, methods and researches.
Right to use packing material.
 Parties to Franchise agreement
There are two parties:
Franchiser
Franchisee
Franchiser is one who sells the rights to franchisee.
 Advantages of Franchising
Franchiser gets a huge amount of money from franchisee without doing anything.
Franchisee gets access to big business.
Failure rate of franchise business is lower than any other business.
Franchisee uses world wide tested brand and tested procedures that is why failure rate is lower in this type
of business.
Franchiser provides guidance to franchisee in all affairs of the business.
Choice of location
Franchiser is always there to support the franchisee in all kinds of matters.
 Disadvantages of Franchising
High cost.
Proportionate profit is given to franchiser by franchisee every year.
There are too many restrictions from franchiser on the franchisee.
 New Trends in the Business
E-Commerce or E-Business
Using internet for marketing products.
Women in business
So many women have come in so many areas of business.
Business will be better displayed, well mannered staff, more knowledge of the needs of customers and
more market oriented.
Global opportunities
People have the awareness of global market.
Internet has played major role in accessing global markets.
In Pakistan, people got huge success globally but could not make a brand name in global market.

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 Factors for lower failure rate
Government’s preferences and priorities.
Government is convinced to support corporate sector.
Businesses are now being set up on more professional grounds.
Support from financial institutions.
General economy of the country.
People are acquiring professional knowledge about business.
Government has developed many training centre to train people related to business.
Skills development.
Institutions to develop man power.

Lecture 11

 Causes of Failure in Business

Causes of Failure in People are not capable of handling business.
Some people are not capable enough to know markets.
People should try to learn the abilities to run the business.
People do not have experience required for a business.
We need to have control over:
Production Process
Cost
Wastage
Complaint handling
Quality
Insufficient capital
Bad Luck
National Disaster
 Reasons for Success in Business
Hard work
Dedication and Commitment
Response of Market
Competence – The ability to work
Knowledge of Market
Knowledge of Product
Knowledge of Systems
Luck and Act of God
Law of Government
Law related to health
Climate change
Disaster
Joint Venture
Two or more people or organizations join hands and decide to do a business.
Advantage of Joint Venture
Combination of skills and abilities.
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Strategic Alliance
Two or more than two organizations collaborate for mutual profit.
Decision involved in Strategic Alliance
Profit Sharing
Client Handling
Merger
Two or more organizations combine together and form a new organization.
Acquisition
One business acquires the other business.
Advantages of Acquisition
Expansion of size
To reduce competition

Lecture 12

 Imports
Goods produced somewhere else and sold domestically.
Chemicals
Technology (Machinery, Software & Hardware, Expertise)
Factors to be considered while importing
Identification of products to be imported.
Procedures, methodologies, technical processes and documents for imports.
Exports
Goods produced domestically and sold in some other country.
Advantages of Exports
Support of Government.
High Profits.
Pride for the country.
Utilization of production capacity.
GATT – General Agreement on Tariff & Trade.
An agreement between the countries that encourages international trade.
WTO – World Trade Organization
Scope of WTO
WTO insists on removing the artificial barriers to encourage international trade.
WTO was organized on January 01, 1995.
Per Capita Income
Per Capita = Total income of the country/
Total population
 Tools for measuring economies of the world
World can be divided in to three major categories on the basis of per capita income.
High income countries
Those countries where people are earning US $9000 or more.
Middle income countries
Those countries where people are earning between US $765 and $9000.
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Tools for measuring economies of the world
Lower income countries
Those countries where people are earning below US $765.
Pakistan has a little below than US $765 income line and is moving towards middle income class countries.
Pakistan is exporting
Sports items
Agricultural products (rice)
Textile products (Bed Sheets, T-Shirts, Towels etc.)
Import and Export Balance
Gap between imports and exports is called surplus and deficit.
It varies from country to country.
Balance of Payment
Balance of payment = Total receipts - Total payments
If receipts are greater, balance of payment is favorable.
If payments are greater, balance of payment is unfavorable.
 Level of involvement in international business
Imports or Exports
We can be importer and exporter.
We try to see opportunity in international market to consume surplus products.
This is called exports.
International Firms
International firms have operations world wide.
These firms are also called multinationals.
Multinationals design products separately for each country.
Global Organizations
Those organizations which consider the whole country as single market are called global organizations.
These organizations have standardized products all over the world.
 International Organizational Structure
Independent Agent
A person or an organization that works for an exporter or importer.
Appointment of representative abroad.
Licensing agreement,
Independent Branch Office.
Strategic Alliance.
Direct Foreign Investment.

