The Polymer Materials and Products

Lesson #4: THE POLYMER MATERIALS and PRODUCTS

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the learner will be able to:
Discuss the concept of Hydro Carbons and Polymer Molecules in reference to Molecular
Chemistry, Weight, Shape, Structure, Configuration and Polymer Crystals.
Explain the Characteristics, Applications, and Processing of Polymers emphasizing the
principles of material’s Stress-Strain Behavior, Deformation, and Crystallization.
Differentiate Plastics, Elastomers, Rubbers and Fibers by illustrating the Characteristics,
Applications, and Forming Techniques of each material.
Illustrate material properties as subjected to possible Failure and Degradation of Polymers
due by elastic properties, creep or flow, fracture, and corrosion.
Describe Polymer Products Manufacturing such as Leather Shoes, Nylon Rope, Polyvinyl
Chloride (PVC) Pipes, Teflon, Styrofoam, Shrink Wrap Polymer, Rubber Band, Expanded
Polyester, Rubber Gloves, Non-Stick Cookware, Plastic Bag, Toothbrush, Paint,
Condoms, Plastic Bottles, and conceptualize new products by defining the properties,
design and process of its creation.

Course Materials:
Etymology and Definition
The term polymer comes from the Greek word πολύς (polus, meaning "many, much") and μέρος
(meros, meaning "part"), which is used to describe large molecules composed of multiple repeat
units created through polymerization, thereby defining a characteristic of high relative molecular
mass and consequent properties.
Polymerization is a process of reacting monomer molecules by attaching each monomer unit
one at a time by a chemical reaction in chainlike fashion, to form a linear polymer macromolecule,
thus forming a three-dimensional networks or polymer chains. There are many forms of
polymerization and different systems exist to categorize them. Like:
Condensation (or step reaction) polymerization - is the formation of polymer macromolecules
by an intermolecular reaction, usually with the production of a by-product of low molecular weight,
such as water.
Addition (or chain reaction) polymerization - is the process by which monomer units are
attached one at a time, in chainlike fashion, to form a linear polymer macromolecule.
Degree of polymerization (DP) - is the average number of repeat units per polymer chain
molecule.
Watch: Petroleum as the source of hydrocarbons in YouTube, Plastics 101 | National Geographic
in YouTube, How Its Made - 157 Plastic Bottles and Jars in YouTube, Recycling plastics -
Resource efficiency with an optimized sorting method in YouTube, Cable News Net - Roads made
of Plastic in India in YouTube, How Plastic Bottles Are Recycled into Polyester in YouTube, 6
Roof and Pavement Tiles from Plastic Waste in YouTube, How Much Plastic Do You Eat?
#OurBluePlanet | Earth Lab in YouTube, Injection Molding Animation in YouTube, Plastic Blow
Molding in YouTube, Extruder Operation and Control - Paulson Training in YouTube

Important Terms
Unsaturated - describes carbon atoms that participate in double or triple covalent bonds and,
therefore, do not bond to a maximum of four other atoms.

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 The Polymer Materials and Products

Saturated - describes a carbon atom that participates in only single covalent bonds with four
other atoms.
Spherulite - an aggregate of ribbonlike polymer crystallites (lamellae) radiating from a common
central nucleation site; the crystallites are separated by amorphous regions.
Monomer - is a stable molecule from which a polymer is synthesized.
Polymer - is a compound of high molecular weight (normally organic) the structure of which is
composed of chains of small repeat units.
Repeat unit - is the most fundamental structural unit found in a polymer chain. A polymer
molecule is composed of a large number of repeat units that are linked together and successively
repeated.
Macromolecule - is a huge molecule made up of thousands of atoms.
Molecular chemistry - for Polymers refers to composition, not the structure of a repeat unit
Molecular structure - refers to atomic arrangements within and interconnections between
polymer molecules.
Molecular weight - is the sum of the atomic weights of all the atoms in a molecule.
Homopolymer - is a polymer having a chain structure in which all repeat units are of the same
type.
Linear polymer - is a polymer produced from bifunctional monomers in which each polymer
molecule consists of repeat units joined end to end in a single chain.
Crosslinked polymer - is a polymer in which adjacent linear molecular chains are joined at
various positions by covalent bonds.
Network polymer - is a polymer produced from multifunctional monomers having three or more
active covalent bonds, resulting in the formation of three-dimensional molecules
Branched polymer - is a polymer having a molecular structure of secondary chains that extend
from the primary main chains.
Liquid crystal polymer (LCP) - is a group of polymeric materials having extended and rod-
shaped molecules that, structurally, do not fall within traditional liquid, amorphous, crystalline, or
semicrystalline classifications. In the molten (or liquid) state they can become aligned in highly
ordered (crystal-like) conformations. They are used in digital displays and a variety of applications
in electronics and medical equipment industries.
High polymer - is a solid polymeric material having a molecular weight greater than about 10,000
g/mol.
Copolymer - is a polymer that consists of two or more dissimilar repeat units in combination along
its molecular chains.
Alternating copolymer - is a copolymer in which two different repeat units alternate positions
along the molecular chain.
Block copolymer - is a linear copolymer in which identical repeat units are clustered in blocks
along the molecular chain.
Graft copolymer - is a copolymer wherein homopolymer side branches of one monomer type are
grafted to homopolymer main chains of a different monomer type.

