Mariano Marcos State University
College of Health Sciences
Pharmacy Department
City of Batac 2906 Ilocos Norte
PHARM 111: Pharmaceutical Botany with Taxonomy
1st Semester of A.Y. 2020-2021
Course Title
Basic Concepts to Understand Plants
Introduction
Botany is the scientific study of plants and plant-like organisms. It helps us
understand why plants are so vitally important to the world. Plants start the
majority of food and energy chains, they provide us with oxygen, food and
medicine. In addition, plants are considered as one of the most fascinating and
important groups of organisms living on Earth. They serve as a conduit of energy
into the biosphere, providing food and they also shape our environment. One of
the most prominent uses of plants is in pharmacy. Plants are used as a source of
medicine due to presence of certain chemicals/active ingredients.
Presentation of Outcomes
After going through the module, the student must have:
• Described the different fields of Botany;
• compared the features of plants that distinguish them from other organisms;
and
• discussed the different plant survival techniques.
Warm-up Activity
Candidate no. 1…
If you were a plant, what will you and why?
Learning Inputs/Central Activities (Lecture)
Lesson 1: Introduction to Botany
Botany is the scientific study of plants; also called plant biology. It encompasses the
origin, diversity, structure, and internal processes of plants, as well as their relationships
with other organisms and with the nonliving physical environment
History of Botany
1. 4th Century B.C.E.: Aristotle and Theophrastus got involved in identifying plants
and describing them. Theophrastus was considered as the “Father of botany”.
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2. A.D. 60: Pedanios Dioscorides wrote De Materia Medica.
§ De Materia Medica is a five volume that consist of over 600 plants, animals
and minerals as well as near 1000 medicinal cocktails with natural history
details including recognition tips, pharmacological effects, and even
cautionary notes.
3. Early 17th century: scientific publications increased.
a) 1640: Johannes van Helmont measured the uptake of water in a tree.
b) 1665: Robert Hooke invented the microscope. Hooke had the chance to take
a close look of a cell looks like. The cells seen by Hooke showed no sign of the
nucleus and other organelles found in most living cells.
c) 1674: Anton van Leeuwenhoek saw a live cell under a microscope.
d) 1686: John Ray published his book, Historia Plantarum. This became an
important step towards modern taxonomy.
e) 1694: Rudolf Camerarius established plant sexuality in his book entitled De
Sexu Plantarum Epistola. He stated in this book that “no ovules of plants
could ever develop into seeds from the female style and ovary without first
being prepared by the pollen from the stamens, the male sexual organs of the
plant”.
4. During the 18th century
a) 1727: Stephen Hales successfully established plant physiology as a science.
§ He developed techniques to measure area, mass, volume, temperature,
pressure, and even gravity in plants.
b) 1758: Carolus Linnaeus (Carl von Linne) was regarded as the “Father of
Taxonomy”.
§ He introduced the science of taxonomy which deals with the identification,
nomenclature, description and classification of organisms (species).
c) 1760s: Botany became widespread among educated women who painted
plants, attended classes on plant classification, and collected herbarium
specimens.
5. Later part of the 18th century: Joseph Priestley laid the foundation for the chemical
analysis of plant metabolism.
6. During the 19th century
a) Early part of the 19th century: progress in the study of plant fossils was made.
b) 1818: chlorophyll was discovered
c) 1840: advances were made in the study of plant diseases because of the
potato blight that killed potato crops in Ireland. This led to the further study
of plant diseases.
d) 1847: The process of photosynthesis was first elucidated by Mayer.
e) 1859: Charles Darwin proposed his theory of evolution and adaptation, or
more commonly referred to as “survival of the fittest”. Gregor Mendel
became the “Father of Genetics”.
f) 1862: The exact mechanism of photosynthesis was discovered when it was
observed that starch was formed in green cells only in the presence of light.
g) 1865: The results of Mendel’s experiments showed that both parents should
pass distinct physical factors which code information to their offspring at
conception. The offspring then inherits one unit for each trait from each of his
parents.