Lecture 13

 Barriers to International Trade

Social and Cultural Changes.
Different countries have different life styles.
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Religion.
Every religion has its own set of rules for its followers.
Religion asks for spending on certain things and stops from spending on certain things.
Climate
Laws
There are different laws in different parts of the world.
These include laws related to:
Health
Safety
Customer Relationship
Pricing
Packing
Environment
Economic Differences
Per Capita Income is different in different countries.
Different people have different economic systems.
People preference for a particular product
Political System
Tariff
Tax levied on goods entering into a country.
It is also used as a measure to reduce imports in a country.
Quota
Limit imposed by one country on importing commodities from another country.
Subsidies
Concessions provided by a country to its producers in order to protect economy.
Business Ethics
Ethics are basic beliefs, a company decides to pursue and implement during a course of action.
Ethical Behavior
A system that confirms the beliefs of the society.
Business is being run within that system.
Corporate Citizenship is a practice of the company confirmed by the society.
Ethical Behavior in Managerial Practices include:
Responsibility towards employees.
Relationship with other organizations.
Interaction with Government.
Plans to initiate ethical behavior towards people.
To initiate ethical programs.

Corporate Social Responsibilities

To think about benefiting the society and avoid harmful activities for the society is called Corporate
Social Responsibilities.
These include:
Ethical attitude towards customers.
Dealing with employees.
Ethical communication with Government and local bodies.
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Ethical behavior towards stake holders.

Lecture 14
 Stake Holders
People who are interested in the affairs of the business in one way or the other.
Stake holders include:
Customers
Employees
Suppliers
Bankers
Government
Society at large
 Rights of Customers
Consumerism
Protecting the rights of customers.
To get a product which is up to the expectations of the customers.
Customer Safety.
Right to get information about:
Product
Supplier
System
Procedures
Standards
Ingredients of the product
Origin of the company
Right to get information about:
Method of manufacturing
Quality standards
Right to be heard
Right to choose
Quality Service
 Responsibilities of the Organization towards Environment
Reprocessing of waste water.
Recycling of waste material.
Processing of smoke.
Reprocessing of heat.
 Ethics for Advertising
Truthful or Truth less Communication
Objectionable Products
Objectionable Appeals
Fear Factor
Sexual Connotations
Objectionable Timings
Smoking
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Selling product to underage customers
Legal Commitments
Discriminations
Health and Safety of Employees
 Whistle Blowers
People who see irregularities and bring them in the knowledge of the management.
Management
Getting things done through others.
Manager
A person who practices the functions to achieve management’s objectives.
 Functions of Managers
Planning
Thinking for the future.
Organizing
Decision about activities performed by the workers.
Grouping the activities
Delegation of authorities
Staffing
Filling out the vacant positions.
Coordination
Communication
Receiving information from various sources.
Processing of information.
Dissemination of information.
Distribution of information.
Conflict handling
Negotiation
Resource Allocation
Controlling
 To make sure that organization is moving towards the right direction.

