Practical

Research 2
Module
Compiled and edited by Marielle Dominique G. De la Cruz
About this Module
Practical Research 2 is a subject that encourages young minds to think of ideas that are useful and
practical through logical and scientific methods. This module is a compilation of lessons from various
credible sources that comprehensively tackle research for how it should be--fun and exciting. The
lessons included here are sequential in a way that as you go through the materials, you are also making
the core output of the subject which is the research paper. Although the term 'research' itself sounds
difficult, the lessons are simplified and contextualized to suit the general experience of the learner. With
the aim of imbuing critical thinking skills, this module included higher-order thinking activities that
will train their minds to efficiently and effectively solve real-life problems.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|2

 Table of Contents

About this Module 2

Unit 1: Nature of Inquiry and Research 4
Lesson 1: Characteristics, strengths, weaknesses, and kinds of quantitative
5
research
Lesson 2: Nature, Kinds, and Uses of Variables 11

Unit 2: Identifying the Inquiry and Stating the Problem 15

Lesson 1: Quantitative Research Problem 16
Lesson 2: Statement of the Problem and Research Questions 21
Lesson 3: Research Title and Background of Research 28
Lesson 4: Scope and Delimitations of the Study 37
Lesson 5: Significance of the Study 40

Unit 3: Learning from Others and Reviewing the Literature 44

Lesson 1: Review of Related Literature 45
Lesson 2: In-Text Citations and Referencing Styles 48
Lesson 3: Conceptual Framework 62
Lesson 4: Operational Definitions 66

Unit 4: Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect Data 70

Lesson 1: Quantitative Research Designs 71
Lesson 2: Sampling Methods 76
Lesson 3: Data Collection Technique and Research Instruments 82

Unit 5: Finding Answers through Data Collection 90

Lesson 1: Data Collection Procedures and Analysis 91
Lesson 2: Quantitative Data Analysis 96
Lesson 3: Interpreting, Organizing, and Presenting the Data 103

Unit 6: Reporting and Sharing Findings 111

Lesson 1: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations 112
Lesson 2: Abstract 118
Lesson 3: Research-Report Writing 122

Appendices 127
Appendix A: Approval Sheet Template 128
Appendix B: Curriculum Vitae Sample 129
References 130

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|3

 UNIT 1: Nature of Inquiry and
Research

There are many things that you want to know in this world. People, things, places, events--their
characteristics or qualities make you wonder continuously, frequently, or intermittently. Marveling at
them, you tend to immerse yourself in a situation where you seem to be grappling with a problem or a
puzzle. Questions after questions on the many aspects of the object of your curiosity prod you to move,
act, or do something to find answers to your questions or to discover truths about your inferences or
speculations on such object. Behaving like an investigator, asking and seeking answers to some questions
about the thing you find puzzling indicates the true nature of inquiry or research. ~Esther L. Baraceros

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|4

 UNIT 1: Nature of Inquiry and Research
Content Standard:
The learner demonstrates understanding of:
1. the characteristics, strengths, weaknesses, and kinds of quantitative research;
2. the importance of quantitative research across fields; and
3. the nature of variables.
Performance Standard: The learner is able to decide on suitable quantitative research in different areas of
interest.
Learning Competencies:
The learner:
1. describes characteristics, strengths, weaknesses, and kinds of quantitative research (CS_RS12-Ia-c1);
2. illustrates the importance of quantitative research across fields; and
3. differentiates kinds of variables and their uses.

Lesson 1: Characteristics, strengths, weaknesses, and kinds of quantitative research

Time Frame: Week 1

OVERVIEW

Isaac
Newton:
The man
who
discovered
gravity
Research contributes to the advancement of knowledge and to the good of the world. Isaac Newton
changed the way we understand the universe. This all started when, as a child, he was sitting under an apple tree,
watching the apple fall down. He wondered why ALL things always fall down, not up. Newton’s law of gravity
explains how all particles in the universe attract other particles with a force that is equal to the product of the
particles' mass and the distance between the particles. This law is expressed in a mathematical equation used to
calculate gravitational force.

Newton was an inquisitive child. He always asks questions, is always curious about
the the things around him, and made every scientific steps to find answers to his
questions. Like Newton, we almost do research every day. How exactly do you start
research? Well, it begins by asking good questions.

Which came first: the chicken or the egg?

Why do we dream?
Why do we sneeze?
What happens after death?

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|5

 According to TEDed, a nonprofit organization that produces educational videos, these are just some of the
unanswered questions Science has not explained yet. These questions have remained elusive and scientists do
research to get answers to these mysteries. When we encounter baffling problems, we tend to find ways to solve
them. We also are curious creatures. We engage in or do social research as we act on the basis and results of our
own research and theories. Therefore, what we think affects the way we behave.

What do we research?

We research people and their behaviour, opinions, attitudes, trends and patterns, also politics, animals,
health and illness. Research can be conducted either informally for our own benefit, through asking questions,
watching, counting or reading, and formally, for medical or academic purposes, as a marketing strategy, to inform
and influence politics and policy.
Research may be carries out in our own lives, through the media, in our workplace, with our friends and
family or through reading past research.
Our views--personal, social, community and worldwide and our own identities are socially constructed
through our own theorizing.

Research gives us information about:

1. Thoughts and opinions 5. Norms
2. Attitudes 6. Scientific facts
3. Habits 7. Medical information
4. Culture

What do we do with research?

1. Have it as an interesting fact
2. Use it to make decisions
3. Use it to persuade and influence others
4. Use it to affect change
5. Use it to change behaviour
6. Use to educate people on how to better utilize resources

With all the predicaments the world is facing right now, research and intuitive individuals are needed now
more than ever. We do research to understand society and societal processes, to prevent possible dangers, and to
potentially improve our lives.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Quantitative research is defined by Bryman and Bell (2005, p. 154) that ‘entailing the collection of numerical
data and exhibiting the view of relationship between theory and research as deductive, a predilection for natural
science approach, and as having an objectivist conception of social reality’. Quantitative research is influenced by
the empiricist paradigm, which means that it is concerned with cause and effect of social phenomena and uses the
data - which is based on empirical observation and their critical interpretation. Quantitative research is the
systematic empirical investigation of observable phenomena via statistical, mathematical or computational
techniques.

The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and/or
hypotheses pertaining to phenomena. The process of measurement is central to quantitative research because it
provides the fundamental connection between empirical observation and mathematical expression of quantitative
relationships. Quantitative data is any data that is in numerical form such as statistics, percentages, etc. The
researcher analyzes the data with the help of statistics. The researcher is hoping the numbers will yield an
unbiased result that can be generalized to some larger population.

"Qualitative research, on the other hand, asks broad questions and collects word data from phenomena or
participants. The researcher looks for themes and describes the information in themes and patterns exclusive to
that set of participants. "

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This research method is used:
-to describe variables
-to examine relationships among variables
-to determine cause-and-effect interactions between variables (Burns & Groove, 2005:23)

Quantitative research is generally made using scientific methods, which can include:
-The generation of models, theories and hypotheses
-The development of instruments and methods for measurement
-Experimental control and manipulation of variables
-Collection of empirical data
-Modeling and analysis of data

Researchers analyze the data through the use of Statistics. Statistics is the most widely used branch of
mathematics in quantitative research outside of the physical sciences, and also finds applications within the
physical sciences. Quantitative research using statistical methods starts with the collection of data, based on the
hypothesis or theory. Usually a big sample of data is collected – this would require verification, validation and
recording before the analysis can take place. Software packages such as SPSS and R are typically used for this
purpose.

SPSS Statistics is a software package used for logical batched and non-batched statistical analysis. Long
produced by SPSS Inc., it was acquired by IBM in 2009. The current versions (2015) are officially named IBM
SPSS Statistics. Companion products in the same family are used for survey authoring and deployment (IBM SPSS
Data Collection), data mining (IBM SPSS Modeler), text analytics, and collaboration and deployment (batch and
automated scoring services). The software name originally stood for Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
(SPSS), reflecting the original market, although the software is now popular in other fields as well, including the
health sciences and marketing. International Business Machines Corporation (commonly referred to as IBM) is an
American multinational technology company headquartered in Armonk, New York, United States, with operations
in over 170 countries. R is an open source programming language and software environment for statistical
computing and graphics that is supported by the R Foundation for Statistical Computing. The R language is
widely used among statisticians and data miners for developing statistical software and data analysis. Polls,
surveys of data miners, and studies of scholarly literature databases show that R's popularity has increased
substantially in recent years.

CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Your goal in conducting quantitative research study is to determine the relationship between one thing [an
independent variable] and another [a dependent or outcome variable] within a population. Quantitative research
designs are either descriptive [subjects usually measured once] or experimental [subjects measured before and
after a treatment]. A descriptive study establishes only associations between variables; an experimental study
establishes causality. Quantitative research deals in numbers, logic, and an objective stance. Quantitative research
focuses on numeric and unchanging data and detailed, convergent reasoning rather than divergent reasoning [i.e.,
the generation of a variety of ideas about a research problem in a spontaneous, free flowing manner].

Its main characteristics are:

 The data is usually gathered using structured research instruments.
 The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the population.
 The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability.
 Researcher has a clearly defined research question to which objective answers are sought.
 All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected.
 Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, often arranged in tables, charts, figures, or other
non-textual forms.
 Project can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict future results, or investigate causal
relationships.
 Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or computer software, to collect numerical data.

The overarching aim of quantitative research study is to classify features, count them, and construct
statistical models in an attempt to explain what is observed. These are:

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|7

  The weight of a person (in kilograms)
 The height of a person (in meters)
 The age of a person (in years and months)
 The gender of a person (using numerical system of categorization, e.g. 1 for female, 2 for male)
 A person’s education (e.g. number and grade of school certificates; classification of undergraduate
degree)
 A person’s political views (e.g. using a scale that goes from 0 for extreme left-wing to 10 extreme
right-wing)

STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF RESEARCH

STRENGTHS

 Allows for a broader study, involving a greater number of subjects, and enhancing the generalization of
the results;
 Allows for greater objectivity and accuracy of results. Generally, quantitative methods are designed to
provide summaries of data that support generalizations about the phenomenon under study. In order to
accomplish this, quantitative research usually involves few variables and many cases, and employs prescribed
procedures to ensure validity and reliability;
 Applying well-established standards means that the research can be replicated, and then analyzed and
compared with similar studies;
 You can summarize vast sources of information and make comparisons across categories and over time;
and
 Personal bias can be avoided by keeping a 'distance' from participating subjects and using accepted
computational techniques.

WEAKNESSES

 Quantitative data is more efficient and able to test hypotheses, but may miss contextual detail;
 Uses a static and rigid approach and so employs an inflexible process of discovery;
 The development of standard questions by researchers can lead to "structural bias" and false
representation, where the data actually reflects the view of the researcher instead of the participating
subject;
 Results provide less detail on behavior, attitudes, and motivation;
 Researcher may collect a much narrower and sometimes superficial data set;
 Results are limited as they provide numerical descriptions rather than detailed narrative and generally
provide less elaborate accounts of human perception;
 The research is often carried out in an unnatural, artificial environment so that a level of control can be
applied to the exercise. This level of control might not normally be in place in the real world thus yielding
"laboratory results" as opposed to "real world results"; and,
 Preset answers will not necessarily reflect how people really feel about a subject and, in some cases,
might just be the closest match to the preconceived hypothesis.

KINDS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

There are four (4) main types of quantitative designs: descriptive, correlational, quasi-experimental, and
experimental.
Descriptive research is a study designed to depict the participants in an accurate way. More simply put,
descriptive research is all about describing people who take part in the study.
There are three ways a researcher can go about doing a descriptive research project, and they are:
-Observational, defined as a method of viewing and recording the participants
-Case study, defined as an in-depth study of an individual or group of individuals
-Survey, defined as a brief interview or discussion with an individual about a specific topic

Correlational study is a quantitative method of research in which you have 2 or more quantitative variables
from the same group of subjects, & you are trying to determine if there is a relationship (or covariation) between
the 2 variables (a similarity between them, not a difference between their means). Theoretically, any 2

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|8

quantitative variables can be correlated (for example, midterm scores & number of body piercings!) as long as you
have scores on these variables from the same participants; however, it is probably a waste of time to collect &
analyze data when there is little reason to think these two variables would be related to each other.

Quasi-experimental design involves selecting groups, upon which a variable is tested, without any random
pre-selection processes. For example, to perform an educational experiment, a class might be arbitrarily divided
by alphabetical selection or by seating arrangement. The division is often convenient and, especially in an
educational situation, causes as little disruption as possible. After this selection, the experiment proceeds in a very
similar way to any other experiment, with a variable being compared between different groups, or over a period
of time.

Experimental research is commonly used in sciences such as sociology and psychology, physics, chemistry,
biology and medicine etc. It is a collection of research designs which use manipulation and controlled testing to
understand causal processes. Generally, one or more variables are manipulated to determine their effect on a
dependent variable. The experimental method is a systematic and scientific approach to research in which the
researcher manipulates one or more variables, and controls and measures any change in other variables. The
word experimental research has a range of definitions. In the strict sense, experimental research is what we call a
true experiment. This is an experiment where the researcher manipulates one variable, and control/randomizes
the rest of the variables. It has a control group, the subjects have been randomly assigned between the groups,
and the researcher only tests one effect at a time. It is also important to know what variable(s) you want to test
and measure.

ACTIVITY
Activity 1. Memory Recall
Directions: Read the comic. Then, express your answers on the question given.

What discoveries and advancements in the modern world were born out of research
and fun? Cite at least 2 examples.

______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|9

 REFLECTION

Directions: In a separate sheet of paper,express your ideas on the

following question:

What does Isaac Newton mean when he said, “No great discovery was
made without a bold guess?”

ASSIGNMENT

In a short bond paper, write about the importance of quantitative research in daily life.

Note: All assignments shall be passed online through Google Classroom. Your class code will be given to you
at the start of the class, so pass your assignments and activities before/on the deadline.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|10

Lesson 2: Nature, Kinds, and Uses of Variables
Time Frame: Week 1

OVERVIEW

In research, especially quantitative research, one important thing you have to focus on at the start of your
study is to determine the variables involved in your research. To understand more about variables, let’s consider
this dialogue:

Nick is having a hard time starting his research. So, he asked Mike, his colleague, to help him sort
things out.

MIKE: Hey, Nick! How’s your research going? You started on anything yet?

NICK: Ugh! I can’t think of a specific problem to study about. I already have a general topic which is health.
But there are two many researches out there who have studied about this already. I have to find a new and
unventured area. Well, do you have any ideas?

MIKE: Hmm…since your topic is about health, then you should think about your variables next. It should
help you specify the focus or goal of your study. Even if you have a common topic, the variables involved in
your study should be enough to make your paper different.

NICK: Yeah! I totally forgot about variables. Hmm…maybe I should study about mental health, specifically
on teenagers. But, it should be in relation to social media.

MIKE: That’s pretty interesting. I think you should go for this, Nick.

NICK: Yes. Thank you for discussing it with me. You’re such a great friend!

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|11

 Variables are ‘changing qualities or characteristics” of persons or things like age, gender, intelligence, ideas,
achievements, confidence, and so on. It is made up of the root word ‘vary’ which means to undergo changes or to
differ from. Variables have different or varying values in relation to time and situation. For instance, as years go
by, your age or intelligence increases. However, when faced with a disease or have no means of reading or no
access to any sources of knowledge, your intelligence tends to decrease. With this, we can say that variables
influence each other.

How does variable help your research? Variables help your research to attain it’s goal. It gives you the
direction that you need to focus on. They help you give answers to your research questions.

KINDS OF VARIABLES
There are three (3) types of variables: Independent variable, Dependent variable, and Extraneous variable.

Independent variables are those that cause changes in the subject.

Dependent variables are those that bear or manifest the effects caused by the independent variable.

The relationship of independent and dependent variables is like cause-and-effect relationship. However, as
you carry out the research, it is possible that two or more variables or extra variables would crop up to create an
impact on the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. This type of variable is the
Extraneous variable.

Extraneous Variable which are also called, interfering variables, are conditions that undesirably impact on
the dependent variable. This undesirable impact on a dependent variable should be prevented with the
elimination and/or minimization of all extraneous variables.

When variables are put on a graph, the independent variable, like time in the graph above, is typically shown
along the horizontal x axis of the graph and the dependent variable, like speed which increases with time in the
graph above is typically placed and shown along the y axis.