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 The Polymer Materials and Products

Random copolymer - is a polymer in which two different repeat units are randomly distributed
along the molecular chain.
Thermoplastic elastomer (TPE) - is a copolymeric material that exhibits elastomeric behavior
yet is thermoplastic in nature. At the ambient temperature, domains of one repeat unit type form
at molecular chain ends that crystallize to act as physical crosslinks.
Isomerism - is the phenomenon whereby two or more polymer molecules or repeat units have
the same composition but different structural arrangements and properties
Stereoisomerism - is a Polymer isomerism in which side groups within repeat units are bonded
along the molecular chain in the same order but in different spatial arrangements.
Atactic - is a type of polymer chain configuration (stereoisomer) wherein side groups are
randomly positioned on one side of the chain or the other.
Isotactic - is a type of polymer chain configuration (stereoisomer) wherein all side groups are
positioned on the same side of the chain molecule.
Syndiotactic - is a type of polymer chain configuration (stereoisomer) in which side groups
regularly alternate positions on opposite sides of the chain
Degradation - is used to denote the deteriorative processes that occur with polymeric materials.
These processes include swelling, dissolution, and chain scission.
Scission - is a polymer degradation process whereby molecular chain bonds are ruptured by
chemical reactions or by exposure to radiation or heat.
Drawing - is a deformation technique wherein polymer fibers are strengthened by elongation.
Crystallinity - is the state wherein a periodic and repeating atomic arrangement is achieved by
molecular chain alignment for polymers.
‘

Crystallite - is a region within a crystalline polymer in which all the molecular chains are ordered
and aligned.
Resin Identification Code - otherwise known as SPI, a numbder surrounded by a chasing arrows
symbol and molded, formed or imprinted in or on the container, often on the bottom. Use of the
word "resin" is synonymous with "polymer" or "plastic type.".
Flame retardant - is a polymer additive that increases flammability resistance
Stabilizer - is a polymer additive that counteracts deteriorative processes.
Inhibitor - is a chemical substance that, when added in relatively low concentrations, retards a
chemical reaction.
Elastomer - is a polymeric material that may experience large and reversible elastic deformations
foam. A polymer that has been made porous (or spongelike) by the incorporation of gas bubbles
molding (plastics). Shaping a plastic material by forcing it, under pressure and at an elevated
temperature, into a mold cavity
Hydroplastic forming - is the molding or shaping of clay-based ceramics that have been made
plastic and pliable by adding water.
Plastic - is a solid organic polymer of high molecular weight that has some structural rigidity under
load and is used in general-purpose applications. It may also contain additives such as fillers,
plasticizers, and flame retardants

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 The Polymer Materials and Products

Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) - is a polyethylene polymer that has an

extremely high molecular weight (approximately 4 106 g/mol). Distinctive characteristics of this
material include high impact and abrasion resistance and a low coefficient of friction.
Cis - is a prefix denoting a type of molecular structure. For some unsaturated carbon chain atoms
within a repeat unit, a side atom or group may be situated on one side of the double bond or
directly opposite at a 180O rotation position. In a cis structure, two such side groups within the
same repeat unit reside on the same side (e.g., cis-isoprene)
Trans - is a prefix denoting a type of molecular structure. For some unsaturated carbon chain
atoms within a repeat unit, a single side atom or group may be situated on one side of the double
bond, or directly opposite at a 180O rotation position. In a trans structure, two such side groups
within the same repeat unit reside on opposite sides (e.g., trans-isoprene).
Functionality - is the number of covalent bonds that a monomer can form when reacting with
other monomers
Bifunctional - designates monomers that may react to form two covalent bonds with other
monomers to create a two-dimensional chainlike molecular structure.
Trifunctional - designating monomers that may react to form three covalent bonds with other
monomers.