Lecture 15

 Managerial Skills
Conceptual Skills
Abilities to think at planning and organizing stage.
Interpersonal Skills
Abilities to deal with others.
Technical Skills
Knowledge of processes and operations.
Goals
Destination where a company wants to reach.
 Strategy
Set of plans for long term orientations.
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 Levels of Strategies
Corporate Level Strategies
The strategies that cover all the operations, processes and units of organizations.
Strategic Business Unit (SBU)
A part of organization that requires separate planning.
Functional/Operational Level Strategies
The level at which all functions or operations are performed.
 Objectives of Goal Setting
Goals give us directions.
Resource Allocation.
Setting culture of the organization.
Assessment of performance.
 Mission Statement
The purpose for survival of an organization.
Mission Statement describes life time objectives of the organization.
Mission statement is a general statement.
It is written in terms of:
Customer satisfaction
Quality of life
Service of humanity
Mission statement is a long term plan.
 Types of Goals
Long Term Goals
Medium Term Goals
Short Term Goals
Short Term Goals
A plan for less than one year.
Medium Term Goals
A plan for one year to three years time.
Long Term Goals
A plan for more than three years.
Length of plan depends upon type of activities.
Research shows that people, who plan, have higher rate of success in life.
Human Resource Management (HRM)
Human Resource Management is an area that deals with people who work in organizations.
HRM deals with the activities of people.
These Include:
Attracting people in the organization
Maintaining them
Recruitment
Selection
HRM deals with the activities of people.
These Include:

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Training
Performance appraisals
Compensation
Health and Safety

 Scope of HRM
Human Resource Panning
Type of people required
When required
How many people required
Job Analysis
Recruitment
Training
Compensation
Health and Safety
Labor Union
 Job Analysis
Collecting all the information related to a job.
It is divided into two parts:
Job Description
Job Specification
Job description describes the activities of a particular job.
It includes:
Job Title
Job Location
Working Environment
Supervision
Job Specification
Job Specification describes human skills required to perform a job.
It includes:
Qualification
Gender
Age
Experience
Special Skills
attitude

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Lecture 16

 Human Resource Planning

HR Planning Includes:
What is the gap between human Resource demand and supply in the market.
What is the condition of human resource supply in the market.
Sources to find people
Internal Sources
External Sources
Skills Inventory
A chart that shows skills of workers in the organization.
Replacement Chart
A chart that shows turnover in an organization.
 Turnover Rate
Tendency to leave jobs in an organization.
Retention.
To retain the people in the organization.
Expansion Plans..
Replacement on the basis of performance.
 Recruitment
The process of attracting the people for the job.
Advantage of recruitment within the organization
People are already trained.
Advantages of recruitment outside the organization
Variety of Talent
Variety of Abilities
Variety of Qualifications
Equal Employment Opportunity
No discrimination on any grounds for hiring people.
 Sources to find People
Informal Search
This method is used when reference is also required.
Job Posting
Putting notices for job on various places in the organization
Places can be:
Cafeteria
Fair Price Shop
Sports Field
Putting notices for job on various places in the organization
Places can be:
Reception Desk
Notice Board
Union Office

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Educational Institutions
Consulting educational institutions for suitable candidates for the job.
Educational Institutes are consulted when:
Fresh Graduates are required.
There are not many institutions for a particular job.
Short Listing of institutions.
Organizations involve teachers in the selection process.
Professional Associations
This method is used when people for senior posts are required.
Recruitment Agencies
These are the organizations which have expertise in selecting people.
These agencies are used when:
Time span for selection is short.
Jobs are highly technical in nature.
Employer and employee are at a distant place.
Advertisement
Giving advertisement in media.
Media is used when:
Large numbers of jobs are available.
Disadvantages of using media
Large numbers of applications are received.
It is difficult to handle large number of applications.
Costly
 Selection
The most important stage in HRM process.
It includes:
Filling up forms
Interviewing people
Developing tests
Application Blank
A form designed by the employer for the prospective employee to fill it out.
It records data according to the requirement of the organization.
Test and Interview
Use of test and interview depends upon the nature and level of the job.
Types of Tests
Achievement Test
Test of knowledge acquired by the candidates in educational institutions.
Psychological Test
To determine the attitude and traits of the candidates.
Skills Test
Aptitude test
Test of prior learning
Skills test
Medical Test

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To keep in record the physical condition of the candidate before joining the organization.
To make sure that candidate does not have any transferable disease.
 Considerations for Test Development
Validity
Reliability
Validity
Content Validity
Contents of the test should be relevant to the requirement.
Construct Validity
Sequence of the questions.
Face Validity
Appearance of the test.

