10a - Beginnings of Crime Mapping

The use of GIS in policing and (law enforcement) has its roots in the earlier generation of police crime maps. Historically,
law enforcement agencies and other organizations used hard-copy pin maps to chart criminal activity; but these maps
were static and, as crime rates increased, difficult to maintain. In recent years, with advances in quick and user-friendly
software, manual pin mapping has given way to computerized crime mapping.

GIS is an application that links database software to graphics software to create visual images of various types of data in
map format. It is a unique tool for analyzing physical space and conveying perspective. Presenting data in the form of a
map helps agencies understand the significance of where, when, and by whom crimes are committed.

Technological advancements have enabled agencies to collect enormous amounts of data. In the law enforcement field, a
rise in crime and an increase in the number of calls for service have led to a greater need to sort, organize, analyze, and
disseminate data. As a result, criminal justice agencies are turning to GIS software and the latest crime-mapping
techniques to deliver data in a more efficient and instructive manner. In addition, using GIS to map crime and criminal
behavior eliminates the rampant duplication of efforts among agencies.

GIS software represents data on a map using points, lines, and polygons. Features that can be represented as points
include streetlight poles, crime events, and bus stops. Bus routes, streets, and rivers are usually represented using lines;
counties, states, and ZIP Codes are depicted using polygons. GIS software is designed to capture, store, manage,
integrate, and manipulate various layers of data, allowing the user to visualize and analyze the data in a spatial
environment (figure 1).

Most GIS applications contain base information that orients the map to the reader. Some examples of base information
include roads and political boundaries. One easy way to visualize base layers is to think about the information found in a
road atlas.

In GIS, a database can represent a layer of information and that can be expanded to create additional layers. For
example, the OVC Subgrant Award Report System (SARS) could be one layer, with the location of all sub-grantees
defined as individual points on that layer. Another layer of data could be added by querying the SARS database for a
particular type of service provider, such as programs for survivors of homicide victims. This additional layer would be
mapped using a different color or graphic symbol.

The real power of GIS is that it gives users the ability to analyze multiple layers of information. Not only can users create
additional layers from a single database, they can also integrate disparate datasets from other sources such as police
departments, planning and housing agencies, and the tax assessor’s office (figure 2). Each agency’s data would become
another layer of information in GIS. With this layering of information, users can discern spatial relationships among
previously disassociated data. For example, the layer of housing locations could be overlaid with city planning data and
police data.

GIS can pinpoint the physical location of features in every layer. It allows an administrator to conduct spatial searches or
queries in addition to tabular database queries. For example, a tabular database query can retrieve information about the
increase or decrease in criminal incidents.

Another example of a spatial search would be to determine the proximity of one location to another. For instance, one
dataset or layer shows school locations, while another indicates crime locations involving juveniles. Overlaying this data in
GIS, users can identify crimes that occurred within 1,000 feet of a school. This information can be used to determine
where services could be located most effectively (figure 3) and could lead to an understanding of the spatial relationship
between crimes and school locations.

Although GIS software packages can be purchased containing base information such as streets and census data, most
GIS also require agency-specific data. GIS is a powerful mapping tool that allows agencies to identify their data spatially
to better analyze data relationships.

If an agency collects data via Excel, Access, SQL Server, or any other type of spreadsheet or database management
system, the data have potential for use in GIS, but must have a geographic reference. Generally, ZIP Codes, street
addresses, or x–y coordinates are used to link data to the map by geo-coding, or plotting on a map, the data. For example
(figure 4), a street address such as 150 Main St. can be matched against a street centerline file to determine its location.
The geo-coding function will link an address to its approximate location on the street segment based on its number. For
example, 150 Main St. would be placed on the even side of the street about halfway between the TS mall and C-mall.

To protect private and confidential information, sensitive data are geo-coded to the street block, ZIP Code, or census-tract
level rather than the street level to reduce the possibility of identifying an individual from the mapped data.

CREATING MAPS

Crime mapping has its roots in cartography and comes with its own set of rules and limitations. When publishing an
article, authors always cite information resources. When constructing a map, cartographers always cite the source of the
data and the software used to create the map. If citations are left out, the map is incomplete and users may misinterpret
the information displayed. It is also recommended that mapmakers include disclaimers and/or additional information to
eliminate any misinterpretation of the material. A variety of maps can be created using GIS software, but the three most
common are pin maps, thematic maps, and association or integrated maps.

Pin Maps

Pin maps — which use push pins to identify important locations — have long helped police officers patrol neighborhoods
and detectives investigate crimes. GIS enables law enforcement agencies to create, update, duplicate, and distribute pin
maps more efficiently and easily.