A glance at the world of Polymer Materials

Tiny molecules strung in long repeating chains form polymers. Consequently, large
molecule composed of repeating structural units typically connected by covalent chemical bonds
are called (macromolecule). The popular term plastic actually refers to a large class of natural
and synthetic materials with a wide variety of properties.
Naturally-occurring Polymers
1. Latex - South American Indians slash the bark of trees in the rain forest to obtain a milky
white fluid called latex. They discovered that it could form a solid that was elastic; which
could be stretch would snap back to its original shape. If rubbed on penciled words, the
writing would disappear, so Europeans called it rubber. They pressed it between layers of
fabric to produce a rain slicker called a mackintosh; they also molded it into tires for
carriages and automobiles. The British smuggled rubber tree seeds from Brazil to
England, where they produced seedlings for export to colonies in Ceylon, Malaysia, and
Singapore. Descendants of those seeds now produce 90 percent of the world’s natural
rubber.
2. Milk - is loaded with the polymer casein, a protein. Without this polymer, cheese would
come unglued. Glue would come unglued too, since casein from milk provides its sticking
power. Casein also winds up in buttons, as well as rhinestones and other artificial
gemstones.
3. Amber - Fossilized tree sap made of resin polymers can become yellow, orange, or brown
amber. Ancient Greeks called amber “elektron,” and its ability to give a static electrical
shock gave electrons and electricity their names. Scientists have retrieved intact genetic
polymers, DNA, from ancient insects trapped in amber. Some even think the tiny bubbles
in amber might hold the last remaining samples of air breathed by dinosaurs more than
60 million years ago.
4. Turtleshells - Turtles and tortoises, their land-dwelling cousins, never stray far from home
since they carry it around on their backs. That’s no small task for the largest, which reach
8 feet (2.4 meters) in length and weigh nearly 2,000 pounds (900 kilograms). Plates made
of bones and encased in horn are constructed of polymers form the turtle’s tough shell.
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 The Polymer Materials and Products

People once used the hawksbill turtle’s shell to make hair combs and eyeglass frames.
Now that these turtles are endangered, most “tortoise shell” is made from a plastic
substitute.
5. Silk - Silkworms, which are actually caterpillars, are raised on silk farms and fed mulberry
leaves. People in China discovered more than 4,500 years ago that they could unravel
silk, a polymer, from the worms’ cocoons and weave it into soft fabrics. Incredibly, a single
cocoon yields 330 to 980 yards (300 to 900 meters) of silk.
6. Animal Horns - Antelope, buffalo, sheep, cattle, and rhinoceroses all have horns. Unlike
a deer’s antlers (made of bone), horns are made of the polymer keratin. Parts of human
body are made of keratin too: It’s the primary ingredient in hair and fingernails. Keratin in
the outermost layer of human skin makes us waterproof like other mammals.
Synthetic polymers are often referred to as "plastics", such as the well-known polyethylene
and nylon. However, most of them can be classified in at least three main categories:
Thermoplastics, Thermosets and Elastomers.
Plastics - a large and varied group of materials, made of organic substance of cross-linked or
chain molecules of large size, solid in a finished state at ordinary temperatures. At same stage it
can be formed into various shapes by flow, through the application of heat and pressure.
Characteristics of most Plastics
1. Light weight 2. High dielectric strength 3. Low heat conductivity
4. Calorability 5. Resistance to certain solvents and other chemicals
Sources of Raw Materials for most Plastics
1. Coal 2. Petroleum 3. Lime stone 4. Salt
5. Sulfur 6. Air 7. Water 8. Cellulose from cotton and wood
Polymer Classification Scheme according to behavior with rising temperature.
1. Thermoplastics (or thermoplastic polymers) - a semicrystalline polymeric material that
softens when heated and hardens upon cooling. While in the softened state, articles may be
formed by molding or extrusion.
- soften when heated (and eventually liquefy) and harden when cooled. A process which is totally
reversible and may be repeated. On a molecular level, as the temperature is raised, secondary
bonding forces are diminished (by increased molecular motion) so that the relative movement of
adjacent chains is facilitated when a stress is applied. Irreversible degradation results when a
molten thermoplastic polymer is raised to too high a temperature. In addition, thermoplastics are
relatively soft. Most linear polymers and those having some branched structures with flexible
chains are thermoplastic. These materials are normally fabricated by the simultaneous application
of heat and pressure. Examples of common thermoplastic polymers include polyethylene,
polystyrene, polyethylene terephthalate, and polyvinyl chloride. (William Callister)
2. Thermosets (or thermosetting polymers) - a polymeric material that, once having been cured
(or hardened) by a chemical reaction, will not soften or melt when subsequently heated. 3
Common Thermosetting Plastics are Hard rubber, Casein - formaldehyde, Asphalt.
- are network polymers. which become permanently hard during their formation and do not soften
upon heating. Network polymers have covalent crosslinks between adjacent molecular chains.
During heat treatments, these bonds anchor the chains together to resist the vibrational and
rotational chain motions at high temperatures. Thus, the materials do not soften when heated.
Crosslinking is usually extensive, in that 10 to 50% of the chain repeat units are crosslinked. Only
heating to excessive temperatures will cause severance of these crosslink bonds and polymer
degradation. Thermoset polymers are generally harder and stronger than thermoplastics and
have better dimensional stability. Most of the crosslinked and network polymers, which include