How do you identify the variables? Here are some examples:

1. Changes in the Filipino Value System by Koreanovelas

Dependent Variable Independent Variable

2. Knowledge levels (dependent variable) after an educational class on stress management techniques
(independent variable)
3. The levels of stress (dependent variable) relating to the increasing severity of a chronic, progressive
disease or illness (independent variable)

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|12

OTHER TYPES OF VARIABLES

There are other types of variables which are as follows (Russell 2013; Babbie 2013):

1. Constant - also called ‘control variable’; do not undergo any changes during an experiment
2. Attribute - characteristics of people: intelligence, creativity, anxiety, learning styles, etc.
3. Covariate - included in the research study to create interactions with the independent variables
4. Continuous - quantitative in nature and is used in interval or ratio scale of measurement
5. Dichotomous - has only two possible results: one or zero
6. Latent - cannot be directly observed like personality traits
7. Manifest - can be directly observed to give proofs to latent variables
8. Exogenous - found outside an identified model
9. Endogenous - found inside; as a part of identified model

ACTIVITY

Activity 1: Idea Extension

Directions: Keeping in mind the meaning of variables in research, check all words in the list that can operate as
variables in any research study.

____ water ____ voice ____ textbooks

____ skills ____ handwriting ____ economic status

____ ghost ____ guardian angel ____ mental pictures

____ experience ____ life plans ____ physical exercise

____ world ____ class size ____ intelligence

____ dreams ____ academic grades ____ age

____ reading comprehension ____ aspirations ____ health

Activity 2: Variable Identification

Directions: Identify the independent and dependent variables in each research problem. Write your answer under
the right column.

Research Problem Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Ex. How does logical thinking
Logical Thinking Critical Thinking
develop critical thinking?
1. In what way does collaborative
learning increase communicative
competence?
2. To what extent does texting
decrease students’ grammatical
competence?
3. What corrupt practice trigger
off one’s resignation?
4. How does Coronavirus affect a
the global economy?
5. What are the effects violent
movies to children’s behaviour?

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|13

Activity 3: Variable Identification
Directions: Think of three (3) research problems then write them on the box provided. Underline once the
independent variable; twice the dependent variable.

REFLECTION

Directions: In a separate half sheet of paper, answer the following

questions in five (5) sentences:

Q1: How important is variable in research?

Q2: How do you choose good and efficient variables in your study?
Q3: What are the implications of using good and efficient variables in your
study?

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|14

UNIT 2: Identifying the Inquiry
and Stating the Problem

In research, you are prone to thinking in various levels that range from the simplest to the most
complex modes or patterns of thinking. Your initial thinking acts here pertain to what you want to
research on or what you intend to subject more to higher levels of thinking as you go through the
several stages of research. The kind or quality of thinking and attention you give to your acts of
choosing your research topic and of spcecifying questions you want your research study to find
answers to strongly determine the success of your research work. ~Esther L. Baraceros

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|15

 UNIT 2: Identifying the Inquiry and Stating
the Problem
Content Standard:
The learner demonstrates understanding of:
1. the range of research topics in the area of inquiry;
2. The value of research in the area of interest; and
3. The specificity and feasibility of the problem posed.
Performance Standard: The learner is able to formulate clearly the statement of research problem
Learning Competencies:
The learner:
1. designs a research useful in daily life;
2. writes a research title;
3. describes background of research;
4. states research questions;
5. indicates scope and delimitation of the study;
6. cites benefits and beneficiaries of the study; and
7. presents written statement of the problem.

Lesson 1: Quantitative Research Problem

Time Frame: Week 2

OVERVIEW

John of Salisbury said, “Seeking is a necessary preliminary to finding, and one who cannot endure the
hardshop of inquiry cannot expect to harvest the fruit of knowledge”. Currently, our world is experiencing
stronger problems that seem impossible to solve. As such, it is the duty of researchers and scientists to pour all
their knowledge in venturing new sources of knowledge--one that is useful in our day-to-day lives. To start,
researchers should select a research topic.

How do you find the right research topic?

If you are in a class that allows you to choose your own term paper topic, there are some important
areas to consider before you begin your project:

Your Level of Interest: Research papers are time-consuming; you will be spending countless hours
researching the topic and related topics, developing several primary and secondary sources, and putting
everything together into a paper that is coherent and accomplishes your objectives. If you do not choose a topic
you are passionate about, the process will be far more tedious, and the finished product may suffer as a result.
Your Level of Experience: Being interested in a topic is great, but it is even more helpful if you already
know something about it. If you can find a topic that you already have some personal and/or professional
experience with, it will vastly reduce the amount of research needed and make the whole process much easier.

Available Information on the Topic: Be sure to choose a topic that is not only interesting but also one
that has numerous sources available from which to compile your research. A researchable topic with several
potential sources gives you access to the level of information you need to become an authority on the subject.

Your Audience: An interesting topic to you may not necessarily be interesting to your professor or
whoever is grading your research paper. Before you begin, consider the level of interest of the person(s) who
will be reading it. If you are writing a persuasive or argumentative essay, also consider their point of view on
the subject matter.
Source: https://www.myspeechclass.com/good-and-interesting-research-paper-topics.html

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|16

Here are some research topics you can choose from:

Source: https://www.myspeechclass.com/good-and-interesting-research-paper-topics.html

RESEARCH PROBLEM
After picking a topic, researchers will now formulate a research problem. A research problem is a specific
issue, difficulty, contradiction, or gap in knowledge that you will aim to address in your research. You
might look for practical problems aimed at contributing to change, or theoretical problems aimed at expanding
knowledge. Here are steps in making a research problem:

STEP 1: IDENTIFY A BROAD PROBLEM OR AREA

Remember! Your main goal in research is to

find A GAP that your research project can fill.

Practical research problems

If you are doing practical research, you can identify a problem by reading reports, following up on previous
research, and talking to people who work in the relevant field or organization. You might look for:

 Issues with performance or efficiency in an organization

 Processes that could be improved in an institution
 Areas of concern among practitioners in a field
 Difficulties faced by specific groups of people in society

If your research is connected to a job or internship, you will need to find a research problem that has
practical relevance for the organization.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|17

Examples of practical research problems:

1. Unhealthy emotional labor in public and private schools have been increasing, influencing absenteeism
and suicide.
2. Delusional entitlement of people towards social issues in social media turn drastic as influenced by
quarantine.

Theoretical research problems

Theoretical research focuses on expanding knowledge and understanding rather than directly contributing to
change. You can identify a research problem by reading recent research, theory and debates on your topic to find
a gap in what is currently known about it. You might look for:

 A phenomenon or context that has not been closely studied

 A contradiction between two or more perspectives
 A situation or relationship that is not well understood
 A troubling question that has yet to be resolved

Theoretical problems often have practical consequences, but they are not focused on solving an immediate issue
in a specific place (though you might take a case study approach to the research).

Examples of theoretical research problems:

1. The effects of long-term Vitamin D deficiency on cardio-vascular health are not well understood.
2. The relationship between gender, race, and income inequality has yet to be closely studied in the context
of the millennial gig economy.

STEP 2: LEARN MORE ABOUT THE PROBLEM

Next, you have to find out what is already known about the problem, and pinpoint the exact aspect that your
research will address.

Context and background

 Who does the problem affect?

 Has it been an issue for a long time, or is it a newly discovered problem?
 What research has already been done?
 Have any solutions been proposed?
 What are the current debates about the problem, and what do you think is missing from them?

Specificity and relevance

 What particular place, time and/or people will you focus on?
 What aspects will you not be able to tackle?
 What will be the consequences if the problem is not resolved?
 Whose will benefit from resolving the problem (e.g. the management of an organization or future
researchers)?

Bear in mind that some research will do both of these things, but usually the research problem focuses on
one or the other. The type of research problem you choose depends on your broad topic of interest and the type
of research you want to do.

When you have narrowed down your problem, the next step is to formulate a problem statement and
research questions or hypotheses.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|18

 ACTIVITY

Activity 1. Choosing a Research Topic

Directions: Fill in the boxes to decide on your research topic using the list of research topics given above. Then,
create a research problem.

What is the research topic you are What major problems did you What variables will be
most interested in? observe from your chosen research involved in your study?
topic?

Activity 2. Creating a Research Problem

Directions: If you are done filling out the boxes, determine your research problem by answering these questions.
Use the internet to find the sources you need. Write your answers in a 1 whole sheet of paper.

Context and background

 Who does the problem affect?

 Has it been an issue for a long time, or is it a newly discovered problem?
 What research has already been done?
 Have any solutions been proposed?
 What are the current debates about the problem, and what do you think is missing from them?

