POROSITY AND

PERMEABILITY
OUTLINE
• POROSITY
• FLUID SATURATION
• QUANTITATIVE USE OF POROSITY
• PERMEABILITY
• PERMEABILITY-POROSITY RELATIONSHIPS
• KOZENY CORRELATION
• CONCEPT OF FLOW UNITS
• MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF FLOW UNITS
• SPECIFIC SURFACE
• FLOW UNIT CHARACTERIZATION
FACTORSE AREA
• FLOW UNITS FUNCTIONS
POROSITY
• The void space created throughout the beds between grains, called
pore space or interstice, is occupied by fluids (liquids and/or gases).
• The porosity of a reservoir rock is defined as that fraction of the bulk
volume of the reservoir that is not occupied by the solid framework of
the reservoir.
• This can be expressed in mathematical form as:
𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑔𝑟 𝑉𝑝
𝜙= =
𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝑏
• Where
• 𝜙 = 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
• 𝑉𝑏 = 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘
• 𝑉𝑔𝑟 = 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
• 𝑉𝑝 = 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
• According to this definition, the porosity of porous materials could
have any value, but the porosity of most sedimentary rocks is
generally lower than 50%.
• [example] A clean and dry core sample weighing 425 g was 100%
saturated with 1.07 specific gravity (γ) brine. The new weight is 453 g.
The core sample is 12 cm in length and 4 cm in diameter. Calculate
the porosity of the rock sample.
FLUID SATURATION
• Fluid saturation is expressed as the fraction, or percent, of the total
pore volume occupied by the oil, gas, or water.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘, 𝑉𝑜
𝑆𝑜 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘, 𝑉𝑝
• Similar expressions can be written for gas and water
𝑆𝑜 + 𝑆𝑔 + 𝑆𝑤 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑜 + 𝑉𝑔 + 𝑉𝑤 = 𝑉𝑝
• Connate water is the seawater
trapped in porous spaces of the
sediments during their deposition
and lithification, long before the oil
migrated into the reservoir rock.
• In addition to density, wettability
and interfacial tension combine to
alter the manner in which the three
fluids are distributed in the
reservoir.
QUANTITATIVE USE OF POROSITY
• One of the simplest methods of calculating reservoir oil content is
called the volumetric method
• The mathematical expression for the initial oil-in-place (N, in bbl) by
this method is:
𝑁 = 7758𝐴𝑠 ℎ𝜙𝑆𝑜𝑖
Where
𝐴𝑠 = surface area of the reservoir, acres
ℎ = thickness of the formation, ft
𝜙 = porosity, fraction
𝑆𝑜𝑖 = initial oil saturation, fraction
• The surface or “stock tank” oil as finally sold by the producer is different
from the liquid volume that existed underground
• The difference is due to the changes in the oil properties as the pressure
is decreased from high underground pressure and temperature to surface
pressure and temperature
• This reduction in p and T causes some of the volatile components to come
out of solution (evaporate), causing the liquid volume to shrink
• This reduction in volume is expressed by the oil formation volume factor,
Boi. The stock tank oil initially in place is:
𝐴𝑠 ℎ𝜙(1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖 )
𝑁 = 7758
𝐵𝑜𝑖
Where Boi is in reservoir barrels per stock tank barrel or bbl/STB.
• Soi is replaced by (1-Siw), where Siw is the irreducible or
connate water saturation.
• This implies that no free gas is present in the pore space.
• Because no petroleum reservoir is homogenous, the factors As,
h, ϕ, and Siw, just be averaged. The constant 7758 becomes
10,000 if As, h are expressed in hectares (ha) (1 hectare=10000
m2) and m, respectively, and N in m3.
• [Example] Calculate the initial oil-in-place (N) of an oil reservoir
if A=1600 acres, h=32 ft,ɸ=22%, Siw=20%, and Boi=1.23
bb1/STB.
 7758 1600 (32)(0.22)(1 − 0.20)
𝑁= = 56.8 × 106 𝑆𝑇𝐵
1.23
• In this case, it is convenient to express the gas volume in cubic feet. At
standard conditions, i.e., Psc=14.7 psia and Tsc=60 °F, the initial gas in-
place in a volumetric reservoir is given by:
𝐴𝑠 ℎ𝜙(1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖 )
𝐺 = 43560
𝐵𝑔𝑖
where Bgi, the initial gas formation volume factor in ft3/SCF, is calculated as:
𝑧𝑖 𝑇
𝐵𝑔𝑖 = 0.02829
𝑝𝑖
• The initial gas deviation (also called compressibility) factor, zi, is calculated