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vulcanized rubbers, epoxies, and phenolics and some polyester resins, are thermosetting.
(William Callister)

Name(s) Uses
Polyethylene - low density (LDPE) Used in film wrap, plastic bags
Used in electrical insulation, bottles, toys, rope,
Polyethylene - high density (HDPE)
piping, recycling bins, trash cans
Poly(vinyl chloride) - (PVC) Used in pipes, siding, flooring, etc.
Poly(vinylidene chloride) - (Saran A) Used in seat covers, films etc.
Polystyrene - (PS) Used in toys, cabinets, packaging etc.
Polyacrylonitrile - (PAN, Orlon, Acrilan) Used in rugs, blankets, clothing etc.
Polytetrafluoroethylene - (PTFE, Teflon) Used in non-stick surfaces, electrical insulation
Poly(vinyl acetate) - (PVAc) Used in latex paints, adhesives etc.
Requires vulcanization for practical use and
cis-Polyisoprene - natural rubber
vulcanized rubber is used in tyres, etc.
Polychloroprene (cis + trans) It is a synthetic rubber and is oil resistant so
(Neoprene) used in mats etc.
Some of the most important polymers, according to monomer composition, are:
1. Polyacrylates 2. Polyamides 3. Polyesters
4.Polycarbonates 5. Polyimides 6. Polystyrenes
Methods of forming and fabricating Plastics
1. Casting - method used to form cast iron, plastics.
2. Compression Molding - requires the application of pressure (thermosetting), in the form
of tablets or blanks
3. Injection Molding - most rapids methods of producing articles of intricate shape, in the
form of pellets of thermoplastics
4. Cold Molding - most economical, owing fast molding cycle
5. Transfer Molding - used to mold thermosetting materials when part is to include delicate
inserts; when the shape of the mold country is complex
6. Preheating with a high frequency electrostatics - used to speed the operation of
compression or transfer molding fields.
7. Extruding - used for producing rods, tubes, and other cylindrical shapes.
8. Laminating - used to produce hard boards or sheets or resin-impregnated paper, wood
veneers, and fabrics.
9. Drawing and post-forming - plastics sheet must be heated at certain temperature before
drawing; reform operating after lamination.
10. Blowing of Thermoplastics - molding compound, heating, then blow into a bubble, eject
from the mold.
11. Machining and Cementing - electrical insulating parts are made by machining; laminated
plastics maybe riveted, cemented.