Specificity and relevance

 What particular place, time and/or people will you focus on?
 What aspects will you not be able to tackle?
 What will be the consequences if the problem is not resolved?
 Whose will benefit from resolving the problem (e.g. the management of an organization or future
researchers)?

Final Research Problem:

______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________

Note: The research problem you chose would be the topic of your research paper. So, choose well.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|19

 REFLECTION

Directions: Express your ideas on the following questions. Write your

answers on the space below.

1. How do you know if you have a good research problem?

2. Why do you need to find a gap in published research studies?
3. State a research problem that you think should be addressed by
researchers today. Explain why.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|20

Lesson 2: Statement of the Problem and Research Questions
Time Frame: Week 2

OVERVIEW

After you have determined your research problem, the next step is to present a written statement of the
problem with the research questions. Let us first know how to write a statement of the problem.

HOW TO WRITE A STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The statement of the problem is where you would narrow down your research problem into something more
specific. It describes how and why your study is new and unique from all other studies researching the same topic.
Your statement should justify why you are trying to study the problem and how beneficial it will be. It should be
straight-to the point and should:
 put the problem in context ( what do we already know?);
 describe the precise issue that the research will address (what do we need to know?);
 show the relevance of the problem (why do we need to know it?); and
 set the objectives or goal of the research (what will you do to find out?).

Here are steps on how to write your problem statement:

STEP 1: CONTEXTUALIZE THE PROBLEM
The problem statement should frame your research problem in its particular context and give some
background on what is already known about it.

Practical research problems

For practical research, focus on the concrete details of the situation:

 Where and when does the problem arise?

 Who does the problem affect?
 What attempts have been made to solve the problem?

Step 2: SHOW WHY IT MATTERS

The problem statement should also address the relevance of the research: why is it important that the
problem is solved?

This doesn’t mean you have to do something groundbreaking or world-changing. It’s more important that
the problem is researchable, feasible, and clearly addresses a relevant issue in your field.

Practical research problems

Practical research is directly relevant to a specific problem that affects an organization, institution, social
group, or society more broadly. To make it clear why your research problem matters, you can ask yourself:

 What will happen if the problem is not solved?

 Who will feel the consequences?
 Does the problem have wider relevance (e.g. are similar issues found in other contexts)?

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|21

Step 3: SET YOUR AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

Finally, the problem statement should frame how you intend to address the problem. Your goal should not be
to find a conclusive solution, but to seek out the reasons behind the problem and propose more effective
approaches to tackling or understanding it.

The aim is the overall purpose of your research. It is generally written in the infinitive form:

 The aim of this study is to determine…

 This project aims to explore…
 I aim to investigate…

The objectives are the concrete steps you will take to achieve the aim:

 Qualitative methods will be used to identify…

 I will use surveys to collect…
 Using statistical analysis, the research will measure…

Example:
If your research problem is on the increase of negative impacts of social media to teenagers’ mental health,
your problem statement should be like this:

Social media is a big part of many teens' lives. A 2018 Pew Research Center survey of nearly 750 13- to
17-year-olds found that 45% are online almost constantly and 97% use a social media platform, such as
YouTube, Facebook, Instagram or Snapchat. But what impact does social media use have on teens? Social
media allows teens to create online identities, communicate with others and build social networks. These
networks can provide teens with valuable support, especially helping those who experience exclusion or
have disabilities or chronic illnesses.

Teens also use social media for entertainment and self-expression. And the platforms can expose teens
to current events, allow them to interact across geographic barriers and teach them about a variety of
subjects, including healthy behaviors. Social media that's humorous or distracting or provides a meaningful
connection to peers and a wide social network might even help teens avoid depression. However, social
media use can also negatively affect teens, distracting them, disrupting their sleep, and exposing them to
bullying, rumor spreading, unrealistic views of other people's lives and peer pressure. The risks might be
related to how much social media teens use. A 2019 study of more than 6,500 12- to 15-year-olds in the U.S.
found that those who spent more than three hours a day using social media might be at heightened risk for
mental health problems.

This research, therefore, aims to categorize aspects of social media that greatly and negatively affect
teenagers’ mental health. This study will also provide new methods in lessening nagative impacts of social
media. Using survey research and interview, the study will collect information on teenagers and their
parents affected by this dilemma.
Source:
https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/tween-and-teen-health/in-depth/teens-and-social-media-use/art-20474437ht
tps://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/tween-and-teen-health/in-depth/teens-and-social-media-use/art-20474437

Remember that your problem statement specifies and elaborate your chosen research
problem. It should convince the readers the uniqueness and usefulness of your study.

Lastly, your aims and objectives should lead directly to your research questions.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|22

HOW TO WRITE YOUR RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The next step to your problem statement is formulating your research questions. Research questions are
subquestions that pinpoint exactly what you want to find out from your research problem. All research questions
should be:
 Focused on a single problem or issue (which is your chosen research problem)
 Researchable using primary/secondary sources
 Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints
 Specific enough to answer thoroughly
 Complex enough to develop the answer over the space of a paper or thesis
 Relevant to your field of study and/or scoeity more broadly

If your research questions are good, it will greatly help you in finding answers to your research problem.
Here are some examples:

Example research problem Example research question(s)

The teachers at school X do not have the skills to What practical techniques can teachers at school X use to
recognize or properly guide gifted children in the better identify and guide gifted children?
classroom.
Under-30s increasingly engage in the “gig What are the main factors that influence young people’s
economy” instead of traditional full-time decisions to engage in the gig economy? What do workers
employment, but there is little research into young perceive as its advantages and disadvantages? Do age and
people’s experiences of this type of work. education level have an effect on how people experience
this type of work?

What makes a strong research question?

Making questions is not a dificult task. But in order to make good research questions, one must take some
time and effort to refine them. Here are some criteria given by McCombes (2019) to evaluate the strength of your
research questions:

Focused and researchable

Criteria Explanation
Focuses on a single Your central research question should follow from your research problem to keep your
topic and problem work focused. If you have multiple questions, they should all clearly relate to this central
aim.
Answerable You must be able to find an answer by collecting quantitative and/or qualitative data, or by
using primary or reading scholarly sources on the topic to develop an argument. If such data is impossible to
secondary data access, you will have to rethink your question and ask something more concrete.
Does not ask for a Avoid subjective words like good, bad, better and worse, as these do not give clear criteria
subjective value for answering the question. If your question is evaluating something, use terms with more
judgement measurable definitions.
X Is X or Y a better policy?
 How effective are X and Y policies at reducing rates of Z?

Does not ask why Why questions are usually too open to serve as good research questions. There are often so
many possible causes that a research project cannot give a thorough answer. Try
asking what or how questions instead.

X Why does X occur?

 What are the main factors contributing to X?

 How is X influenced by Y?

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|23

Feasible and specific
Criteria Explanation
Answerable within Make sure you have enough time and resources to do the research required to
practical constraints answer the question. If you think you might struggle to gain access to enough data,
consider narrowing down the question to be more specific.
Uses specific, well-defined All the terms you use in the research question should have clear meanings. Avoid
concepts vague language and broad ideas, and be clear
about what, who, where and when your question addresses.

X What effect does social media have on people’s minds?

 What effect does daily use of Twitter have on the attention span of
under-16s?

Does not ask for a Research is about informing, not instructing. Even if your project is focused on a
conclusive solution, policy, practical problem, it should aim to improve understanding and suggest possibilities
or course of action rather than asking for a ready-made solution.

X What should the government do about low voter turnout?

 What are the most effective communication strategies for increasing voter
turnout among under-30s?

Complex and arguable

Criteria Explanation
Cannot be answered Closed yes/no questions are too simple to work as good research questions — they
with yes or no don’t provide enough scope for investigation and discussion.

X Has there been an increase in homelessness in the UK in the past ten years?

 How have economic and political factors affected patterns of homelessness in

the UK over the past ten years?

Cannot be answered If you can answer the question through a Google search or by reading a single book or
with easily found facts article, it is probably not complex enough. A good research question requires original
and figures data, synthesis of multiple sources, interpretation and/or argument to provide an
answer.
Provides scope for The answer to the question should not just be a simple statement of fact: there needs
debate and deliberation to be space for you to discuss and interpret what you found. This is especially
important in an essay or research paper, where the answer to your question often
takes the form of an argumentative thesis statement.

