Chapter-2

VECTOR ANALYSIS
Course Content
 Scalars and vectors, vectors in two and three dimensions, unit vector, laws of vector
addition, Resolution of a vector in a plane, rectangular components, scalar and vector
products.

Scalar
It is a property which can be described only by magnitude. In physics a number of quantities
can be described by scalars.
Examples
Distance, mass, temperature, speed and energy

Vector
It is a quantity which is described by both magnitude and direction.
Geometrically a vector is a directed line segment which is shown in
Figure. In physics certain quantities can be described only by vectors.
Examples
Force, velocity, displacement, position vector, acceleration, linear momentum and angular
momentum.

ELEMENTARY CONCEPTS OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

In physics, some quantities possess only magnitude and some quantities possess both
magnitude and direction. To understand these physical quantities, it is very important to
know the properties of vectors and scalars.

Magnitude of a Vector
The length of a vector is called magnitude of the vector. It is
always a positive quantity. Sometimes the magnitude of a vector
A, the magnitude
is also called ‘norm’ of the vector. For a vector ⃗
or norm is denoted by | A| or simply ‘ A ’.
⃗
Different types of Vectors
1. Equal vectors: Two vectors ⃗ A and ⃗B are said to be equal when
they have equal magnitude and same direction and represent the
same physical quantity as shown in figure.
a. Collinear vectors: Collinear vectors are those which act along
the same line. The angle between them can be 0° or 180°.
i. Parallel Vectors: If two vectors ⃗ A and ⃗B act  in the same
direction along the same line or on parallel line, then the
angle between them is 00 as shown in figure.

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ii. Anti-parallel vectors: Two vectors ⃗ A and ⃗B are said to be anti-parallel when they are in
opposite directions along the same line or on parallel lines. Then the angle between them is
180o as shown in figure.
2. Unit vector: A vector divided by its magnitude is a unit vector. The unit vector for ⃗ A  is
denoted by ^A (read as A cap or A hat). It has a magnitude equal to unity or one.
⃗A
A = , we can write ⃗
Since, ^ A=A A ^
A
Thus, we can say that the unit vector specifies only the direction of the vector quantity.
3. Orthogonal unit vectors: Let i^ , ^j and k^  be three-unit
vectors which specify the directions along positive x-axis,
positive y-axis and positive z-axis respectively. These three-
unit vectors are directed perpendicular to each other, the
angle between any two of them is 90°. i^ , ^j and k^  are
examples of orthogonal vectors. Two vectors which are
perpendicular to each other are called orthogonal vectors as
is shown in the Figure.

Addition of Vectors
Since vectors have both magnitude and direction they cannot be added by the method of
ordinary algebra. Thus, vectors can be added geometrically or analytically using certain rules
called ‘vector algebra’. In order to find the sum (resultant) of two vectors, which are inclined
to each other, we use (i) Triangular law of addition method or (ii) Parallelogram law of
vectors.
Triangular Law of addition method
Let us consider two vectors ⃗ A and ⃗B as shown in Figure.
To find the resultant of the two vectors we apply the triangular
law of addition as follows:
Represent the vectors ⃗ A  and ⃗B by the two adjacent sides of a
triangle taken in the same order. Then the resultant is given by
the third side of the triangle as shown in Figure.
To explain further, the head of the first vector ⃗A  is connected to
the tail of the second vector B. Let θ be the angle between ⃗
⃗ A  and ⃗
B . Then ⃗
R   is the resultant
vector connecting the tail of the first vector A to the head of
⃗
the second vector ⃗ B. The magnitude of ⃗ R  (resultant) is
given geometrically by the length of  R  (OQ) and the direction
⃗
of the resultant vector is the angle between ⃗R  and ⃗ A . Thus, we
write 
R =⃗
⃗ A +⃗B 
OQ=OP+ ⃗
⃗ ⃗ PQ
1. Magnitude of resultant vector
The magnitude and angle of the resultant vector are determined as follows.
From Figure, consider the triangle ABN, which is obtained by extending the side OA to ON.
ABN is a right-angled triangle.