Lecture 17

 Infrastructure for Test

Space
Proper Temperature
Enough Quantity of Stationary
Evaluation of Test
 Interview
Any verbal interaction is called interview.

 Job Interview
A method of selection in which we interact with the candidate verbally.

 Types of Job Interview

Telephonic Interviews
Preliminary Interviews
Selection Interviews
 Techniques for Final Interviews
Pattern Interview
Pre-decided questions are asked in a pre-defined sequence.
Non Pattern Interview
Questions are asked according to the situation

 Shortcoming of Pattern Interview

Interviewer can not ask any question other than pre-defined questions.
 Shortcoming of Non Pattern Interview
Possibility of non-professional and irrelevant questions.
 Mix Interview
An interview in which some questions are pre-defined and some are situational.
 Ways to conduct Interview
One person interview
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Panel Interview
A group of people related to the job conduct interview.
 Arrangements for conducting Interview
Proper place
Preparation for questions
Read out the resumes of candidates.
Human Resource Development
Human Resource Development is done through training.
 Methods for Training
On job Training
Learning while working
Off job Training
 Difficulties in On Job Training
In certain jobs, on job training is not possible.
Methods for Off Job Training
Lectures
Cheaper method of training.
For some jobs, it is the most appropriate method.
Vestibule training
Artificial situation created for training people.
Role Play
Business Games
Case Studies
 Performance Appraisals
Evaluation of performance
 Reasons for performance appraisals
Validation of Human Resource Program
Pay for performance
 Compensation
Compensation can be:
Monetary reward
Non Monetary reward
 Incentives
Plans for encouragement of employees in the organization.
 Types of Incentives
Organizational Level Incentives
Paid to everyone in the organization.
Individual Incentives
Paid to individual employees who have done good job.

Lecture 18
 Individual Incentives
Employees are paid for:
Good performance on job.
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Good performance during training.
 Collective Incentives
Incentives are paid to whole department.
Incentives for the whole organization can be:
Profit Sharing.
Benefits other than salaries and wages.
Compensation
Salary is paid for longer period. e.g. for a week, for a fortnight, for a month or for a year.
Wages are paid for short term period. e.g. for a day or for an hour or on the basis of units completed.
Other ways for compensation can be:
Free or cheaper food.
Retirement Plans.
Pensions.
Medical Facilities.
Transportation Facilities.
Assistance for children education.

 Equal Employment Opportunity (E.E.O)

No employee on any base will be discriminated for offering job opportunities.
Base can be:
Gender
Nationality
Religion
Area
Life Style
Race
In many countries, it is against the law and ethics.
Some people are perceived fit for a particular job. This concept is known as Stereotyping.
Managers should not evaluate performance on the basis of:
Gender
Nationality
Race
Religion
 Why do we need Equal Employment Opportunity (E.E.O)?
Job description does not provide any base for discrimination.
If law requires, we have to obey the law.
Ethics.
Research has shown, variety of people can perform better in an organization. This phenomenon is called
Work Force Diversity.
Managers should encourage different types of people to join organization in order to enhance
productivity.
 Collective Affairs of Employees
Employees form labor unions in the organization.
There could be more than one labor organizations in the company.

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Collective Bargaining agent (CBA) is a person who has been elected by all the workers in the
organization through legal procedures.
Negotiations can be on:
Salary
Working Conditions
Timings
Facilities
Benefits
Attitudes
 Motivation
Motivation is a force that forces people towards a task.
 Classical Theory of Motivation
People are motivated because of money or material objects.
 Fredrick Taylor’s Theory of Scientific Management
Every job should be studied scientifically.
Jobs should be divided on the basis of tasks and skills of labor.
Pay should be attached with productivity.
 Time & Motion Studies
Time spent on jobs should be studied using scientific devices and motions of machines or human motions.
 Objection on Fredrick Taylor’s Theory of Scientific Management
This theory considers human beings as machines.
 Hawthorn Studies
Basic purpose of these studies was “Effect of light on productivity”.
Productivity depends upon human relations.
Shortcoming of this theory was that human moods, human behavior, human liking and disliking and
human interest were ignored.
Hawthorn Studies became a base for behavioral studies in organizations.