at the initial pressure, pi, of the gas reservoir. This factor accounts for the
difference between the actual and ideal gas volumes. The reservoir
temperature, T, is in degree Rankin (°R).
• A volumetric gas reservoir has the following characteristics:
A=1320 acres, h=45 ft, ɸ=0.175, Siw=0.23, T=200 OF, Pi=4000 psia,
zi=0.916
PERMEABILITY
• a reservoir rock must have the ability to allow petroleum fluids to
flow through its interconnected pores, The rock’s ability to conduct
fluids is termed as permeability.
• The permeability of a rock depends on its effective porosity,
consequently, it is affected by the rock grain size, grain shape, grain
size distribution (sorting), grain packing, and the degree of
consolidation and cementation
• French engineer Henry Darcy
(1856) developed a fluid flow
equation that since has become
one of the standard mathematical
tools of the petroleum engineer
𝑞 𝑘 𝑑𝑝
𝑣= =−
𝐴 𝜇 𝑑𝑙 𝑘=−
𝑞𝜇𝐿
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 𝐴
v=fluid velocity, cm/s
q = flow rate cm3/s p1=inlet pressure
k=permeability of the porous rock, Darcy (0.986923 μm2)
A=cross-sectional area of the core sample, cm2 P2=outlet pressure
μ=viscosity of the fluid, centipoises (cP)
l=length of the core sample, cm *valid for noncompressible or
dp/dl=pressure gradient in the direction of the flow, atm/cm
slightly compressible fluids
(liquid)
• Dry gas (air) has been selected as the
standard fluid for use in permeability
determination because it minimizes
fluid-rock reaction and is easy to use.
• For compressible fluids (gas) k is
obtained from:
𝑞𝜇𝑔 𝐿
𝑘=−
𝑝12 − 𝑝22 𝐴
• Air permeability measured in a routine
core analysis laboratory on a
(nonfractured) core sample will give
higher values than the actual reservoir Klinkenberg showed that at low mean pressure Pm (e.g., 1
permeability, especially with a liquid as atm) the gas molecules are so far apart that they “slip”
the flowing fluid. through the pore spaces with little friction loss, and yield a
higher permeability. At high Pm (e.g., 1000 psia or greater)
• The difference is due to gas slippage (or the gas molecules are close together and experience a
Klinkenberg) effect and overburden friction drag at the side of the pore walls. This increases as
pressure effects. Pm increases, with the gas acting more and more like
liquid.
• The relationship between air • b may be determined from
permeability and liquid permeability unsteady state measurements.
is: Jones experimentally showed that:
1 𝑏 = 6.9𝑘𝐿−0.36
𝑘𝑎 = 𝑐 + 𝑘𝐿
𝑃𝑚 • For high permeability cores, testing
𝑘𝑎 = 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 laboratories will often make their
𝑐 = slope of the line tests with one high mean pressure
𝑘𝐿 and neglect the Klinkenberg
= 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦, correction.
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑘 • If only one measurement of air
• Klinkenberg expressed the slope c permeability (ka) is made, the
as: correct kL can be obtained from
𝑐 = 𝑏𝑘𝐿 the following expression:
b= the pore geometry factor 6.9𝑘𝐿0.64 + 𝑃𝑚 𝑘𝐿 − 𝑃𝑚 𝑘𝑎 = 0
• One darcy is relatively high • In presence of more than one fluid,
permeability. The permeability of permeability is called the “effective”
most petroleum reservoir rocks is less permeability (ko, kg, or kw being oil,
than one darcy. Thus, a smaller unit of gas, or water effective permeability,
permeability, the millidarcy (mD), is respectively).
widely used in the oil and gas industry. • In presence of more than one fluid in
• One Darcy is 1 cm3 per second of a the rock, the ratio of effective
fluid having viscosity of 1 cP flowing permeability of any phase to the
through a 1 cm3 cross-section of rock absolute permeability of the rock is
under a pressure gradient of 1 known as the “relative” permeability
atm/cm. (kr) of that phase.
• The permeability, k, is termed the • For example, the relative permeability
“absolute” permeability if the rock is of the oil, gas, and water would be
100% saturated with a single fluid (or kro=ko/k, krg=kg/k, krw=kw/k,
phase), such as oil, gas, or water. respectively.
 PERMEABILITY-POROSITY RELATIONSHIPS
• In this case, the relationship between
permeability and porosity is
qualitative and is not directly or
indirectly quantitative in any way.
• It is possible to have very high
porosity without having any