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From Figure
AN
cosθ= ∴ AN =Bcosθ
B
BN
and sinθ= ∴ BN =Bsinθ
B
For ∆OBN, we have OB 2=ON 2+ BN 2

R2= ( A+ Bcosθ )2+ ( Bsinθ )2=A 2 +B 2 cos 2 θ+ 2 ABcosθ+B 2 sin2 θ

R2= A 2+ B2 ( cos 2 θ+sin 2 θ ) + 2 ABcosθ= A 2+ B2 +2 ABcosθ
R=√ A 2+ B2 +2 ABcosθ (1)
which is the magnitude of the resultant of ⃗ A and ⃗B. θ is the angle between ⃗
A and ⃗
B.
2. Direction of resultant vectors:
R makes an angle α with ⃗
If ⃗ A, then in ∆ OBN ,
BN BN Bsinθ Bsinθ
tanα= = =
ON OA + AN A +Bcosθ
 α =tan−1( )
A + Bcosθ
(2)

COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR
In the Cartesian coordinate system, any vector ⃗ A can be resolved into three
components along x, y and z directions. This is shown in Figure.
Consider a 3-dimensional coordinate system. With respect to this a vector can
be written in component form as ⃗ ^ A y ^j+ A z k^
A=A x i+
Here, A x is the x-component of ⃗
A, A y is the y-component of ⃗ A and A z is the
z-component of ⃗ A.
In a 2-Dimensional cartesian coordinate system, the vector ⃗A is given by
^ A y ^j
A=A x i+
⃗
A makes an angle θ with x-axis. A x and A y are the components of ⃗
If ⃗ A
along x-axis and y-axis respectively, then A x = Acosθ , A y =Asinθ
Where ‘A’ is the magnitude of the vector ⃗ A,
A=√ A x 2 + A y 2

Vector addition using components

In the previous section we have learnt about addition and subtraction of two vectors using
geometric methods. But once we choose a coordinate system, the addition and subtraction of
vectors becomes much easier to perform.
The two vectors ⃗ A and ⃗
B in a Cartesian coordinate system can be expressed as
A=A x i+
⃗ ^ A y ^j+ A z k^
^
B=B x i+B ^ ^
y j+ B z k
⃗
Then the addition of two vectors is equivalent to adding their corresponding x, y and z
components.

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A+ ⃗
⃗ ^ ( A y + B y ) ^j+ ( A z + B z ) k^
B= ( A x + B x ) i+
Similarly, the subtraction of two vectors is equivalent to subtracting the corresponding x, y
and z components.
A−⃗
⃗ B =( A x −Bx ) i+^ ( A y −B y ) ^j+ ( A z −Bz ) k^
The above rules form an analytical way of adding and subtracting two vectors.

Multiplication of Vector by A Scalar

In physics, certain vector quantities can be defined as a scalar time another vector quantity.
For example,
(1) force ⃗F =m ⃗a. here, mass m is a scalar and a⃗ is the acceleration. Since m is always a
positive scalar, the direction of force is always in the direction of acceleration.
(2) Linear momentum ⃗p=m⃗v , here ⃗v is the velocity. The direction of linear momentum is
also in the direction of velocity.
F =q ⃗
(3) force ⃗ E , here the electric charge q is a scalar and ⃗
E is the electric field. Since charge
can be positive or negative, the direction of force ⃗ F is correspondingly either in the direction
E or opposite to the direction of ⃗
of ⃗ E.

Scalar Product of Two Vectors

Definition
The scalar product (or dot product) of two vectors is defined as the product of the magnitudes
of both the vectors and the cosine of the angle between them.
Thus, if there are two vectors ⃗ A  and ⃗B having an angle θ between them, then their scalar
A.⃗
product is defined as ⃗ B   = AB cos θ. Here, A and B are magnitudes of ⃗A  and ⃗B.