Prime Constituents necessary in a Molding Compounds

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 The Polymer Materials and Products

1. Resin or Binder - is a solid or highly viscous substance of plant or synthetic origin that is
typically convertible into polymers, but usually resins mixtures of organic compounds.
2. Filler - is an inert foreign substance added to a polymer to improve or modify its properties.
3. Plasticizer - is a low-molecular-weight polymer additive that enhances flexibility and
workability & reduces stiffness and brittleness, resulting in decrease in glass transition
temperature (Tg).
4. Dyes and Pigments (Colorant) - is an additive that imparts a specific color to a polymer.
5. Catalyst - a chemical which accelerates chemical reaction. Phenolformaldehyde (1st to
be synthesized, made by Backland in 1909, “bakelite” - one of the most widely used)
Urea-formaldehyde and Melamine-formaldehyde have unlimited color, odorless, tasteless
6. Lubricants (such as stearates and graphite) - is a substance, usually organic. Internal
lubricants reduce friction between the molecular chains, whereas external lubricants
reduce the adherence between polymer melt and metal surfaces. Lubricants also reduce
friction between polymer-filler, filler-filler, and filler-metal.
Stearates (like Stearic Acid) - is a saturated monobasic acid with 18 carbon-chain
lengths. It is synthesized by the hydrolysis of animal fat or from hydrogenation of
cottonseed or vegetable oil. Commercial stearic acid is a mixture of stearic acid with
palmitic and myristic acid.
The carbon atoms are strongly bonded together in sheets. Because the bonds between
the sheets are weak, graphite shows lower shearing strength under friction force. Thus,
it can be used as a solid lubricant and has become one of traditional and primary
solid lubrication materials.
Manufacturing Process
There are basically four types of blow molding used in the production of plastic bottles,
jugs and jars. The choice of blow molding will be based upon the desired appearance, chemical
resistance, impact resistance, tooling cost, production run size, and the optimal cost/benefit.
Molding - melt processing-polymers are deformed with the aid of applied pressure. There are 3
things needed for molding operation: (1) Time, (2) Temperature, (3) Pressure
Blow Molding - Extruded tube or preform is expanded by internal pressure
1. Extrusion Blow Molding
Extrusion blow
molding is simplest
form of blow molding.
This process is
performed by
dropping a preheated
hollow plastic tube
from an extruder in a
pipe form. While still
hot, the plastic is
trapped in the mold, a
hot knife cuts it off at
the top and it is also
pinched at the bottom.

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The tube or parison is captured in a water-cooled mold and then injected with air through
the top of the bottle. As air is injected and the plastic extends to the wall of the mold it becomes
rigid and holds its shape. The mold separates, which releases the plastic bottle.

Extrusion Blow Molding Machine

This blow molding process allows for the construction of bottles
in a wide range of materials, including: HDPE, LDPE, PP, PVC,
PET, K Resin, and Polycarbonate. Extrusion blow molding also
allows for a wide variety of shapes, sizes, and neck openings,
as well as the production of handles.

2. Injection Blow Molding

Produces bottles of
Injection Blow Molding Process superior visual and
dimensional quality
compared to extrusion
blow moulding. The
process is ideal for both
narrow and wide-
mouthed containers and
produces them fully
finished with no flash.

3 Processes: Injection Blowing Ejection

Injection Blow Molding Machine

Injection blow molding involves injecting the hot
plastic resin into a cavity where it encloses the blow
stem. The injected resin is then carried to the next
area on the machine, where it is blown up into the
finished container using an extrusion blow molding
process. Injection blow molding is generally suitable
for smaller bottles and containers.

3. Stretch Blow Molding

Stretch blow molding is a process that generates moderately lightweight bottles with
increased impact and chemical resistance. It is usually used to create PET which is
commonly found in water, juice, soda, and a range of other bottled products. There are
two processes for stretch blow molded containers:
3.1 Single Stage Injection Stretch Blow Molding (ISBM)
Achieves the injection and blow processes within the same machine cycle. The technique
begins by adding molten resin into a water-cooled mold. Once the resin has solidified it is
moved to the blow station where it is stretched, blown, and then moved again to be
ejected. This process is used for larger volume production runs of bottles and jars.
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3.2 Reheat & Stretch Blow Molding (RHB)

RHB is the alternative stretch blow molding process. In this process, the preform is
injection molded and then loaded into a blowing machine where the preform is reheated,
transferred to the molding station, stretched, blown into a chilled mold to form the container
and then ejected from the machine. Typically, a preform can be blown into a variety of
container shapes making the process versatile and cost effective. The RHB process is
principally focused on PET.