Relevant and original

Criteria Explanation
Addresses a problem The research question should be developed based on initial reading around
relevant to your field or your topic, and it should focus on addressing a problem or gap in the existing
discipline knowledge.
Contributes to a topical The question should aim to contribute to an existing debate — ideally one that is
social or academic debate current in your field or in society at large. It should produce knowledge that future
researchers or practitioners can build on.
Has not already been You don’t have to ask something groundbreaking that nobody has ever thought of
answered before, but the question should have some aspect of originality (for example, by
focusing on a specific location or taking a new angle on a long-running debate).

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|24

 ACTIVITY
Activity 1. Writing a Statement of the Problem
Directions: Below is a sample research problem. Research about it on the web and make a brief problem
statement.

RESEARCH PROBLEM
The Coronavirus pandemic may go on for a year and schools may have to switch to online classes.
There is a possibility that homeschooling will be a normal trend. The need to turn homes into
self-learning areas are affecting the household routines of some families in the Philippines. There is
still no research venturing in to how homeschooling might affect day-today living in the new normal.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|25

Activity 2. Evaluating Research Questions
Directions: Below is a list of research questions. Evaluate the quality of these questions based on the criteria
stated above.

Research Questions Evaluation

1. What is an English grammar textbook?

2. What is communicative competence?

3. How did humans evolve?

4. Is blackhole dangerous?

5. To what extent do Manila private universities find

grammar textbooks effective in helping college
students attain communicative competence?

Activity 3. Creating Research Questions

Directions: Using the same research problem and statement of the problem in activity 1, make research questions
that follow the guidelines correctly. Write at least 3 questions in the space provided.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|26

 REFLECTION

Directions: Express your ideas on the question given. Write your answer on
the space below.

If you have the ability to find answers to your questions, what questions
do you want to ask? Why?

ASSIGNMENT

Make your problem statement and research questions on the research topic and problem you have chosen.
Encode your work in a short-sized bondpaper using Times New Roman size 12, double-spacing.

Note: All assignments shall be passed online through Google Classroom. Your class code will be given to you
at the start of the class, so pass your assignments and activities before/on the deadline.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|27

Lesson 3: Research Title and Background of Research
Time Frame: Week 2

OVERVIEW

Writing the title of your research may seem a simple task, but it requires some serious thought. The way you
form your research title will determine the fate of your research paper. Let us follow Nick’s storyline again.

Nick is struggling with the title of his research. So, he asked for some advice from his professor.

NICK: Good morning, sir! Could I ask for your advice?

PROFESSOR: Sure! What’s it about?

NICK: I’m having a hard time making a title for my research. I can’t seem to find an appropriate one.

PROFESSOR: Can you let me see your titles you’ve come up so far?

NICK: Of course, sir. Here they are.

PROFESSOR: Hmm…I admit. These are not good. The purpose of your title is to give some teaser to your readers
about what your study is about. It should make your readers curious in just one read. Otherwise, no matter how
good your research is, if they don’t like your title then they won’t read it.

NICK: I see. Well, what should I include in my title?

PROFESSOR: Include your variables and give hints on what problem you’re studying. But don’t make your title
too lengthy. Maybe 10-13 words should be enough.

NICK: Right! Thank you, sir! You’re a great help!

PROFESSOR: You’re welcome!

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|28

HOW TO MAKE A RESEARCH TITLE

Based on the dialogue, you have seen Nick struggle in making his research title. It’s because it’s not as easy as
it seems. Most authors, having known most of the content of their paper, are perplexed on how to make their title
concise as possible without sacrificing any relevant elements.
If you make a mistake, readers who stick by “judging the book by its cover” will never throw your paper a
second glance. Therefore, your research title is the most important since it determines how many people will read
it.
A good research paper title:

 Condenses the paper’s content in a few words

 Captures the readers’ attention
 Differentiates the paper from other papers of the same subject area

So here are three basic tips to keep in mind while writing a title:

1. Keep it simple, brief and attractive: The primary function of a title is to provide a precise summary of

the paper’s content. So keep the title brief and clear. Use active verbs instead of complex noun-based phrases, and

avoid unnecessary details. Moreover, a good title for a research paper is typically around 10 to 12 words long. A

lengthy title may seem unfocused and take the readers’ attention away from an important point.

Avoid: Drug XYZ has an effect of muscular contraction for an hour in snails of Achatina fulcia species

Better: Drug XYZ induces muscular contraction in Achatina fulcia snails

2. Use appropriate descriptive words: A good research paper title should contain key words used in the
manuscript and should define the nature of the study. Think about terms people would use to search for your
study and include them in your title.

Avoid: Effects of drug A on schizophrenia patients: study of a multicenter mixed group

Better: Psychosocial effects of drug A on schizophrenia patients: a multicenter randomized controlled trial

Here are a few points to help you check whether your title is suitable:

1. Does the title clearly indicate what your research is about?

2. Is it brief, informative, and attractive?
3. Does it include relevant descriptive keywords that readers are most likely to search for?

Normally, your research title should be done after you finish your research. But it is also
good to have some prospects early on to avoid struggling too much at the end.

When you are done with you research problem, statement of the problem and research questions, the next
thing to do is to make the background of the study.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|29

HOW TO MAKE THE BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The background of your study, also called as ‘Rationale of the Study’, outlines the review of the area being
researched, current information surrounding the issue, previous studies on the issue, and relevant history of the
issue (when it started). When making your rationale, you are presenting the gaps of literature--the areas of
previous studies not ventured by other researchers.
The purpose of a background study is to help you to prove the relevance of your research questions and to
further develop your research problem.

How to structure the background of the study

In this section, the author usually outlines the historical developments in the literature that led to the

current topic of research concisely. If the study is interdisciplinary, it should describe how different

disciplines are connected and what aspects of each discipline will be studied.

Additionally, authors should briefly highlight the main developments of their research topic and identify

the main gaps that need to be addressed. In other words, this section should give an overview of your study.

The section should be organized as:

 What is known about the broad topic?
 What are the gaps or missing links that need to be addressed?
 What is the significance of addressing those gaps?
 What are the rationale and hypothesis of your study?

The background section, therefore, should provide general information about the topic of your research

and emphasize the main aims of the study. Please ensure that you only discuss the main and relevant aspects

of the studies that have led to your aims. Do not elaborate on them as this should be done in the literature

review section. The background section should discuss your findings in a chronological manner to accentuate

the progress in the field and the missing points that need to be addressed. The background should be written

as a summary of your interpretation of previous research and what your study proposes to accomplish.

How to make the background of the study engaging

As the background includes a lot of information, it can become a long drag, causing the readers to lose

interest. To ensure that your background is engaging, you should try to build a story around the central

theme of your research.

Ensure that the story adheres to the core idea and does not digress into a broad literature review. Each

idea should lead to the next so that readers are able to grasp the story and themselves identify the gaps that

your study is going to address.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|30

 How to avoid common mistakes in writing the background

While writing an effective background, you ought to steer clear of some mistakes. The most common

mistakes in writing the background include the following:

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|31

Sample Background of the Study

Cockroaches are common pests in the tropics. They have been known to cause allergic reactions to most
people and chew holes on clothes. According to Bato Balani for Science and Technology, Vol. 14, No. 2, the real
danger of cockroach lies in their ability to transmit sometimes lethal diseases and organisms such as
Staphylococcus spp., Streptococcus spp., Hepatitis viruses, and Coliform bacteria. They have been known to
contaminate food, at the same time infect it with the bacteria they carry. The bacteria they spread in food can
cause food poisoning. People have used various instruments to control the cockroach problem in homes. The most
popular is the commonly used insecticide sprays. Most of these can destroy cockroaches but they can also do
serious damage to humans as well. According to the experts of the website www.bayer.co.th, the active
ingredients in these sprays, like tethramethrin, and petroleum distillates can cause severe chest pains and cough
attacks when inhaled. The second most popular instrument is the cockroach coils. These coils can kill roaches yet
the active ingredients in these coils like allethrin, pynamin forte, prothrin and pyrethrin, can cause harm to
humans when inhaled. It also has an ozone-depleting ingredient. The third most popular is the flypaper. The
concept of the flypaper is simple. The roaches just stick into it. But when they are stuck, the roaches die and
carcass can spread more bacteria. In addition to the side effects of these materials, the costs of these insecticides
are high. All these set aside, the question on everyone’s mind is: “What can be an effective and natural
insecticide?” Tubang Bakod (Jatropha carcas) is a common plant in the Philippines. According to the website,
www.davesgarden.com, its seeds contain a certain toxic substance known as toxalbumin carcin, Along with other
ingredients like sap, onions and weeping willow leaves, are Tubang Bakod seeds feasible to be used as cockroach
killer?