permeability at all, as in the case of
pumice stone (where the effective
porosity is nearly 0), clays, and
shales.
• The reverse of high permeability with
a low porosity might also be true,
Permeability-porosity relationship in sandstone reservoir
such as in micro-fractured
carbonates.
PERMEABILITY-POROSITY RELATIONSHIPS
PERMEABILITY-POROSITY RELATIONSHIPS
• Many correlations relating
permeability, porosity, pore size,
specific surface area, irreducible
fluid saturation, and other
variables have been made.
• Some of these relationships are
presented here for the sole
purpose of enabling the reader to
form a reasonable understanding
of the interrelation of the rock
properties in petroleum reservoirs.
KOZENY CORRELATION
• Kozeny derived one of the most 𝑛𝜋𝑟 4 ∆𝑝
•𝑞= (1)
fundamental and popular correlations 8𝜇 𝐿
expressing permeability as a function • where the pressure loss ΔP over length
of porosity and specific surface area L is expressed in dynes/cm2. Darcy’s
• Consider a porous rock sample of law can also approximate the flow of
cross-sectional area A and length L as fluids through these n capillaries:
being made up of a number, n, of 𝑘𝐴 ∆𝑃
•𝑞= (2)
straight capillary tubes in parallel, with 𝜇 𝐿
the spaces between the tubes sealed • where Ac is the total cross-sectional
by a cementing material. area, including cemented zones, of this
• If the capillary tubes are all of the bundle of capillary tubes
same radius r (cm) and length L (cm), 𝑛𝜋𝑟 4
the flow rate q (cm3/s) through this •𝑘= (3)
8𝐴
bundle of tubes, according to • By definition, porosity is
Poiseuille’s equation, is: 𝑉𝑝 𝑛𝜋𝑟 2
𝜙= = (4)
𝑉𝐵 𝐴
• Substituting A=nπr2/ϕ from 𝐴𝑆 𝑛(2𝜋𝑟𝐿) 2
• 𝑆𝑉𝑝 = = = (6)
Equation 4 into equation 3, one 𝑉𝑝 𝑛(𝜋𝑟 2 𝐿) 𝑟
obtains a simpler relationship • Let 𝑆𝑉𝑝 be the specific surface area
between permeability and porosity of a porous material or the total
for pores of the same size and radial area exposed within the pore space
equal to r: per unit of grain volume. For a
𝜙𝑟 2 bundle of capillary tubes, the total
•𝑘= (5) area exposed, At, is equivalent to
8
• where k is in cm2 (1 cm2=1.013x108 the internal surface area As, and the
darcy) or in μm2 (1 mD=9.8717x10-4 grain volume, Vgr, is equal to AL(1-
μm2) and ϕ is a fraction. ϕ). Thus
𝑛(2𝜋𝑟𝐿) 2𝑛𝜋𝑟
• Let 𝑆𝑉𝑝 be the internal surface area • 𝑆𝑉𝑔𝑟 = = =
𝐴𝐿(1−𝜙) 𝐴(1−𝜙)
per unit of pore volume; here, the 2𝑛𝜋𝑟 2 2 𝜙
surface area As for n capillary tubes (7)
𝐴 𝑟 (1−𝜙)
is n(2πrL) and the pore volume Vp is
n(πr2L):
• Combining Equations (4), (6), and A core sample from a uniform
(7) gives: sandstone formation has a
𝜙 permeability of 480 mD and a
• 𝑆𝑉𝑔𝑟 = 𝑆𝑉𝑝 (8) porosity of 0.17. Estimate:
(1−𝜙)
• Equation (5) can be written as (a) The average pore throat radius of
𝜙 1 1 the core.
•𝑘= = 2 𝜙 (9)
2 (2Τ𝑟)2 2𝑆𝑉 𝑝 (b) Specific surface areas SVp and SVgr
• Substituting for SVp from Equation
(9) yields:
1 𝜙3
•𝑘= 2 2 (10)
𝑆𝑉 𝑔𝑟
(1−𝜙)
• the average path length that a fluid particle must travel is actually
greater than the length L of the core sample
• The departure of a porous medium from being made up by a bundle of
straight capillary tubes can be measured by the tortuosity coefficient, τ,
𝐿𝑎 2
𝜏=
𝐿
• Equation is preferred here because in most laboratory experiments, the
product of the formation resistivity factor (F) and porosity is related to
the ratio La/L by the following correlation
𝐶
𝐿𝑎
𝐹𝜙 =
𝐿
• The exponent C is the correlation constant, which ranges from 1.7 to 2.
• Note that this range is rather similar to that of the cementation factor
m.
• Thus, for a bundle of tortuous
capillary tubes, Poiseuille’s law • Wyllie and Spangler suggested that
becomes: the factor 2 be replaced by a more
𝑛𝜋𝑟 4 Δ𝑝 general parameter, namely, the pore
•𝑞=
2𝜇 𝐿 𝜏 shape factor Kps.
𝑟2
•𝑘= 𝜙 • Carman reported that the product
8𝜏
1 Kpsτ may be approximated by 5 for
•𝑘= 2 𝜙 most porous materials
2𝜏𝑆𝑉𝑝
1 𝜙3
1 𝜙3 •𝑘=
•𝑘= 2 2
2
5𝑆𝑉 (1−𝜙) 2
2𝜏𝑆𝑉 𝑔𝑟
(1−𝜙) 𝑔𝑟
CONCEPT OF FLOW UNITS
1. A flow unit is a specific volume of reservoir, composed of one or
more reservoir quality lithologies
2. A flow unit is correlative and mappable at the interval scale.
3. A flow unit zonation is recognizable on wire-line log.
4. A flow unit may be in communication with other flow units.
MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF FLOW UNITS
1 𝜙𝑒3
𝑘=
𝐾𝑇 𝑠𝑉2𝑔𝑟 1 − 𝜙𝑒 2