Stretch Blow Molding Process

Stretch Blow Molding Machine

The blow molding processes discussed above were
mainly for the plastic bottles’ body where the liquids are
poured into. The bottle lids or closures are manufactured
using different processes.

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4. Injection Molding - is a fast process used to produce large numbers of identical items

from high-precision engineering components to disposable consumer goods.

The plastic (in a powdered or granular form) is put in a hopper. A screw thread
turns forcing the plastic material through a heater, melting it. When all the materials melted
the screw thread then acts as a ram and forces the plastic into mold, where it cools and
solidifies.
Rubber - elastic substance obtained from the exudations of certain tropical plants
(natural rubber) or derived from petroleum and natural gas (synthetic rubber). Because of its
elasticity, resilience, and toughness, rubber is the basic constituent of the tires used in
automotive vehicles, aircraft, and bicycles.
Vulcanization - (discovered by Good Year) is a nonreversible chemical reaction involving sulfur
or other suitable agent wherein crosslinks are formed between molecular chains in rubber
materials. The rubber’s modulus of elasticity and strength are enhanced.
Characteristics of Rubber
1. It’s value as an electrical insulator.
2. It’s impermeability to water and gases.
3. It’s ability to withstand and great deformation without serious structural damage.
4. It’s ability to absorb energy of shock by mechanical hysteresis.
Use of Rubber
1. For electric wires. 2. For insulating bushing and plates.
3. For hose for water. 4. For compressed air.
5. For pneumatic tires for vehicles. 6. Take up shocks in machines and structures.
7. For gas.
Natural Rubber - produced from a fluid which excludes from the other woody several species of
tropical trees and shrubs found mostly in Central America, Tropical Countries of South America
(Brazil), Ceylon, Malay Archipelago, Dutch East Indies, Central Africa
Latex - fluid from which rubber is made exudes.
Crude rubber - raw material for the manufacture of rubber goods.

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Synthetic Rubber - material which can be stretched at least 100% and which after such
stretching returns approximately to its original length in a short time. Approximately, it has high
resistant to the deteriorating action of oil.
Neoprene - one of the commercial types of synthetic rubber. Has excellent heat resisting
and chemical action resisting properties. Used for gasoline handling hoses, conveyor belts
3 Types of Synthetic Rubber
1. Neoprene 2. Buna 3. Butyl
Raw Materials used in Synthetic Rubber
1. Petroleum 2. Natural Gas 3. Potatoes
4. Grains 5. Sugar 6. Molasses
7. Nitrogen 8. Limestone 9. Coke
10. Salt 11. Sulfuric Acid
Physical Properties of Rubber
1. Soft Rubber - stretches from 6 to 10 times its original length without breaking; with low %
of Sulfur. Common good grade of Soft Rubber: 92.5% Crude Rubber 7.5 Sulfur
2. Hard Rubber - is almost as brittle as cast iron; with high percentage of Sulfur.
Note: Frequently, heating hard rubber in boiling water makes it flexible.
Uses of Synthetic Rubber
1. Useful for gaskets 2. Packing 3. Diaphragms
Note: Rubber exhibits an increasing resistance to further strain. While, Steel exhibits a decreasing
resistance to further strain. The high hysteresis of soft rubber makes it outstanding materials for
damping vibration, absorbing energy of rapidly apply loads (shocks). Rubber is inflammable and
melts at about 370 OF.
Leather - is a durable and flexible material created by tanning animal rawhide and skins. The
most common raw material is cattle hide. It can be produced at manufacturing scales ranging
from artisan to modern industrial scale. Single-ply leather = 0.23 in. thick, Two-ply leather = 0.34
in. thick
Forms of Leather
1. Rawhide - is the salted hide of animals, usually ox hide.
Uses: for gears, for belt lacing, for some belts
2. Tanned Leather - is prepared by treating raw hides with a tanning solution prepared from
oak to bark. Uses: for belting, for hydraulic packing
Rope - is made by straightening and twisting together the fiber of certain plants, especially the
fibers of hemp. It is also made from cotton yarn and there is promise that the fibers of synthetic
nylon may be used to make very strong rope.
Nylon - is a generic designation for a family of synthetic polymers known as polyamides,
which was first produced on February 28, 1935 by Wallace Carothers at DuPont's
research facility at the DuPont Experimental Station.
The used of nylon fibers for rope results in a considerably stronger rope than one made
of Manila hemp. Nylon rope is not subject to rot or to deterioration other than that from
water. A typical use of nylon rope is the TOW ROPE for gliders, in which the nearly perfect,
the relatively small weight of the rope are desirable properties.
Types of Plastics and Their Classifications
Plastic is an essential component of numerous consumer products, including water bottles and
product containers. However, not every kind of plastic is the same. In 1988, the Society of the