ACTIVITY

Activity 1. Searching for Sample Research Titles

Directions: Search and list down 5 sample research titles of the following research topics.

1. Technology
2. Education
3. Social Media
4. Health

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|32

Activity 2. Evaluating Research Title
Directions: Choose which research title is better from the list. Put a check mark on the correct research title. Then,
explain why the title is better.
1. _____ Effects of Child labor to children
_____ Psychological effects of Child labor to children ages 10-15
What made it better? _________________________________________________________________

2. _____ Influences of divorce to teenagers aged 15-17

_____ Psychological influences of divorce to the marriage perceptions of teenagers
What made it better? __________________________________________________________________

3. _____ Academic success among minority students

_____ Rate of academic success among minority students
What made it better? __________________________________________________________________

4. ____ Social Emotional Learning: Developing Social and Emotional Intelligence in students with Incarcerated
Parents
_____ Developing Social and Emotional Intelligence in students
What made it better? __________________________________________________________________

5. _____ Child Obesity

____ Child Obesity: An Examination of its impacts to Health and Social Condition of Children
What made it better? __________________________________________________________________

Activity 3. Writing a Research Title

Directions: Write 2 research titles based on the given background of the study.

1. Current theories focus on personal characteristics to explain wrong-doing and how someone can intentionally
harm others. In a survey, professionals such as doctors, psychologist and laymen predicted that a small
proportion of a population (1-3%) would harm others if ordered to do so. In the recent war trial with Adolph
Eichmann, he claims to only have been “following orders". The author wanted to test this claim. Can people harm
others because they are merely obeying orders? Can people be ordered to act against their moral convictions? The
experiment will test whether a person can keep administering painful electric shocks to another person just
because they are ordered to do so. The expectation is that very few will keep giving shocks, and that most
participants will disobey the order.
Research Title:

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|33

2. Cockroaches are common pests in the tropics. They have been known to cause allergic reactions to most
people and chew holes on clothes. According to Bato Balani for Science and Technology, Vol. 14, No. 2, the real
danger of cockroach lies in their ability to transmit sometimes lethal diseases and organisms such as
Staphylococcus spp., Streptococcus spp., Hepatitis viruses, and Coliform bacteria. They have been known to
contaminate food, at the same time infect it with the bacteria they carry. The bacteria they spread in food can
cause food poisoning. People have used various instruments to control the cockroach problem in homes. The most
popular is the commonly used insecticide sprays. Most of these can destroy cockroaches but they can also do
serious damage to humans as well. According to the experts of the website www.bayer.co.th, the active
ingredients in these sprays, like tethramethrin, and petroleum distillates can cause severe chest pains and cough
attacks when inhaled. The second most popular instrument is the cockroach coils. These coils can kill roaches yet
the active ingredients in these coils like allethrin, pynamin forte, prothrin and pyrethrin, can cause harm to
humans when inhaled. It also has an ozone-depleting ingredient. The third most popular is the flypaper. The
concept of the flypaper is simple. The roaches just stick into it. But when they are stuck, the roaches die and
carcass can spread more bacteria. In addition to the side effects of these materials, the costs of these insecticides
are high. All these set aside, the question on everyone’s mind is: “What can be an effective and natural
insecticide?” Tubang Bakod (Jatropha carcas) is a common plant in the Philippines. According to the website,
www.davesgarden.com, its seeds contain a certain toxic substance known as toxalbumin carcin, Along with other
ingredients like sap, onions and weeping willow leaves, are Tubang Bakod seeds feasible to be used as cockroach
killer?
Research Title:

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|34

Activity 4. Understanding the Process of Writing the Research Background
Directions: Using the concept map, write down your ideas on how to write or structure your background of the
study.

Activity 5. Writing the Background of the Study

Directions: Research more information about the given research problem. Make a background of the study using
the outline below. Write it on a separate sheet of paper.

Research Problem:
As more and more people get infected by COVID-19, the need for a vaccine is the focus of researchers and
medical experts worldwide. However, some experts claim that vaccines may not be necessary since the virus itself
is weakening and may die by itself in the next months. How exactly does one kill a virus? How does a virus die by
itself? What are the best methods to prevent a global pandemic?

Background of the Study:

Introduction (1 paragraph)
What do other sources tell about the topic?

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|35

 Why is it a recurring problem?

Body (2 paragraphs or more)

What findings did previous researchers say about the problem?
What steps have been done to address it?
What are the gaps of previous researches did you observe?
Why are these gaps of knowledge relevant? Why should they be studied?

Conclusion (1 paragraph)
What is the main goal of your research?

REFLECTION

Directions: Express your ideas in the following question. Write your answer in
a sheet of paper.

Why can an article, research, book, or novel be made or unmade by its

title? What happens when a piece of writing remains unread?

ASSIGNMENT

Make your background of the study on the research topic and problem you have chosen. Encode your work
in a short-sized bondpaper using Times New Roman size 12, double-spacing.

Note: All assignments shall be passed online through Google Classroom. Your class code will be given to you at
the start of the class, so pass your assignments and activities before/on the deadline.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|36

Lesson 4: Scope and Delimitations of the Study
Time Frame: Week 2

OVERVIEW

In doing your research, specificity is important to avoid ambuiguities and redundancy in your paper. Be
specific in your variables, environment, and your respondents. The scope and delimitations of your study help set
boundaries on what you should or should not include in your paper. The words scope and delimitation might
seem similar but they are different in terms of what they limit.
In this Venn diagram, write the similarities (in the sides) and differences (center) of SCOPE and
DELIMITATION.

SCOPE DELIMITATION

WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SCOPE AND DELIMITATION?

Scope identifies the boundaries of the study in terms of subjects, objectives, facilities, area, time frame, and
the issues to which the research is focused.
Example:
The scope of the study will be the impact of mobile devices on the behavior patterns of elementary
school kids.
This scope is too broad and infeasible to cover all of it. Instead, it would be better if you restrict the scope to a
specific section of the target population over a specified duration.

Sample phrases that help express the scope of the study:

The coverage of this study……….
The study consists of ……..

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|37

 The study covers the ……….
This study is focus on……..

If the scope is too broad, you use Delimitation to limit the scope by geographic location, age, sex, population
traits, population size, or other similar considerations. Delimitation is used to make study better and more
feasible and not just for the interest of the researcher. It also identifies the constraints or weaknesses of your
study which are not within the control of the researcher.
Example:
The scope of the study will be the impact of mobile devices on the behavior patterns of elementary
school kids. This will be delimited to a group of 25 kids in grades 3 to 5 at a particular school to study their
behavior patterns for five months.
Your scope is more specific because you have delimited your population, the age of your respondents, the
location, and the duration of the research.

Sample phrases that expressed the delimitations of the study:

The study does not cover the……

The researcher limited this research to……
This study is limited to………

If you have a well-defined scope and delimitation, your research will avoid unlikely
ambiguity and errors in your presentation of data.

ACTIVITY
Activity 1. Determining Scope and Delimitations
Directions: Determine the scope and delimitation from the research problem and title given.

Research Problem and Title Scope and Delimitations

1. School is a forum where students are preparing

themselves for the future life. Through the school
activities, they gain self-confidence and skills that will
help them in being successful later in life. Interest of
parents in a child’s schooling life also plays an
important role in his self-confidence. The more parents
participate in a child’s life, the more secure child will
feel which in turn will raise his self-confidence. It is one
of the ideal conditions where children’s personality can
be built for future in a manner that they can tackle the

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|38

challenges successfully. The aim of the research is to
determine the impact of a parent’s participation in a
child’s school activities to boost his self-confidence. We
plan to study here that the more interest parent’s show,
the more self-confident the child will be.
2. For a college student who wants to be successful in
life, it is important that he be focused in his studies and
does not give in to peer-pressure and coercion. Sadly,
despite having knowledge of the consequences, many
students are resorting to substance abuse practices
because they are intimidated or bullied. The aim of the
study is to determine the factors due to which students
are practicing substance abuse which has affected their
studies. We plan to study what has caused some
intelligent students to shift their focus from studies to
substance abuse activities.
Research Title
3. Factors That Influence a Child’s Decisions to Read
Outside-of-School

4. The Relationship between Low Socioeconomic

Status and Student Achievement
5. Childhood Grief and Loss: Support and
Interventions used to promote Healthy Coping
Strategies

ASSIGNMENT

Make your scopes and delimitations on the research topic and problem you have chosen. Encode your work
in a short-sized bondpaper using Times New Roman size 12, double-spacing.