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7. 20th Century: Process of nitrogen fixation, nitrification, and ammonification was
discovered.
a) 1903: two types of chlorophyll (chlorophyll a and b) were discovered.
b) 1936: Alexander Oparin demonstrated the mechanism of the synthesis of
organic matter from inorganic molecules.
c) 1940s: Ecology became a separate discipline. Technology has helped
specialists in botany to see and understand the three-dimensional nature of
cells, and genetic engineering of plants. This greatly improved agricultural
crops and products.
Fields of Botany
a. Plant molecular biology study the structures and functions of important
biological molecules such as proteins and nucleic acids.
b. Plant biochemistry is the study of the chemical interactions within plants that
include variety of chemicals that plants produce.
c. Plant cell biology encompasses the structures, functions and life processes of
plant cells.
d. Plant anatomy or phytotomy is the study of plant tissues and cells.
e. Plant morphology refers to the structures of plant parts such as leaves, roots, and
stems, including their evolution and development.
f. Plant physiology encompasses the study of plant form and function.
g. Plant genetics deals with heredity in plants, specifically mechanisms of hereditary
transmission and variation of inherited characteristics.
h. Plant systematics encompasses the evolutionary relationships among different
plant groups.
i. Plant taxonomy is a subdiscipline of systematics, deals with the description,
naming and classification of plants.
j. Paleobotany studies plants throughout geologic history, and is primarily
concerned with the fossil record and evolutionary history of plants.
k. Bryology is a branch of botany that deals with bryophytes, i.e mosses and other
plants that reproduce by spores.
l. Applied Biology is the application of biological knowledge practically for the
human welfare. It is subdivided into the following subclasses:
• Agriculture deals with cultivation of crop plants for better yield
• Horticulture is the science and art of the development, sustainable
production, marketing, and use of high-value, intensively cultivated food
and ornamental plants.
• Medicine deals with the study of causes and cures of diseases
m. Applied Botany/Economic Botany deals with the study of economically valuable
plants and their products, wherein botanical knowledge is utilized for the well-
being of mankind. It is divided into following subclasses:
• Pharmaceutical botany is the botanical study of drugs, spices and
poisonous plants
• Plant pathology deals with hybridization of crossbreeding of plants,
produce new or improved varieties of plants.
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• Pharmacognosy deals with the study of crude drug mainly of plant origin,
with special reference to their cultivation, collection, preparation for
market, standardization and storage.
• Agricultural botany/agronomy is the botanical study of the plants of
agricultural importance.
Relevance of Biology and Pharmaceutical Sciences
Pharmaceutical Botany is a general discipline, which is forming theoretical
knowledge and practical skills which are necessary in a future pharmaceutist’s working.
Botany, as a science, studies external and internal plant’s structure, features of processes
of vital activities, classification, intercommunication with environment conditions, spread
in nature, meaning in the nature and human life. Complex study of the plants caused a
necessity in selection from Botany some fundamental disciplines.
a. Various disciplines of Biology are intimately associated with pharmaceutical
sciences and have a link with each other.
b. Pharmacy or pharmaceutical sciences deals with the study of drugs. Drugs may be
obtained from animal, mineral or synthetic sources. The two earlier sources are
part and parcel of biology.
c. By cumulative study of all disciplines of biology, one can study plants and animals
in most respects. Approximately 90% of drugs are obtained from plants or
animals.
d. Anatomy of plants as a basis of microscopical analysis of medicinal plant raw
material.
e. Morphology as a basis of macroscopical analysis of medicinal plant raw material.
f. Physiology of plants is necessary for studying the metabolism and the
accumulation of biologically active substances.
g. Botanical geography as a basis of rational storing of medicinal plants.
h. Biological studies help us understand plant or animal drugs properly. The scientific
knowledge of plant habitat and cultivation provide us various methods of
cultivating medicinal plants with better yield.
i. Studies of non-living contents of cells under cytology tells us about the chemical
constituents which are present in plants and animals, due to which they are used
as curative substances.
j. Several plants of fungal origin like penicillium, ergot and algal growth like agar and
chondrous have provided several antibiotics, alkaloids and pharmaceutical aids,
respectively.
k. Pathological plant products like gum, resins and excretory products, tannins,
latices, essential oils have given us high valuable drugs.
l. It is due to Phytochemistry that we are able to get many compounds having high
therapeutic potential like glycosides, steroids, enzymes, etc.