• 𝜙𝑒 = effective porosity
• 𝑘 = permeability, μm2
• 𝑠𝑉𝑔𝑟 = specific surface area per unit grain volume
• 𝜏 = tortuosity of the flow path
• 𝐾𝑇 = 𝐾𝑃𝑆 𝜏 = effective zoning factor
• The parameter KT, called here the pore-level effective zoning factor, is a
function of pore size and shape, grain size and shape, pore and grain
distribution, tortuosity, cementation, and type of pore system, e.g.,
intergranular, intercrystalline, vuggy, or fractured. This parameter varies
between flow units, but is constant within a given unit.
• The parameter KT for a homogeneous sandstone formation can be estimated
from
1
𝐾𝑇 = 2
𝐽1
• The lithology index J1 is determined from capillary pressure data.
∗
Experimental data show that the plot of the Leverett J-function,𝐽(𝑆𝑤 )
against the normalized water saturation 𝑆𝑤∗ on a log-log graph yields a
straight line according to the following equation:
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐽(𝑆𝑤∗ ) = −𝜆log ( 𝑆𝑤∗ ) + log(𝐽1 )
• where J1 is the intercept of the straight line (extrapolated IF necessary) at
𝑆𝑤∗ = 1
• The normalized water saturation is defined as:
∗
𝑆𝑤 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖
𝑆𝑤 =
1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖
• The pore size distribution index λ is the slope of the line.
• The lithology index J1 ranges from 0.44 for an unconsolidated spherical grain
to 0.20 for a consolidated clean sandstone formation with homogeneous
pore size distribution
• shows typical values of J1 and KT for different formations
• High values of J1 are usually found in high permeability reservoirs, while low
values of J1 correspond to low permeability reservoirs