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Plastics Industry (SPI) established a classification system to help consumers and recyclers in
properly recycling and disposing each different type based on its chemical makeup.
The Resin Code established by Society of the Plastics Industry (SPI) has been administered
by ASTM International since 2008 through the ASTM International Resin Identification Coding
System (RIC). These are set of symbols appearing on plastic products that identify the plastic
resin out of which the product is made. Nowadays, manufacturers follow a coding system and
place a number, or SPI code, on each plastic product, usually molded into the bottom.
Plastic SPI code 1 is made with polyethylene terephthalate, (PETE or PET). PETE plastic are
used to make many common household items like water and bottles, medicine jars, peanut butter
jars, combs, bean bags, and rope. Recycled PETE is used to make tote bags, carpet, fiberfill
material in winter clothing, and more. Sometimes it absorbs odors and flavors from foods and
drinks. Resins made of methane, xylene and ethylene combined with the chemical ethylene glycol
and other chemicals plus flame retardants and UV stabilizers are PETE ingredients.
Plastic SPI code 2 identifies plastic made with high-density polyethylene, (HDPE). HDPE
products are used for cloudy milk and water jugs, opaque food bottles, motor oil, shampoos and
conditioners, soap bottles, detergents, and bleaches, as well as many personalized toys. They’re
being safe and known not to leach any chemicals into foods or drinks, HDPE products are
commonly recycled. But, due to the risk of contamination from previously held substances, it is
NEVER safe to reuse an HDPE bottle as a food or drink container if it didn’t originally contain food
or drink. Recycled HDPE is used to make plastic crates, plastic lumber, fencing, and more, but
when burned, formaldehyde and dioxin are released if chlorine was used during manufacturing.
Resins made of ethylene and propylene plus flame retardants are HDPE ingredients.
Plastic SPI code 3 is made with polyvinyl chloride, (PVC). PVC are used in some cling wrap,
soft beverage bottles, plastic containers, plumbing pipes, children’s toys, vinyl windows, shower
curtains, shades and blinds, tiles, etc. It is not often recycled and can be harmful if ingested.
Recycled PVC is used to make flooring, mobile home skirting, and other industrial grade items,
but create toxic by-products such as PCB’s and dioxins when burned. Resins from petroleum plus
flame retardants are PVC ingredients.
Plastic SPI code 4 is made with low-density polyethylene, (LDPE). LDPE are used in plastic
cling warp or bubble wrap, squeezable bottles, flexible lids, plastic grocery bags, dry cleaning
bags, as well as sandwich bags (since it is not known to release harmful chemicals into objects
in contact with it, making it a safe choice for food storage). It is not commonly recycled, but LDPE
durability and flexibility make it recyclable in certain applications such as garbage cans, lumber,
furniture, and many other products seen around the house, but when burned, formaldehyde and
dioxin are released if chlorine was used during manufacturing. Resins from ethylene and
propylene plus flame retardants are LDPE ingredients.
Plastic SPI code 5 on plastic items made with polypropylene, (PP). PP are used in yogurt cups,
some baby bottles, syrup bottles, prescription bottles, stadium cups, screw-on caps, toys, drinking
straws, plastic diapers, Tupperware, margarine containers. These plastics are strong and usually
withstand higher temperatures. Plastic bottle caps often made from PP can be recycled but is not
accepted for recycling as commonly as PETE or HDPE. Recycled PP is used to make ice
scrapers, rakes, battery cables, and similar items that need to be durable, but when burned,
formaldehyde and dioxin are released if chlorine was used during manufacturing. Resins from
ethylene and propylene plus flame retardants are PP ingredients.
Plastic SPI code 6 is made with polystyrene, (PS) commonly known as Styrofoam. PS are
used in egg cartons, foam meat trays, packing foam or packing peanuts, clear take out containers
or plastic food boxes, plastic cutlery, toys, disposable coffee cups, and CD containers. Recycled