Lesson 2: Introduction to Plants
Characteristics of plants
The plant and animal kingdoms are the best known of all the kingdoms of life on
earth. They show a much more complex level of organization (both are comprised of
many cells; cells of most plants and animals have specialized into various tissues and the
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tissues into organs for greater efficiency. Plants are very diverse in size, shape and
complexity.
a. All plants are multicellular. Typical plant cells are eukaryotic, surrounded by cell
wall, and many have chloroplasts for photosynthesis.
b. Plants are nonmotile (subjects plants to dictates of nature).
c. Most plants are autotrophs (organisms that can produce their own food, using
materials from inorganic sources). Plants perform photosynthesis, which is
essential for almost all life.
d. Plants produce several distinctive or unusual chemicals:
• Cellulose and lignin are the primary chemicals used by plants for support
and protection. Cellulose is the most abundant natural polymer in the
world and is usually found in the cell walls of all plants.
• Lignin is found in cell walls of some plants and in the wood of perennial
plants as well as in many seeds. Lignin is very difficult to degrade, mainly
only by certain species of fungi. The presence of lignin helps to make
cellulose difficult to digest or extract for commercial uses.
• Plants also produce a variety of chemicals such as alkaloids, tannins,
volatile oils, resins that are used for defense, communication,
coordination of plant activities, waste disposal.
e. Most plants have true tissues and true organs. Tissues are groups of specialized
cells performing common function. Organs are groups of tissues working together
to perform a common function.
f. Plants have simple responses to environmental stimuli. Plants respond to stimuli.
Stimuli to which plants respond include changes in the direction, color, or
luminosity of light; in changes in temperature or in the orientation toward gravity;
and in the chemical composition of the surrounding soil, air or water.
• Plants are nonmotile but do show some simple movements (e.g
sunflowers turn leaves or flowers to track sun during day)
• Many plants also can make slower, more permanent, chenges in
orientations (tropism). E.g phototropism (light), geotroprism (gravity),
thigmotropism (touch)
g. Plants have two different kinds of growth related to the length of their life cycle:
• Primary growth (herbaceous)
• Secondary growth (woody)
h. Many plants show a distinctive alteration of generations between sexual and
asexual stages.
• The stage that reproduces asexually is called sporophyte (it produces
asexual spores)
• The stage that produces sexually is called the gametophyte (gametes are
the sex cells; egg and sperm)
Origin and Evolution of plants
1. Origin of plants
Only plants and fungi are primarily terrestrial organisms (these two kingdoms have
a long history of symbiosis). True plants probably arose about 465 million years
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(Ordovician) ago as green algae moved from water to land long before algae or plants
about 1.2 billion years ago.
a. Advantages of moving from water to land:
• Plenty of light (sunlight is brighter, since it doesn’t have to go through
water first);
• Carbon dioxide (CO2) is more easily available than in water;
• No competition for minerals or growing space (mineral nutrients are
plentiful in the soil).
b. Disadvantages of moving from water to land:
• Less water, so plants needed to avoid drying out (water now becomes a
limiting factor, so plants need to find ways to get it and store it);
• Gas exchange (as outer surface becomes less permeable still need a way
to get gasses in and out);
• No support against gravity (plants need effective support to counteract
gravity. Most organisms in water are naturally buoyant or have floats or
gas sacs to lift them to the surface);
• Must be able to withstand greater extremes in temperature, weather, etc.