Determining KT from a plot of J versus 𝑆𝑤∗

Low values of λ(<1) and J1 (<0.10)

typically indicate that the formation has
a heterogeneous
pore size distribution and poorly
connected pores, which is the case of
the reservoir depicted where J1=0.05
and, therefore, KT=400.
SPECIFIC SURFACE AREA
• The specific surface area can be estimated by at least three techniques: the
gas adsorption method, PIA, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR).
• log-log plot of sVgr (cm-1) versus the mean grain diameter dgr (cm) yielded
the following correlation:
4.27
𝑠𝑉𝑔𝑟 = (1)
𝑑𝑔𝑟
• The numerator is actually the grain-shaped factor Kgs. The mean grain
diameter can be obtained from several methods: sieve analysis, PIA, a
compactor and micrometer. This correlation is applicable to grains with
sphericity≥0.7 and roundness≥0.5. The general form of Equation (1) is:
𝐾𝑔𝑆
𝑠𝑉𝑔𝑟 =
𝑑𝑔𝑟
• The petrographic image analysis or PIA method may be used to characterize
the porous rock if well-prepared samples are available, i.e., samples with
good optical contrast between the pores and grains, and the thin sections
are obtained at overburden conditions.
• The specific pore surface can be determined from:
 4𝐿𝑝
𝑆𝑝𝑣 =
𝜋𝐴𝑃
• where Lp and AP are the pore perimeter and the pore cross-section,
respectively. Using PIA, a planar pore shape factor fps can be determined
as:
𝐿𝑝 2
𝑓𝑝𝑠 =
4𝜋𝐴𝑃
• The range of fps is 3.75(sphericity of 0.5 or less and roundness of 0.3 or
less) to 5.84(sphericity of 0.5 or less and roundness greater than 0.5).
• There is no practical relation between the 2D pore-shaped factor fps and
the 3D pore-shaped factor Kps. For an ideal spherical pore fps=1 and
Kps=6.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance or NMR
• In this case, the specific surface areas sVgr and spv are obtained from:
𝑠𝑉𝑔𝑟 = 𝐴𝑁𝑀𝑅𝜌𝑚
1−𝜙
𝑆𝑝𝑣 = 𝐴𝑁𝑀𝑅𝜌𝑚
𝜙
Where
ANMR=NMR surface area of dry material, m2/g
ρm=grain-matrix density, g/cm3
• sVgr=specific surface area per unit grain volume, m2/cm3
FLOW UNIT CHARACTERIZATION FACTORS

Reservoir quality index (RQI)

Flow zone indicator (FZI)

Tiab flow unit characterization factor (HT)

Free fluid index (FFI)

Reservoir quality index (RQI)

𝑘 1 𝜙
=
𝜙 𝑆𝑉𝑔𝑟 𝐾𝑇 1−𝜙
• If permeability is expressed in millidarcies and porosity as a fraction,
the left-hand side of Equation above becomes:
𝑘
𝑅𝑄𝐼 = 0,0314
𝜙
• where RQI is expressed in micrometers or μm (1 μm=10-6 m)
Flow zone indicator (FZI)
1
𝐹𝑍𝐼 =
𝑠𝑉𝑔𝑟 𝐾𝑇
𝑅𝑄𝐼 = 𝐹𝑍𝐼 𝜙𝑍
where 𝜙𝑍 is the ratio of pore volume to grain volume:
𝜙
𝜙𝑍 =
1−𝜙
Taking the logarithm of Equation above on both sides yields:
log 𝑅𝑄𝐼 = log 𝜙𝑍 + log(𝐹𝑍𝐼)
Flow zone indicator (FZI)
• The FZI is a unique parameter that includes the geological attributes
of the texture and mineralogy in the structure of distinct pore
geometrical facies.
• In general, rocks containing authogenic pore lining, pore filling, and
pore bridging clay as well as fine grained, poorly sorted sands tend to
exhibit high surface area and high tortuosity, hence low FZI.
• In contrast, less shaly, coarse-grained, and well-sorted sand exhibit a
lower surface area, low shape factor, lower tortuosity, and higher FZI.
• Different depositional environments and diagenetic processes control
the geometry of the reservoir and consequently the flow zone index.
Tiab flow unit characterization factor (HT)
1 𝜙3
𝐻𝑇 = 𝐾𝑇 𝑠𝑉2𝑔𝑟 =
𝑘 (1 − 𝜙)2
Substituting for KT=τKps and SVgr
2
𝐾𝑔𝑠
𝐻𝑇 = 𝐾𝑝𝑠 𝜏
𝑑𝑔𝑟
Tortuosity can be estimated from
𝜏 = 𝜙1−𝑚
2
1−𝑚
𝐾𝑔𝑠
𝐻𝑇 = 𝐾𝑝𝑠 𝜙
𝑑𝑔𝑟
1
𝐻𝑇 =
𝐹𝑍𝐼 2
The free fluid index (FFI)
• The free fluid index (FFI) is defined as the product of hydrocarbon
saturation and porosity.
• It is a measure of movable liquids, oil and/or water, and, therefore, it is
connected to the flow unit. Mathematically, it is expressed as:
𝐹𝐹𝐼 = 𝜙 1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖𝑟
2
4 4
𝐹𝐹𝐼
𝑘 = 10 𝜙
𝜙 − 𝐹𝐹𝐼
𝐹𝐹𝐼
𝑅𝑄𝐼 = 3.14 𝜙3
𝜙 − 𝐹𝐹𝐼
• where FFI and porosity are expressed as a fraction, permeability in mD, and
RQI in μm.
 3.14𝐹𝐹𝐼
log 𝑅𝑄𝐼 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝜙3 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝜙 3 + log(𝐼𝐹 )
𝜙 − 𝐹𝐹𝐼
• a log-log plot of the RQI versus 𝜙 3 should yield a straight line of slope
unity, assuming the flow unit is in a clean homogeneous sandstone
formation.
• The intercept IF at 𝜙 3 = 1 , as shown below, may be used similarly to
FZI, i.e., core samples that lie on the same straight line have similar pore-
throat characteristics and irreducible water saturation and, therefore,
constitute a flow unit.
ത𝐹
𝜙𝐼
𝐹𝐹𝐼 =
3.14 + 𝐼𝐹