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 The Polymer Materials and Products

PS is used to make many different kinds of products, including insulation, license plate frames,
and rulers, but recycling it requires much energy and it release styrene and polyaromatic
hydrocarbons when burned, thereby few places accept it. Resins made from ethylene and
propylene resins plus flame retardants are PS ingredients.
Plastic SPI code 7 is used to designate miscellaneous types of plastic that are not defined by
the other six codes which includes polycarbonate (PC) and polylactide. Polycarbonate, is used
in baby bottles, large water bottles (multiple-¬gallon capacity), lining of metal food cans, compact
discs, and medical storage containers. Recycled PC are used to make plastic lumber, among
other products, but these plastics are difficult to recycle, but create toxic by-products such as
PCB’s and dioxins when burned. Resins from petroleum plus flame retardants are PC ingredients.
PVC Pipes Color Designation
Colors are injection molded or extruded throughout the entire pipe and fitting.
White - for proposed excavation, irrigation, and water
Pink - for temporary survey markings
Blue - for potable water
Red - for electrical power lines, cables, conduit, and lighting cables
Green - for sewers and drain lines
Yellow - for gas, oil, steam, petroleum, or gaseous materials
Purple - for reclaimed water, irrigation, and slurry lines
Orange - for communications, alarm or signal lines, cables, or conduit
Gray - for electrical conduit

Failures in Polymers
1. Failure of Elastic Properties
2. Failure by Flow or Creep
3. Failure by Fracture
4. Failure by corrosion

Activities/Assessment to work at home:

1. Research and discuss the Advantages and Disadvantages of using hydrocarbons.
2. Draw the Schematic diagram that summarizes the elements of processing, structure, and
properties (The Spectrum Components of Materials) for polymers and explain using
your own example.
3. Research, Illustrate and discuss the Rubber Harvesting and Process.
4. Recognize and tabulate the different types of polymer materials found in your home,
including the waste you dispose every day.
5. Interview a Materials Engineering Practitioner, and learn how Electronics Engineers could
have a job in such Field.
Reading and Viewing Materials:
1. Materials Science and Engineering, An Introduction 8th Edition by William D. Callister Jr.
and David G. Rethwisch
2. The Science and Design of Engineering Materials 2nd Edition by James P. Schaffer,
Ashok Saxena, Stephen D. Antolovich, Thomas H. Sanders Jr., Steven B. Warner
COMPILATION OF READING AND VIEWING MATERIALS BY: MPGALLEGOJR 13
 The Polymer Materials and Products

3. Elements of Materials Science and Engineering 6th Edition by Lawrence H. Van Vlack
4. Strength of Materials by Ferdinand Singer and Andrew Pyiel
5. The problem with microplastics shown in YouTube
6. Coal, Oil & Gas Hyrdocarbons | Organic Chemistry | Chemistry | FuseSchool shown in
YouTube
7. Hydrocarbons | #aumsum #kids #science #education #children shown in YouTube
8. What are Hydrocarbons? shown in YouTube
9. Hydrocarbons - Aliphatic vs Aromatic Molecules - Saturated & Unsaturated Compounds
shown in YouTube
10. Plastics 101 | National Geographic shown in YouTube
11. Plastic Oceans | What is the impact of pollution in the sea? shown in YouTube
12. How We Can Keep Plastics Out of Our Ocean | National Geographic shown in YouTube
13. Are You Eating Plastic for Dinner? | Short Film Showcase shown in YouTube
14. How Are Plastic Water Bottles Made? by Quality Logo Products shown in YouTube
15. Single Screw Extrusion - Optimizing Extruder Controls - Part 1
16. Injection Molding From The Plastic's Point of View
17. The 20-Year-Old With a Plan to Rid the Sea of Plastic shown in YouTube
18. http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/faculty/reusch/VirtTxtJml/polymers.htm

COMPILATION OF READING AND VIEWING MATERIALS BY: MPGALLEGOJR 14