(plants must develop ways to survive freezing, drought, extreme heat,
etc.);
• Reproduction and dispersal on land requires some way to get sex cells
together and some ways to disperse offspring (in water, gametes and
zygotes are released directly into the water).
c. All plants appear to have arisen from green algae. The following evidences for
green algal ancestor to plants include:
• Most green algae are found in freshwaters and damp terrestrial habitats
(including swamps and marshes where some of the earliest plant fossils
first appear; primitive plants are still tied to water)
• Many green algae produce larger multicellular forms such as “seaweeds”
(some of the earliest plant fossils resemble some of these multicellular
green algae);
• The cells of both green algae and plants contains chlorophyll a as their
main pigment. Both store starch in plastids rather than free in cytoplasm.
They have cellulose in cell wall. They have peroxisomes that contain
protective enzymes and their cytoplasm divides by cell plate.
Evolution of Plants
a. Cambrian: small, soft-bodied plants with simple branching and no differentiated
parts. Green algae in oceans, no good evidence of land plants.
b. Ordovician: first terrestrial plants- non-vascular plants that reproduced with
spores. Because they could not conduct water, they must have lived only in wet
environments.
c. Silurian: first vascular plants that could conduct water through tubes, bit no
differentiation into leaves, stems and roots. Photosynthesized and had stomata
for respiration on every surface.
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d. Devonian: first recognizable soils, so evolution of soil bacteria. Many plants were
non vascular, many had no differentiation of seeds, leaves and stems. Early
Devonian plants were small (more less than a meter) but had leaves, stems and
roots. By late Devonian, there were many kinds of land plants forming forests,
including some giant trees. Seed bearing plants became common. Global CO2
levels drop with the explosion of plant life.
e. Carboniferous: Plants were similar to Devonian, with addition of horse-tails, club
mosses, and scale tree. Ferns and tree ferns are very similar to modern plants.
Many swamp-loving trees (Lepidodendron, Sigillaria) and primitive conifers
appear.
f. Permian: Advanced conifers dominated as climate dried. Cycads and ginkgos
appear. There were large forests in some regions.
g. Triassic: Seed plants dominated the land. Cycads, gingkgos, and conifers were
important plants. The seed fern Glossopteris was widespread in tropical regions.
h. Jurassic: Climate became wetter with widespread jungles. Conifers dominated.
Cycads, ginkgos and ferns remained important. Flowering plants appeared but
were a minor part of the flora.
i. Cretaceous: Angiosperms became widespread, to become the dominant plants by
the end of the Cretaceous. Many modern trees appear at this time. Conifers
continued in colder environments.
j. Cenozoic: grasses evolved and created the savannah ecosystem. Conifer forests
spread in colder climates, and angiosperm forests in temperature and tropical
climates.
Classification of Plants
The plant “kingdom” is huge. There are millions of different types of plants.
Scientists who study plants (botanists) like to sort them into categories (classify them).
Without a way to put plants into categories, botanists would feel like their field of science
was incredibly disorganized.
Classification based on life cycle
a. Annuals- these plants complete their life cycle during a single season. They are
normally herbaceous. Ex. Rice, corn, wheat
b. Biennials- these plants require two years to complete their life cycle. They are
normally herbaceous. Ex. Onions, cabbage, carrot
c. Perennials- these are plants that have a long lifespan (more than 2 years). They
are woody or herbaceous. Ex. Rose
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Classification based on taxonomy
Taxonomy is a system for classifying plants based on their genetic and evolutionary
relationship. Plants are classified into a separate kingdom called the Kingdom Plantae.
1. Non-vascular plants lacks vascular tissues that can help them transport water and
nutrients. Non vascular plants include the members of the Phylum Bryophyta
(mosses, liverworts and hornworts)
2. Vascular plants are also known as tracheophytes and have been allowed by
evolution to possess vascular tissues (xylem and phloem) that aid them to
transport water and minerals.
a. Coniferophyta (Gymnosperms) are vascular, non-flowering plants which
produce seeds without the production of flower and fruits. Ex. Pines and cycads
b. Anthophyta (Angiosperms) are characterized by the seeds that are fully
enclosed in fruits. They are subdivided into monocotyledons and dicotyledons.
Importance of Plants
• Plants supply food to nearly all terrestrial organisms, including humans.