𝐹𝐹𝐼
𝑆𝑤𝑖𝑟 =1−
𝜙ത
RQI versus 𝜙 3 shows three flow units.

1
𝐼𝐹 = 𝐹𝑍𝐼
ത 𝜙
(1 − 𝜙)
EXAMPLE 1
a. Estimate the permeability (mD) of a reservoir rock that has a
porosity of 15% and an irreducible water saturation of 24%.
b. Assuming this permeability is representative of the flow unit,
calculate the reservoir quality index RQI (μm).
c. Calculate the flow zone indicator FZI
d. Calculate the Tiab flow unit characterization factor HT
Solution 1 (a&b)
a. The FFI is calculated from Equation
𝐹𝐹𝐼 = 𝜙 1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖𝑟
The permeability is estimated from Equation
2
4 4
𝐹𝐹𝐼
𝑘 = 10 𝜙
𝜙 − 𝐹𝐹𝐼
b. The reservoir quality index RQI is calculated from Equation
𝐹𝐹𝐼
𝑅𝑄𝐼 = 3.14 𝜙3
𝜙 − 𝐹𝐹𝐼
𝑘
𝑅𝑄𝐼 = 0,0314
𝜙
Solution 1 (c&d)
a. Calculate the FZI from Equation
𝜙
𝜙𝑍 =
1−𝜙
𝑅𝑄𝐼 = 𝐹𝑍𝐼 𝜙𝑍
d. The Tiab flow unit characterization factor HT is
1
𝐻𝑇 =
𝐹𝑍𝐼 2
FLOW UNITS FUNCTIONS
• Capillary pressure concepts are used to evaluate reservoir rock
quality, pay versus nonpay, fluid saturations and contacts, thickness of
transition zones, as well as approximate recovery efficiency during
primary or secondary recovery.
• Water saturation versus height can be estimated from the J-function
for each well using (a) foot-by-foot porosity and permeability data,
and (b) measured or estimated reservoir fluid densities and interfacial
tension.
• Core data are used where available.
• Porosity logs and permeability-porosity correlations are used if a well
was not cored.
Fluid distribution in a water-wet homogeneous reservoir. Capillary pressure pc controls
fluid distribution in the reservoir and the fluid production. pd is the displacement
pressure or entry pressure.
• The J-function, which was proposed by Leverett, is expressed as:
0.2166𝑃𝑐 𝑘
𝐽 𝑆𝑊 =
𝜎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝜙
Where
k=permeability, mD
ɸ=porosity, fraction
σ=interfacial tension between oil and water, dyne/cm
θ=contact angle, degree (equal to 0 for a strongly water wet reservoir)
J(Sw)=Leverett J-function, dimensionless
• This function averages capillary pressure data by accounting for sample
to sample variations in permeability and porosity, and for differences in
interfacial tension if tests were performed using a pair of fluids, e.g., oil
and water.
• Capillary pressure data are obtained from the following equation:
(𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑜 )𝐻𝑓𝑤
𝑃𝑐 =
144
Where
𝜌𝑜 = density of oil, lb/ft3
𝜌𝑤 = density of water, lb/ft3
𝐻𝑓𝑤 =height above free water level or level where Pc=0, ft
Pc=capillary pressure, psia
If density is expressed in g/cm3, Pc in psi, and Hfw in ft, Equation becomes:
𝑃𝑐 = 0.433(𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑜 )𝐻𝑓𝑤
RESERVOIR ZONATION USING NORMALIZED RQI
• In such a plot, consistent zones are
characterized by straight lines with the
slope of the line indicating the overall
reservoir quality within a particular depth
interval.
• The lower the slope the better the
reservoir quality.
• The equation used for calculating
normalized cumulative RQI is:
σ𝑖𝑥=1 𝑘𝑖 Τ𝜙𝑖
𝑅𝑄𝐼𝑛𝑐 =
σ𝑛𝑛=1 𝑘𝑖 Τ𝜙𝑖
 EFFECT OF PACKING ON PERMEABILITY EFFECT OF WATER SATURATION ON
PERMEABILITY
• [Slichter] influence of packing and • [Wyllie and Rose] investigated the effect of
grain size on permeability: irreducible water saturation Swi and porosity
𝑑𝑔𝑠 on the absolute permeability, and developed
𝑘 = 10.2 the following empirical correlation:
𝑎𝑝 3 2
𝑎𝑤𝑟 𝜙
• where k is the permeability in 𝑘=
Darcy, dgr is the diameter of 𝑆𝑤𝑖
spherical grains in mm, and ap is should be used only in the presence of clastic
the packing constant, which may sediment
be estimated from:
𝑎𝑝 = 0.97𝜙 −3.3 • where awr is a constant depending on the
hydrocarbon density. For a medium gravity oil
• correlation is valid primarily for awr=250 and for dry gas awr =79, k is in mD, and
sandstone formations: ϕ and Swi are fractions
𝑘 = 10.5𝑑𝑔𝑟 𝜙 3.3 • A similar expression was derived by Timur:
𝜙 4.4
𝑘 = 0.136 2
𝑆𝑤𝑖
• Capillary pressure data are affected by the pore throat sizes and, hence,
by the permeability of the rock.
• The smaller the pores, the lower the permeability, and the higher the
water saturation.
• Water wet coarse grain sand and oolitic and vuggy carbonates with large
pores have low capillary pressure and low interstitial water content.
• Often the water-oil contact elevation is substituted as an approximation
for the free water level.
• Depending upon density differences and rock pore sizes, the water-oil
contact may be very close or tens of feet higher than the free water level.
6.9𝑃𝑐
𝐽 𝑆𝑤 = 𝑅𝑄𝐼
𝜎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
6.9𝑃𝑐
𝐽 𝑆𝑤 = 𝜙𝑧 𝐹𝑍𝐼
𝜎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
DIRECTIONAL PERMEABILITY
• In homogeneous reservoirs, permeability is assumed to be the same in all
directions
• The net impact of such changing permeability in different directions on the
natural recovery of a reservoir and the efficiency of a waterflood project
can be of significant importance
• Horizontal well test analysis and selective zonal well testing techniques
provide the estimates of directional permeability
• Core samples are also analyzed for directional permeability in the
laboratory.
• The latest technological developments in well logging also provide the
estimates of directional permeability.
ANISOTROPY
• Directional permeability is frequently used to express the degree of
heterogeneity in the formation
• From the engineering point of view, the net effect of anisotropy is the
loss or gain in effective permeability of a reservoir rock.
• the resulting average permeability is always less than the highest
permeability in any direction in the reservoir
• For example, reservoirs with vertical fractures have higher
permeability in the vertical direction and low matrix permeability in
the horizontal direction. Such variation in permeability is termed
anisotropy.
ANISOTROPY
𝑘𝑣
𝐼𝐴 =
𝑘ℎ
• Horizontal (kH) and vertical (kV) permeabilities are determined from
core analysis on a regular basis.
• kH and kV can more accurately be determined from interference
testing. Selective zonal well test analysis in the same wellbore is
typically used to estimate vertical permeability
Three flow periods can be identified from
this plot:
• Period 1: It corresponds to the initial
radial flow over the completion interval.
During this period the reservoir behaves
as if the formation thickness were equal
to the length of the open zone. Period 1
is generally masked by wellbore storage
effect.
• Period 2: It corresponds to a transition
period during which spherical flow (or
hemispherical flow) may be identified.
• Period 3: It corresponds to a second
radial flow, but this time over the total
formation thickness.
PERMEABILITY AND POROSITY DISTRIBUTIONS
• For many reservoir applications, e.g., predicting reservoir
performance during waterflooding, a quantitative description of the
vertical heterogeneity of the formation is necessary
• Geostatistical methods are often used to describe the spatial
distribution of many reservoir parameters, including permeability and
porosity.
• Modern geostatistical procedures, using powerful computers, can be
used to
• (a) interpolate and extrapolate the permeability of unsampled locations, and
• (b) provide the quantitative relationship describing the spatial distribution of
permeability.
PERMEABILITY AND POROSITY DISTRIBUTIONS
• The two widely used statistical parameters used to describe the
degree of heterogeneity are:
• Lorenz coefficient LK and
• Dykstra-Parsons permeability variation VK