To have an example, take a look at figure 5. It shows the locations of all homicides that occurred in XYZ City, in 2013 and
2014.  Although the points on the map only show location, they reveal a spatial significance that cannot be discerned
using a tabular query.

One of the unique qualities of GIS is that it creates new information and stimulates questions.

Thematic Maps

A thematic map can identify the density value of a particular attribute, such as the number of assaults, crime victim service
centers, or victim compensation claims in a geographically defined boundary composed of a state, police precinct, county,
neighborhood, census tract, or victim service provider catchment area. In figure 6, density values are used to create a
map, with shaded colors representing the different values between the boundaries, that allows users to examine patterns
across selected boundaries. The shading of thematic maps ranges from light to dark, with the lightest shade representing
the lowest value and the darkest shade representing the highest value. Figure 6 shows the density of Covid-19 positive
cases in XYZ city.

Association or Integrated Maps

Association or integrated maps are usually a combination of a pin map and a thematic map. Figure 7 combines data from
ABC City housing authority and the police department. In this map, violent crimes and public housing units are identified
with points, while the population demographics are represented with various shades of the same color and organized by
police district boundaries.

This map spatially contextualizes the data. Here, WSPD chose to view census data reaggregated to police beat
boundaries. With this type of map, WSPD can view income, population, gender, race, and other factors within the
boundaries that represent the department’s work environment. Winston-Salem manages and allocates police department
resources by police districts. By reaggregating census data, information has been made more applicable to department
needs. For instance, WSPD may choose to increase resources in communities with large numbers of public housing units.
Integrated crime mapping allows WSPD to make strategic administrative decisions based on contextualized data.

 
How is GIS-Crime Mapping tool used in Law Enforcement

GIS should not replace a law enforcement agency’s process of collecting and storing information in a database. Rather, it
enhances the agency’s ability to use the data.

For example, a map can be created to show when and where a crime occurred with what type of weapon was used,
whether a victim was present, whether the victim was male or female, and so forth. Once data, such as the income level
of females between ages 18 and 25, is entered into a GIS database, the user can overlay that information with a specific
crime, such as recent homicides or rapes occurring in the neighborhood between 8 pm and midnight. Overlaying specific
crimes with ethnicity, age, and gender may inadvertently reveal the identity of a victim. Therefore, the creators of GIS data
layers must be aware of confidential and sensitive data and the need to take precautions to protect victims’ rights and
privacy.

GIS crime mapping usage enhances a police officer’s time on the streets. An officer with access to GIS software can run
queries from a laptop in the patrol car. ESRI (Environmental Systems Research Institute), funded by the NIJ (National
Institute of Justice in the US), created a crime-mapping tool tailored for law enforcement agencies. The hardware
component of this tool is designed to be installed in patrol cars.

In addition to plotting the geographical attributes of criminal phenomena, law enforcement agencies seek answers to why
a specific crime occurs in a certain area. In 1982, George L. Kelling and James Q. Wilson developed the Broken
Windows theory to describe the relationship between disorder and crime in a neighborhood. They concluded that as the
physical environment in a neighborhood deteriorates the crime rate increases. Newly opened adult bookstores selling
pornographic materials, check cashing stores, and vacant building are predictors of declining neighborhoods. By
highlighting aspects of a crime on a map with neighborhood attributes, crime analysts can contextualize the data and gain
insight about why crimes occur.

In the US, law enforcement agencies use crime mapping to show where sex offenders, probationers and parolees live.
They compare the locations of child sex offenders with the locations of the grade schools. A buffer zone is drawn around
each school to observe how close the known offenders live to these potential target areas.

Similarly, the social service department could use GIS to track and map the location of both offenders and/or victims who
were issued protection orders in stalking cases. GIS software can map the home address of an individual, taking into
consideration the conditions of the protection order associated with the offender. Distance buffers can then be drawn
around these locations and reveal violations or compliance with the specified restrictions.

The CrimeMapping.com

TriTech Software Systems, a US-based software company, developed CrimeMapping.com to help law enforcement
agencies throughout North America and provide the public with valuable information about recent crime activity in their
neighborhood. Their goal is to assist police departments in reducing crime through a better-informed citizenry. Creating
more self-reliance among community members is a great benefit to community oriented policing efforts everywhere and
has been proven effective in combating crime.

CrimeMapping.com utilizes an advanced mapping engine, which helps us provide a high level of functionality as well as
flexibility to the agencies we serve. Crime data is extracted on a regular basis from each department's records system so
that the information being viewed through a Web browser is the most current available. This data is always verified for
accuracy and all address information is generalized by block in order to help ensure privacy is protected.