Note: All assignments shall be passed online through Google Classroom. Your class code will be given to you at
the start of the class, so pass your assignments and activities before/on the deadline.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|39

Lesson 5: Significance of the Study
Time Frame: Week 2

OVERVIEW

For what or whom are you researching for? What benefit will your study to the world and its people?

In solving the problem you are struggling with, it’s important that your methods and actions are significant
and helpful in solving the dilemma. When doing research, you should ask yourself these questions:
How important is this to the people affected by the problem?
What will it change?
What benefits will it give?

Significance of the Study is another section of your research paper where you will state the relevance,
importance, and usefulness of your study. It provides information on WHO will benefit from the study and WHAT
benefits are to be received.

2 TIPS IN WRITING THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

1. REFER TO THE STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Your problem statement can guide you in identifying the specific contribution of your study. You can do
this by observing a one-to-one correspondence between the statement of the problem and the significance of
the study.

For example, if you ask the question “Is there a significant relationship between the teacher’s teaching
style and the students’ long quiz scores in Mathematics?” then the contribution of your research would
probably be a teaching style or styles (among say, three teaching styles you evaluated) that can help students

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|40

 perform better in Mathematics. Your research will demonstrate that that teaching style really works. That
could be a groundbreaking approach that will change the way teachers teach Mathematics which many
students abhor.

2. WRITE FROM GENERAL TO SPECIFIC CONTRIBUTION

Write the significance of the study by looking into the general contribution of your study, such as its
importance to society as a whole, then proceed downwards—towards its contribution to individuals and that
may include yourself as a researcher. You start off broadly then taper off gradually to a specific group or
person.

Coupled with reference to the problem statement, this effectively stimulates the mind to think in a
deductive mode, i.e., from general to specific. This writing approach is similar to the Inverted Pyramid
Approach discussed in How to Write a Good Thesis Introduction.

For example, in the study on teaching style given in #1, you may write:

Using these techniques, you can present a clear and honest significance of your study. Applying them will
save time thus allowing you to focus on the next section of your study.

Your significance of the study, besides your research title, will also help convince your
readers to read your research paper. So, present the significance of the study without
leaving out important points in your research.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|41

 ACTIVITY
Activity 1. Discussing the Significance of Comics
Directions: In a sheet of paper, discuss in five (5) sentences the significance of the following comics in today’s
Coronavirus pandemic. You should be able to answer these questions:
 How significant is this comic in today’s situation?
 What meaning does it tell us?
 How can it help us?

1.

2.

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 REFLECTION

Directions: Express your ideas in the following question. Write your answer in
a sheet of paper.

What significant methods did the government do to prevent COVID-19

from spreading? What methods or rules, in your opinion were unhelpful? Why
do you think so?

ASSIGNMENT
Make your significance of the study on the research topic and problem you have chosen. Encode your work in
a short-sized bondpaper using Times New Roman size 12, double-spacing.

Note: All assignments shall be passed online through Google Classroom. Your class code will be given to you at
the start of the class, so pass your assignments and activities before/on the deadline.

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 UNIT 3: Learning from Others and
Reviewing the Literature

Several reasons are behind your choice of a particular topic to research on. Your curiosity or familiarity
about an animate creature or inanimate object and its functionality inspire you to discover more about such
person or thing. Whatever experience or background knowledge you have about your chosen topic becomes
valuable believable only as regards your acts of improving the validity or truthfulness of your claims about
your topic, if these ideas of yours are related to what the world or other people already know or have
already discovered or done about your chosen topic. Aligning your thinking with other people’s ideas
displayed legally and professionally in varied literary works lends credibility to whatever ideas you have
about your research study. ~Esther L. Baraceros

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 UNIT 3: Learning from Others and Reviewing
the Literature
Content Standard:
The learner demonstrates understanding of:
1. the criteria in selecting, citing, and synthesizing related literature;
2. the ethical standards in writing literature;
3. the formulation of conceptual framework;
4. the research hypotheses (if appropriate)
Performance Standard:
The learner is able to:
1. select, cite, and synthesize judiciously related literature and use sources according to ethical standards;
2. formulate clearly the conceptual framework, research hypotheses (if appropriate), and define terms used
in study; and
3. present objectively written review of related literature and conceptual framework

Learning Competencies:
The learner:
1. selects relevant literature;
2. cites related literature using standard style ( APA, MLA or Chicago Manual of Style);
3. synthesizes information from relevant literature;
4. writes coherent review of literature;
5. follows ethical standards in writing related literature’
6. illustrates and explain conceptual framework;
7. defines terms used in study; and
8. presents written review of literature and conceptual framework.

Lesson 1: Review of Related Literature (RRL)

Time frame: Week 3

OVERVIEW

There is no one better than having good sets of evidence that will support your research. When you have
finally paved the direction of your research, the next thing to do is to make a literature review. This section is
called Review of Related Literature.
The RRL is an essential part of your paper. This is the section where you take a lot of time reviewing
concepts or ideas related to your research--may it be in books, journals, or other reading materials in the past. It
includes current knowledge of the issue being examined. Literature reviews do not contain reports on the original
experimental work thus, they are known as secondary sources. Literature reviews are often a key component in
writing research project paper as part of the research that forms your project paper; it tells your readers the
depth of your academic maturity.

PURPOSES OF RRL
You make the RRL to:
 find out the connection of your research to the current conditions or situations of the world;

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  know more about theories or concepts underlying your research and to learn from them with respect to
your own research study;
 discover the relation of your research with previous research studies; and
 obtain information on the accuracy or relevance of your research questions; and
 Familiarize yourself with technical terms related to your research.

Your literature review should be well understood and be able to tell your reader how your research topic fits
with the current body of published works that you have included in your review.

It is important to establish the fact that a poorly written literature review can destroy a scientific thesis. This
causes you to lose credibility to your findings, which means your project paper cannot be acknowledged in future
studies and it can also make your project writing lack structure or foundation. Not presenting a proper literature
review gives your audience no way to justify the position of your proposed research. That is, they do not know if
you are filling an identified gap or addressing a weakness in someone else’s study. If your literature review is not
comprehensive enough you would lack the grounds on which to criticize an already existing or published
material.

WHAT SHOULD BE DONE BEFORE YOU BEGIN THE LITERATURE REVIEW?

 Determine what materials are available with regards to the topic, what type of sources you would be
consulting (books, journals, articles and websites. You can also decide to use all these sources to write
your review) and how many of those sources should be included in your review.
 Find out what relevant information concerning the topic has been written in those materials.
 Identify the relationships and patterns that exist across the materials.
 Identify the strengths and weaknesses those materials contain.
 Identify the gaps in the research materials you are consulting.
 Identify any conflicting evidence in those materials.

When you have successfully done the above, then you can begin the process of writing the review.

WRITING THE REVIEW

The first thing to do as you write your literature review is to;

 Consider the organization: What do you think would be the most effective way to present the
information you have gathered? Consider the most important subtopics that should be included in your
review and in what order they should be presented. Your review content should be presented
sequentially as;

-Introduction: This gives your readers, at a glance; the central theme of your literature review.

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 -Body: This is the part or section of your literature review that contains your discussion of sources.
Sources can be arranged thematically, methodologically or chronologically.

-Conclusion: Your conclusion should contain or discuss what you have drawn from the review.

 Use evidence: This is where a lot of people have problems. Every idea in the literature review is not
yours therefore; you should always acknowledge the source. Except it is common knowledge, always
remember to acknowledge the source. At least, cite every paragraph. For example, you can say; “studies
conducted by Mill and Shaw in 1830 shows that breast cancer can be hereditary”. Doing this provides an
evidence to show that your point is valid.
 Be selective and relevant: Every point mentioned or stated in your review must be relevant to your
research topic. Don’t include everything you see in the sources you are consulting. This would make your
review lack focus and relevance.
 Use quotes: This is very important in avoiding the event of plagiarism. When you have to directly lift an
idea; word for word, it is important to put the idea in quotes. After putting the idea in quotes, the next
and very important thing to do is to cite or acknowledge the source. For example, “An average adult
female cockroach has a short life span of 12days”, Obi and Yale, 2013. I have said you should use quotes
but do so in moderation. It is more professionally preferable to paraphrase and cite the sources than to
always quote them directly.
 Remain original: It is the originality of your work that separates it from other available materials on that
topic and also keeps your readers interested. Yes! Your review contains other people’s idea. But, you
should at all times express this idea in your own voice.
 You can paraphrase: Instead of always quoting, paraphrase what has been written in your own voice.
Find the information, read it and represent it the way you have understood it.
 Revise: Read through your work. Ask yourself if you have represented the information in the best way
possible. Check for grammatical errors and spelling errors. Make sure your references are correct. Check
for places you failed to add a reference. Check to make sure that your review centers on your research
project topic. Remember that your literature review serves as a building block for the argument or
hypothesis in your project topic. You can decide to employ the services of a professional to help edit your
work.