*Kelkar and Perezdescribe fundamental concepts of geostatistics

applicable in petroleum reservoirs
LORENZ COEFFICIENT LK The Lorenz coefficient is calculated as
follows:
1. Tabulate thickness h, permeability k,
and porosity ϕ
2. Arrange permeability data in a
descending order
3. Calculate the cumulative
permeability capacity σ(𝑘ℎ)𝑖 and
cumulative capacity volume σ(𝜙ℎ)𝑖
4. Calculate the normalized cumulative
capacities 𝐶𝐾 = σ(𝑘ℎ)𝑖 Τσ(𝑘ℎ)𝑡 and
𝜙𝐾 = σ(𝜙ℎ)𝑖 Τσ(𝜙ℎ)𝑡
5. Plot Ck versus Cϕ on a Cartesian
graph as shown in beside
6. calculate the Lorenz coefficient
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐴
Flow capacity distribution 𝐿𝐾 =
𝐿𝑘 ≈ 0 → a uniform permeability
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴𝐷𝐶𝐴
Distribution
𝐿𝑘 ≈ 1 → completely heterogeneous
DYKSTRA-PARSONS COEFFICIENT VK
• The coefficient of variation, or Dykstra-Parsons coefficient (VK), is
another measure of heterogeneity.
• It is defined as the ratio of the sample standard deviation(s) to the
mean.
• The coefficient of variation is also used to provide a relative measure
of data dispersion compared to the mean for the normal (bell-
shaped) distribution.
• When the VK is small (near 0), the data scatter compared to the mean
is small. When the VK is large (near 1) compared to the mean, the
amount of variation is large.
• Dykstra and Parsons used the log-normal distribution of permeability to define
the coefficient of permeability variation, VK
𝑠
𝑉𝐾 =
𝑘ത
where s and k are the standard deviation and the mean value of 𝑘,ത respectively
• The standard deviation of a group of n data points is:
ത 2
σ𝑛𝑖=1(𝑘𝑖 − 𝑘) σ𝑛𝑖=1(𝑘𝑖2 − 𝑛𝑘)2
𝑠= or 𝑠 =
𝑛−1 𝑛−1
• For a log-normal permeability distribution, the Dykstra-Parsons coefficient can be
estimated from Equation
𝑘𝑎
𝑉𝐾 = 1 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝 − ln
𝑘ℎ
where ka and kh are, respectively, the arithmetic and harmonic average
permeability.
• The Dykstra-Parsons coefficient is an excellent tool for characterizing the degree of
reservoirs heterogeneity. The term VK is also called the Reservoir Heterogeneity Index.
The range of this index is 0<VK<1:
▪ VK =0, ideal homogeneous reservoir.
▪ 0< VK <0.25, slightly heterogeneous, can be approximated by a homogeneous model in
reservoir simulation with minimal error.
▪ 0.25< VK <0.50, heterogeneous reservoir, geometric averaging technique is applicable. If
the index is closer to 0.50, run the numerical simulator with the heterogeneous model.
▪ 0.50< VK <0.75, the reservoir is very heterogeneous, a combination of geometric and
harmonic averaging technique is necessary.
▪ 0.75< VK <1, the reservoir is extremely heterogeneous, none of the conventional
averaging techniques (arithmetic, geometric, and harmonic) are applicable in this range.
▪ VK =1, perfectly heterogeneous reservoir. It is unlikely that such reservoirs exist, as
geologic processes of deposition and accumulation of sediments are not extreme.
Using this figure, derived the following two correlations
relating the Lorenz coefficient LK and the Dykstra-Parsons
coefficient VK:
𝐿𝑘 = 0.0116356 + 0.339794𝑉𝐾 + 1.066405𝑉𝐾2 − 0.3852407𝑉𝐾3
𝑉𝑘 = −0.000505971 + 1.7475225𝐿𝑘 − 1.468855𝐿2𝐾 + 0.701023𝐿3𝐾
AVERAGING TECHNIQUES FOR PERMEABILITY

Arithmetic average

Geometric average

Harmonic average

Weighted average
Arithmetic average Geometric average
σ 𝑘𝑖 • In heterogeneous and anisotropic
𝑘𝐴 = formations, a geometric average,
𝑛 which assumes random
• If the analysis of pressure transient distribution of the matrix, is
tests yields much lower preferable:
permeability values than those 𝑘𝐺 = 𝑛 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘3 … 𝑘𝑛
obtained from core data, the
lateral continuity of the producing • The main weakness of the
formation may not be sufficient to geometric mean is if one individual
justify the arithmetic averaging. value of k is 0, the entire average
becomes 0. To avoid this zeroing
effect in reservoir simulation, a
relatively small value is assigned to
the block that has zero
permeability. It should be noted
that even shale has permeability in
the order of 10-7 mD.
Harmonic average Weighted average
• The harmonic averaging technique • The three equastions before assume
is best suited for layers in series the weight factors, wi, are equal, and
such as in composite systems. that the flow is one-dimensional.
• This technique is extensively used • If the weight factors are not equal,
in reservoir simulation studies then these equations become,
where different grid cells are in respectively:
𝑛
series. 1
𝑛 𝑘𝐴 = ෍ 𝑤𝑖 𝑘𝑖
𝑘𝐻 = 𝑛 𝑛
σ𝑖=1(1Τ𝑘𝑖 ) 𝑖=1
𝑛 1Τ𝑛
𝑘𝐺 = ෑ 𝑘𝑖 𝑤𝑖
𝐼=1
𝑛
𝑘𝐻 = 𝑛
σ𝑖=1 𝑤𝑖 𝑘𝑖
• The thickness of the formation (or height of the core sample)
corresponding to each permeability is a common weighting factor; thus,
the thickness-weighted arithmetic mean is:
σ𝑛𝑗=1 𝑘𝑗 ℎ𝑗
𝑘𝐴 = 𝑛
σ𝑗=1 ℎ𝑗
𝑘𝐴 < 𝑘𝐺 < 𝑘𝐻
• The average radial or horizontal permeability, kr, is best determined from
a pressure buildup or drawdown test. The average radial permeability of
a heterogeneous and anisotropic system is estimated from:
2
𝑘𝑟 = 𝑘𝑥 𝑘𝑦 − 𝑘𝑥𝑦
• where kx, ky, and kxy are components of the symmetrical permeability
tensor aligned with the coordinate system. These components are best
determined from a multiwell interference test
 EFFECTIVE PERMEABILITY FROM CORE DATA
• The effective permeability, • And 𝜎𝑘2 is the variance of the
obtained from core data natural log of the permeability
𝜎𝑘2 estimates:
𝑘𝑒 = 1 + 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑘𝐺 𝑛 ത 2
6 2
σ𝑖=1 ln 𝑘𝑖 − ln 𝑘
𝜎𝑘 =
𝑛−1
• where kG is the geometric mean of Where
the natural log of permeability, i.e.: σ ln 𝑘𝑖
ln 𝑘ത =
𝑛
𝑛
𝑘𝐺 = ln 𝑘1 ln 𝑘2 ln 𝑘3 … 𝑘𝑛
• The effective permeability obtained should be expected to be in the same
range as the effective permeability obtained from the interpretation of a
pressure transient test, if VK<0.25.
• The average effective permeability obtained from pressure transient test
should be considered as an accurate representation of the reservoir, but
only within the drainage area of the test.
• Beyond this drainage area, the average permeability could be different if
the radial variation in permeability is significant.
• As long as the measurements are consistent, the core derived permeability
can be very useful in completion design, particularly in choosing the
phasing and vertical spacing of perforation
AVERAGE POROSITY • For classified data, i.e., arranged in
AND SATURATION increasing or decreasing order, the
arithmetic mean porosity is given by:
𝑛