• Plants maintain the atmosphere. They produce oxygen and absorb carbon dioxide
during photosynthesis. Oxygen is essential for cellular respiration for all aerobic
organisms.
• Plants recycle matter in biogeochemical cycles. For example, through
transpiration, plants move enormous amounts of water from the soil to the
atmosphere. Plants such as peas host bacteria that fix oxygen. This makes
nitrogen available to all plants, which pass it on to consumers.
• Plants provide many products for human use, such as firewood, timber, fibers,
medicines, dyes, pesticides, oil and rubber.
• Plants create habitats for many organisms. A single tree may provide food and
shelter to many species of insects, worms, small mammals, birds and reptiles.
Diversity of Plant Adaptations
Adaptation: the adjustment or changes of behavior, physiology, and structure of an
organism to become more suited to an environment. It is derived from latin word
“adaptare” which means “to fit”.
Types of Adaptations
1. Structural adaptations are the way something is built or made
• Adaptations to get food: leaves and stems absorb energy from the sun
• Adaptations to get water and nutrients: roots soak up water and nutrient
from soil.
• Adaptations for reproduction: brightly colored flowers with nectar attract
pollinators such as birds, bees and insects; sweet fruits attracts animals that
spread seeds far away; some seeds are shaped to catch the wind
• Adaptations for defense: spines and thorns protect plants from predators;
plants (poison ivy and poison oak) have toxins that give predators a painful
itchy rash
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2. Behavioral adaptations are the way something acts naturally or by instinct.
• Adaptations to get food: plants lean or grow towards the sun; roots grow
down into soil; vines climb up trees to catch sunlight; plants like the Venus fly
trap, trap insects for food
• Adaptations to get water and nutrients: desert flowers can stay dormant for
months, only coming to life when it rains.
• Adaptations for reproduction: plants drop seeds to grow new offspring
Activity 1: Online Lecture
• You are required to view/download a video related to the topic posted in the mVLE
course page on August 25, 2020, 3:00 PM
Learning Inputs/Central Activities (Laboratory)
Overview
• Plants are adapted to live in different environments.
• These adaptations help a plant get food, water and other things it needs to
survive.
Laboratory Activity 1
• Go around your backyard and observe the plants around you.
• Investigate the plants’ adaptations in different environments (water plants, trees,
grasses, moss, shrubs etc.)
• Record at least 5 observations including a labeled sketch or a photograph of each
plant and its adaptation to the environment.
Wrap-up Activity
1. Discussion Forum (Open-ended questions)
• You are expected to participate in the discussion forum scheduled on August 31,
2020 (unless otherwise rescheduled), Monday via the mVLE BIGBlueButtonBN.
• An invitation link will be available in the mVLE course site.
• Open-ended questions will be asked randomly among students during the
discussion proper.
• In addition, students are also given opportunity to ask/raise any question or
make clarifications during the discussion.
Assessment (Post-assessment)
Online Exam 1
• You are required to take the Post-Test on Topics 1 and 2.
• The link will be posted on August 31, 2020 (Monday) 1:00 PM in the mVLE Quiz
Portal.
Problem-based Learning Task 1
Assignment
• List at least 5 pharmaceutical drugs with approved therapeutic claims available
in the market which originated from plants.
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• A detailed instruction will be available in the mVLE course guide page
Assignment portal on August 26, 2020, 1:00 PM.
• Submit your output on or before 11:59 pm, August 30, 2020 (Sunday) via the
same portal in mVLE.
Laboratory-based Learning Task 1
Laboratory Activity 1: Plant Adaptations for Survival in Different Environments
• Submit your documented photographs on plant adaptations in different
environments.
• Additional information will be available in the mVLE course page Assignment
portal on August 26, 2020, 1:00 PM.
• Submit your output using the Assignment portal in the mVLE on or before 11:59,
August 20, 2020 (Sunday)
Course Facilitator
Kristian Gay D. Beltran
Assistant Professor II
Pharmacy Department
09175700665
[email protected] 10