Properties
(i) The product quantity ⃗ A.⃗ B  is always a scalar. It is positive if the angle between the vectors
is acute (i.e., < 90°) and negative if the angle between them is obtuse (i.e. 90°<θ< 180°).
(ii) The scalar product is commutative, i.e., ⃗ A.⃗ B =⃗B.⃗ A
(iii) The vectors obey distributive law, i.e., A . ( B + C )= ⃗
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ A.⃗B +⃗ B.⃗
C
−1 ⃗A .⃗B
(iv) The angle between the vectors θ=cos [ ] AB
.

(v) The scalar product of two vectors will be maximum when cosθ=1 i.e., θ=0 o, i.e., when
A.⃗
the vectors are parallel; ( ⃗ B )max= AB
(vi) The scalar product of two vectors will be minimum, when cosθ=−1, i.e., θ=180o , when
the vectors are anti-parallel. ( ⃗A.⃗ B )min=− AB
(vii) If two vectors ⃗A  and ⃗ B are perpendicular to each other then their scalar product ⃗ A.⃗
B =0
o
, because cos90 =0. Then the vectors A  and  B are said to be mutually orthogonal.
⃗ ⃗
(viii) The scalar product of a vector with itself is termed as self- dot product and is given by
2 o 2
A) =⃗
(⃗ A.⃗A=AAcos 0 = A .
(ix) In case of a unit vector n^ , n^ . n^ =(1)(1)cos 0 o=1. For example, i. ^ ^j. ^j=k^ . k=1
^ i= ^
(x) In case of orthogonal unit vectors i^ , ^j∧k^ , i. ^ k^ . i=(1)(1)
^ ^j= ^j . k= ^ cos 90o =0.

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(xi) In terms of components the scalar product of ⃗ A  and ⃗ B can be written as
^ A y ^j+ A z k^ ) . ( B x i+B
^ ^ ^
A.⃗B =( A x i+ y j+ B z k ) = A x B x + A y B y + A z B z, with all other terms zero.
⃗
In physics, the work done by a force ⃗ F to move an object through a small displacement d ⃗r is
defined as,
W =⃗ F . d r⃗ =F dr cosθ
The work done is basically a scalar product between the force vector and the displacement
vector. Apart from work done, there are other physical quantities which are also defined
through scalar products.

The Vector Product of Two Vectors

Definition
The vector product or cross product of two vectors is defined as another vector having a
magnitude equal to the product of the magnitudes of two vectors and the sine of the angle
between them. The direction of the product vector is perpendicular to the plane containing the
two vectors, in accordance with the right-hand screw rule or right-hand thumb rule.
A and ⃗
Thus, if ⃗ B are two vectors, then their vector product is written as ⃗
A×⃗
B which is a
C defined by ⃗
vector ⃗ C =⃗A×⃗B= ( AB sinθ ) n^
The direction n^ of ⃗
A×⃗ B i.e., C
⃗ is perpendicular to the plane containing the vectors ⃗A and ⃗
B
and is in the sense of right-handed screw rotated from ⃗ A (first vector) to ⃗
B (second vector)
through the smaller angle between them as shown in figure.
Right hand rule: According to this rule, if the
curvature of the fingers of the right hand represents
the sense of rotation, then the thumb, held
perpendicular to the curvature of the fingers,
C.
represents the direction of the resultant ⃗
C =⃗
⃗ A×⃗
B= ( AB sinθ ) n^ and −⃗
C =⃗
B× ⃗
A

Example of vector product:

(i) Torque τ⃗ =⃗r × ⃗
F , where ⃗F is force and r⃗ is
position vector of a particle.
L=⃗r × ⃗p where ⃗p is the linear momentum of particle.
(ii) Angular momentum ⃗
(iii) Linear velocity ⃗v =⃗
ω × ⃗r where ⃗
ω is angular velocity.

Properties of vector (cross) product.

A number of quantities used in Physics are defined through vector products. Particularly
physical quantities representing rotational effects like torque, angular momentum, are defined
through vector products.
(i) The vector product of any two vectors is always another vector whose direction is
A and
perpendicular to the plane containing these two vectors, i.e., orthogonal to both vectors ⃗
B, even though the vectors ⃗
⃗ A and ⃗B may or may not be mutually orthogonal.