𝜙ത = ෍ 𝜙𝑖 𝑓𝑖
𝑖=1
𝜙𝑖 = porosity at the midpoint of range,
fraction
𝑓𝑖 = frequency for porosity range,
fraction
n=number of porosity ranges
• For unclassified data, the arithmetic
mean porosity is:
𝑛
1
𝜙ത = ෍ 𝜙𝑖
𝑛
𝑖=1
• The thickness weighted average porosity is:
σ𝑛𝑗=1 𝜙𝑗 ℎ𝑗
𝜙ത =
σ𝑛𝑗=1 ℎ𝑗

• The average water saturation from a stratified core section can be obtained
by PV (pore volume) weighting
σ𝑛𝑗=1 𝑆𝑤𝑗 𝜙𝑗 ℎ𝑗
𝑆𝑤 =
σ𝑛𝑗=1 𝜙𝑗 ℎ𝑗
PERMEABILITY FROM WELL TEST DATA
• To utilize these pressure curves, some knowledge of the response of
the curve to a given formation conditions is necessary.
• Basic to this knowledge is an understanding of various analytical
equations describing the flow of fluids through porous media.
• These equations, which are solutions of diffusivity equations for
different boundary conditions, express the relationship between
characteristics of the porous rock, such as porosity and permeability,
and properties of the fluids (oil, gas, and water) moving through the
rock.
• The basic well testing technique is to create a pressure drop in the bottom-
hole pressure, which causes reservoir fluids to flow at a certain rate from
the rock to the wellbore, followed by a shut-in period.
• The production period is generally referred to as the “pressure drawdown,”
whereas the shut-in period is called the “pressure buildup.”
• Practical information obtained from well testing includes permeability
along with porosity, reservoir shape, average reservoir pressure, and the
location of the reservoir boundaries, such as sealing faults, in the vicinity of
the well.
• The most common method for obtaining permeability consists of plotting
pressure data versus time on a semilog graph paper
Semilog plot of pressure drawdown Semilog plot of pressure buildup test
test. (Hornet plot).
Pressure derivative plot showing infinite • Upon determining the slope of the
acting radial flow regime. straight line, the following equation
is used to calculate permeability:
𝑞𝜇𝐵𝑜
𝑘 = 162.6
𝑚ℎ
Where
K=formation permeability, mD
q=flow rate, STB/D
μ=fluid viscosity, cP
Bo=formation volume factor, bbl/STB
UsingtheTiab’sDirect Synthesis technique, the H=formation thickness
permeability is obtainedfrom
70.6𝑞𝜇𝐵𝑜 m=slope of the straight line, psi/log
𝑘=
ℎ 𝑡 × ∆𝑝′ 𝑅 cycle
 log re / rw 
k  n

log r j / r j 1 
 kj
j 1

Latihan: Latihan:
Empat layers yang memiliki ketebalan yang
Empat layers yang memiliki sama tersusun secara seri. Berapa
panjang dan lebar yang sama permeabilitas rata-rata (horisontal) jika:
(a) sistem alirannya linear (b) sistem
tersusun secara parallel. aliran radial denga jari sumur 6 in dan jari
Berapa permeabilitas linear pengurasan 2000 ft? Anggap layer 1
rata-rata (horisontal) jika adalah yang terdekat dengan lubang
sumur.
kondisinya sebagai berikut.
Layer Panjang, ft k h , md
Layer Ketebalan, ft k h , md 1 250 25
1 20 100 2 250 50
2 15 200 3 500 100
3 10 300 4 1000 200
4 5 400