Lecture 19
 McGregor Theory - X
Every normal human being dislikes work by nature.
People work because of some pressure.
Pressure can be:
Salary
Advancement
Respect
Some other force
 McGregor Theory - Y
People inherently like to work.
 McGregor Theory – X & Y
X-Type managers might:
Use punishment and threat to make people work.
Control activities of the work very closely.

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Y-Type managers will identify the barriers which are causing problems for workers and try to eliminate
those barriers.
In some situations, managers have to adopt X-type behavior and in some situations, they have to adopt Y-
type behavior.
Culturally, in societies, managers are moving towards Y-type behavior from X-type behavior.
 Why do People work?
Need
A state of felt deprivation.
Maslow’s Hierarchy Of Needs

 Biological Needs
Biological needs are related to human body’s survival. e.g. food, drink, air, sleep etc.
Safety Needs
Safety from:
Cold
Heat
Sand
Storm
Earthquake
Animals
Enemies
Social Needs
Self Esteem
Worth attached by human beings to themselves.
People who have high self esteem are more productive.
Self Actualization
Fullest utilization of one’s potential.
 Use of Hierarchy in Motivation

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Biological needs can be fulfilled by:
Giving salaries.
Providing free or cheaper food to employees.
Providing routine items at concessional prices.
 Safety Needs
 Organization can provide safety devices to employees. For instance:
Helmet
Glasses
Gloves
 Safety Needs
 Organization can provide safety devices to employees. For instance:
Special purpose shoes
Medical Facilities
Houses
House rent
Pick & drop service
Insurance
Pension plans
Preventing people from accidents
Social Needs
Organizations encourage informal organizational activities.
These include:
Combined lunch or dinner
Sports
Fun fair
Musical Programs
Lecture 20

 Use of Hierarchy in Motivation

 Self Esteem
Worth of human beings.
These include:
Designation of Individuals.
Status in the organization.
Recognition of employees in the organization.
Self esteem has direct relationship with productivity.
Various techniques can be used to make self esteem of employees high. These can be:
Finding titles for employees
Recognition
Awards
Cash rewards
Increment in the salary
Promotion
Raising status of employees
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 Self Actualization
Fullest utilization of one’s potential.
These include:
High Challenges
High position in the organization
 Criticism on Maslow’s hierarchy theory
It is possible that human needs may deviate from the order given by Maslow.
There is a question mark whether needs finish after self actualization or not.
 Two Factor Theory or Hygiene theory
Hertzberg presented this theory by taking the phenomenon of human hygiene.
Two factors work in the organization:
Hygiene factors
Motivators
Factors required to keep employees in the organization are called hygiene factors.
Factors used to get high productivity from workers are called motivators.
Hygiene factors fall with the biological needs, safety needs and partially with social needs of Maslow’s
hierarchy theory.
Motivators are almost similar to social needs, Self esteem needs and self actualization needs of Maslow’s
hierarchy theory.
Both factors should be present in the organization at the same time to get productivity from workers.
 Expectancy Theory
People in the organization are motivated with:
Expectations about reward.
Assurance of getting reward by doing a particular task.
 Equity Theory
Equivalence in inputs and outcomes.
Inputs of employees in an organization are:
Level of education
Skills
Experience
Reputation
Hard work
Connections
Outcomes of employees in an organization are:
Salaries
Designations
Promotions
Benefits
Social Status
Respect in the organization
Opportunities
Equity Theory
Individual will also compare his input/outcome with other individual’s input/outcome.
 How can Equity Theory be implemented?

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Managers have to explain reasons for the difference of outcomes of employees in order to keep them
motivated.
People compare their rewards with the market as well.