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(ii) The vector product of two vectors is not commutative, i.e., ⃗ A×⃗ B≠⃗B×⃗ A . But
A×⃗
(⃗ B )=−( ⃗
B×⃗ A ).
Note: |⃗ A×⃗B|=|⃗ B ×⃗ A|=AB sinθ, i.e., in the case of the product vectors ⃗ A×⃗ B and ⃗
B× ⃗
A , the
magnitudes are equal but directions are opposite to each other.
(iii) The vector product of two vectors will have maximum magnitude when the vectors ⃗ A
and B are orthogonal to each other, i.e., θ=90 and sinθ=1, ( A × B )max = AB n^ .
⃗ o ⃗ ⃗
(iv) The vector product of two non-zero vectors will be minimum when sinθ=0, i.e., θ=0o or
A×⃗
18 0o ( ⃗ B )min =0 i.e., the vector product of two non-zero vectors vanishes, if the vectors are
either parallel or anti- parallel.
(v) The self- cross product, i.e., product of a vector with itself is the null vector
⃗A×⃗ A= AAsin 0o n^ = ⃗0.
(vi) The self-cross product of unit vectors are thus zero. i× ^ ^j × ^j=k^ × k=
^ i= ^ 0⃗
(vii) In the case of orthogonal unit vectors i^ , ^j and k^ , in
accordance with the right-hand screw rule:
^ ^j= k^ , ^j× k^ =i∧
i× ^ k^ × i=
^ ^j
Also, since the cross product is not commutative,
^j × i=−
^ k^ , k^ × ^j=−i∧^ i×^ k^ =− ^j
A and
(viii) In terms of components, the vector product of two vectors ⃗
B
⃗ is

i^ ^j k^
⃗
|
A × B= A x A y
⃗
Bx By Bz |
A z =i^ ( A y B z− A z B y ) + ^j ( A z B x −A x B z ) + k^ ( A x B y − A y Bx )

Note that in the ^j th component, the order of multiplication is different than i^ th and k^ th
components.
(ix) If two vectors ⃗A and ⃗B form adjacent sides in a parallelogram,
then the magnitude of |⃗ A×⃗ B| will give the area of the parallelogram
as represented graphically in figure.
(x) Since we can divide a parallelogram into two equal triangles as
shown in figure, the area of a triangle with ⃗ A and ⃗ B as sides is
1⃗ ⃗
| A × B|
2

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 Assignment
1. Two vectors ⃗ A and ⃗B of magnitude 5 units and 7 units respectively make an angle 60o
with each other. Find the magnitude of the resultant vector and its direction with
A.
respect to the vector ⃗
2. Two vectors A and B of magnitude 5 units and 7 units respectively make an angle 60o
⃗ ⃗
with each other. Find the magnitude of the difference vector ⃗ A−⃗B and its direction
with respect to the vector A.
⃗
3. Two vectors ⃗ A and ⃗ B are given in the component form as ⃗ ^ ^j−4 k^ and
A=5 i+7
^ ^j+2 k^ . Find ⃗
B=6 i+3
⃗ A+ ⃗ B, ⃗
B +⃗A, ⃗A−⃗ B, ⃗
B− ⃗
A.
4. Given two vector ⃗ A=2 i+^ 4 ^j+5 k^ and ⃗ ^ ^j +6 ^k , find the product ⃗
B=i+3 A.⃗B , and the
magnitudes of A  and  B. What is the angle between them?
⃗ ⃗
5. Check whether the following vectors are orthogonal.
(i) ⃗ ^ ^j and ⃗
A=2 i+3 ^
B=4 i−5 ^j (ii) ⃗ ^ 2 ^j and ⃗
C =5 i+ D =2 i−5^ ^j
6. Two vectors are given as r⃗ =2 i+3^ ^j+5 k^ and ⃗ ^
F =3 i−2 ^j+4 k^ . Find the vector τ⃗ =⃗r × ⃗
F
.
7.