Lecture 21

Reinforcement Theory
To strengthen desired behavior at work place.
To force the workers to adopt that behavior.
There are two ways for reinforcement:
Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Positive reinforcement means to encourage a particular behavior.
Negative reinforcement means to discourage a particular behavior.
Human Relations
Human Relations can be:
Employee to employee
Employee to employer
Purpose of human relations is to give a feeling of a family.
Job Enrichment
This is needed when people are under performing.
Job enrichment means adding something into the job.
To provide opportunities to employees to apply their talent, knowledge and creativity for performing
more in the organization.
 Job Re-designing
To re-design a task.

 Job Sharing
People share the work.
 Management by Objective (MBO)
Idea of MBO is opposite to the traditional management.
Decision and planning is made in collaboration with the subordinates.
 Difficulties with MBO
People do not understand the philosophy of MBO.
 Application of MBO
Subordinates set their goals by themselves with the consultancy of top management.
Psychological Contract
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A contract between employee and the organization.
With the achievement of psychological contract, workers will have high level of morale and satisfaction.
 Leader
A person who influences people for the achievement of pre-defined goals.
Leadership
Ability of an individual to influence others.

 Difference between a leader and a manager

Leader Manager
Leader is a change agent. Manager is more concerned with
the status co.
Leadership
Powers of leaders
Position powers
Personal powers
All those powers/authorities which are attached to a position are called position powers.
Position powers are transferable.
Powers attached with some person are called personal powers.
These are non transferable.
 Types of leaders
 Autocratic leaders
Leaders who take decisions by themselves.
This type of leadership is used in those circumstances when there is not much time for decision making.
These types of leaders have more centralized powers.
Managers take more powers when:
Managers do not trust their subordinates.
Subordinates might not have enough training.
 Democratic Leaders
Democratic leaders share the ideas.
In this style, leaders will encourage more communication.
 Free-Rein leaders
Managers depend more upon subordinates.
Encourage the subordinates to make decisions by themselves.
This approach is practiced when:
Staff is highly motivated.
People are working in synergistic environment.
Fully trained people.
 Difference of communication in leadership styles
In autocracy, there will be downward communication but no upward communication. i.e. one way
communication.
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In democracy, there is both way communications. I.e. upward and downward communication.
In free rein, there will be more communication among subordinates and occasional communication among
subordinates and managers.
Method of decision making depends upon the situation.
 Contingency approach of Leadership
Every job has its own uniqueness.
With the change in task, different type of leaders and different leadership style is required.

Lecture 22
Marketing
All those activities which make the exchange possible.
Exchange includes:
 Exchange of goods, services and ideas from one person, organization and place to another person,
organization and place.
A system of business activities designed to plan, price, place and promote goods, services and ideas to
potential customers.
 Potential Customers
A person, a body, an institution or a firm who has:
Need
Money
Willingness to spend money.
 System
A set of interrelated and interdependent activities.
 Planning for marketing
What should be marketed?
When should be marketed?
Where should be marketed?
Distribution
Pricing
What is going to be the price of the product?
Promotion
Should the product be promoted or not?
 Marketing
Product is:
Anything that is offered for sale in the market.
All those things which are tangible.
Services are intangible. i.e. which are not touchable.
Marketing of ideas.
 Marketing
Marketing ideas can be applied on non business activities. This is called social/societal marketing.
This includes:
Asking for donations.
Drive slow.
Say your prayers.
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Need is a state of felt deprivation.
Marketers satisfy the needs through products, services, objects and ideas.
Market is a place where people exchange goods, services and ideas.
Stages in Marketing
 Production oriented stage
All the efforts are made to produce more and more.
 Product oriented stage
Management focuses on quality of product rather than quantity of product.
 Sales oriented stage
Sellers feel the need of an organized institution that coordinates all activities related to sales.
 Marketing oriented stage
Unsatisfied needs of the customers are satisfied.
 Societal Marketing stage
Benefits of society are considered by the organizations.
 Value
Difference between cost and benefits of the product.
Utility
Ability of any commodity to satisfy the needs.
 Forms of Utility
 Time Utility
Customers get the commodity when they want.
 Form Utility
Converting the shape of the product from one form to another.
 Place Utility
Transportation of product from one place to another.
 Ownership Utility
Product owned by the manufacturer is distributed to the end buyers through different steps.

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