At the end of your literature review, your reader should be able to effortlessly decipher the relationship that
exists between your research project topic and your literature review. If your reader fails to see this relationship
because of your inability to make the connection then, your review has failed; both as a stand-alone piece of
academic work and as a building block for your research topic.

Do not do copy-pasting in your RRL. If it is not your idea, use paraphrasing and give
credit to whom it is due. This will help you avoid plagiarism which will destror the
trustworthiness of your research.

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Lesson 2: In-Text Citations and Referencing Styles
Time frame: Week 3

OVERVIEW

Ever since the copy and paste function was

invented by Larry Tesler for the computer, students
and professionals around the world have been using
this for their convenience. However, this brilliant
invention may had been abused for a long time and
had led from cheating in tests to serious crimes like
plagiarism.
Since then, most students would commit this crime as if it is something that they could get away with. Due to
overdependency towards the internet and the lack of information evaluation, most students would copy and paste
what they see without knowing if the information they acquired is credible or not.
Before going over the rest of the lesson, fill in some of the news you have heard about plagiarism in the
Philippines. Write about what happened, who did it, how the person did it, and how the authorities dealt with it.

In research, plagiarism is definitely a NO NO! When you write your literature review, plagiarism is
PROHIBITED. Of course, copying and using resources from the internet is allowed but, as a researcher, you are

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|48

bound to follow ethical standards as much as possible. You have to give credit where it is due. You have to cite
and reference your sources.

IN-TEXT CITATION AND REFERENCING

When you write your RRL, you have two main ways in crediting the author of the source you are using:
CITATION and REFERENCES.
Citation or In-text citation is referring to the author within the main body of the paper. Reference is a list of
sources put at the end of the paper.
In writing your citation and reference, there are two main types: APA and MLA.

APA (American Psychological Association)

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 How to do APA In-Text Citation

In-text references must be included following the use of a quote or paraphrase taken from another
piece of work.

In-text citations are citations within the main body of the text and refer to a direct quote or paraphrase.
They correspond to a reference in the main reference list. These citations include the surname of the author
and date of publication only. Using an example author James Mitchell, this takes the form:

Mitchell (2017) states… Or …(Mitchell, 2017).

The structure of this changes depending on whether a direct quote or parenthetical used:

Direct Quote: The citation must follow the quote directly and contain a page number after the date,
for example (Mitchell, 2017, p.104). This rule holds for all of the variations listed.

Parenthetical: The page number is not needed.

Other APA in-text citation rules:

Two Authors:

The surname of both authors is stated with either ‘and’ or an ampersand between. For example:

Mitchell and Smith (2017) state… Or …(Mitchell & Smith, 2017).

Three, Four or Five Authors:

For the first cite, all names should be listed:

Mitchell, Smith, and Thomson (2017) state… Or …(Mitchell, Smith, & Thomson, 2017).

Further cites can be shorted to the first author’s name followed by et al:

Mitchell et al (2017) state… Or …(Mitchell et al, 2017).

Six or More Authors:

Only the first author’s surname should be stated followed by et al, see the above example.

No Authors:

If the author is unknown, the first few words of the reference should be used. This is usually the title of
the source.

If this is the title of a book, periodical, brochure or report, is should be italicised. For example:

(A guide to citation, 2017).

If this is the title of an article, chapter or web page, it should be in quotation marks. For example:

(“APA Citation”, 2017).

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 Citing Authors With Multiple Works From One Year:

Works should be cited with a, b, c etc following the date. These letters are assigned within the reference
list, which is sorted alphabetically by the surname of the first author. For example:

(Mitchell, 2017a) Or (Mitchell, 2017b).

Citing Multiple Works in One Parentheses:

If these works are by the same author, the surname is stated once followed by the dates in order
chronologically. For instance:

Mitchell (2007, 2013, 2017) Or (Mitchell, 2007, 2013, 2017)

If these works are by multiple authors then the references are ordered alphabetically by the first author
separated by a semicolon as follows:

(Mitchell & Smith 2017; Thomson, Coyne, & Davis, 2015).

Citing a Group or Organisation:

For the first cite, the full name of the group must be used. Subsequently this can be shortened. For
example:

First cite: (International Citation Association, 2015)

Further Cites: (Citation Association, 2015)

Citing a Secondary Source:

In this situation the original author and date should be stated first followed by ‘as cited in’ followed by
the author and date of the secondary source. For example:

Lorde (1980) as cited in Mitchell (2017) Or (Lorde, 1980, as cited in Mitchell, 2017)

How to do APA References

Core Components of an APA Reference

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 APA Referencing according to the Type of Source

1. Book referencing is the most basic style; it matches the template above, minus the URL section. So the
basic format of a book reference is as follows:

Examples:

Mitchell, J.A., Thomson, M., & Coyne, R.P. (2017). A guide to citation. London, England: My Publisher

Jones, A.F & Wang, L. (2011). Spectacular creatures: The Amazon rainforest (2nd ed.). San Jose, Costa
Rica: My Publisher

2. Edited Book in APA Format. This reference format is very similar to the book format apart from one
extra inclusion: (Ed(s)). The basic format is as follows:

Example:

Williams, S.T. (Ed.). (2015). Referencing: A guide to citation rules (3rd ed.). New York, NY: My Publisher

3. Chapter in an Edited Book in APA Format. Edited books are collations of chapters written by different
authors. To reference a single chapter, a different format is needed. The basic structure is as follows:

Example:

In the following example, B.N. Troy is the author of the chapter and S.T. Williams is the editor.

Troy, B.N. (2015). APA citation rules. In S.T, Williams (Ed.). A guide to citation rules (2nd ed., pp. 50-95).
New York, NY: Publishers.

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 4. E-Book in APA Format. An E-Book reference is the same as a book reference expect the publisher is
swapped for a URL. The basic structure is as follows:

Author surname, initial(s) (Ed(s).*). (Year). Title (ed.*). Retrieved from URL *optional.

Example:

Mitchell, J.A., Thomson, M., & Coyne, R.P. (2017). A guide to citation. Retrieved from
https://www.mendeley.com/reference-management/reference-manager

5. E-Book Chapter in APA Format. This follows the same structure as an edited book chapter reference
except the publisher is exchanged for a URL. The structure is as follows:

Last name of the chapter author, initial(s). (Year). Chapter title. In editor initial(s), surname
(Ed.). Title (ed., pp.chapter page range). Retrieved from URL

Example:

Troy, B.N. (2015). APA citation rules. In S.T, Williams (Ed.). A guide to citation rules (2nd ed., pp. 50-95).
Retrieved from https://www.mendeley.com/reference-management/reference-manager

6. Journal Article in Print or Online in APA Format. Articles differ from book citations in that the
publisher and publisher location are not included. For journal articles, these are replaced with the journal
title, volume number, issue number and page number. The basic structure is:

Examples:

Mitchell, J.A. (2017). Citation: Why is it so important. Mendeley Journal, 67(2), 81-95

Mitchell, J.A. (2017). Citation: Why is it so important. Mendeley Journal, 67(2), 81-95. Retrieved
from https://www.mendeley.com/reference-management/reference-manager

7. Newspaper Articles in Print or Online in APA Format. The basic structure is as follows:

Author surname, initial(s). (Year, Month Day). Title. Title of Newspaper, column/section, p. or pp.
Retrieved from URL*

**Only include if the article is online.

Note: the date includes the year, month and date.

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 Example:

Mitchell, J.A. (2017). Changes to citation formats shake the research world. The Mendeley Telegraph,
Research News, pp.9. Retrieved
from https://www.mendeley.com/reference-management/reference-manager

8. Magazine Articles in Print or Online in APA Format. The basic structure is as follows:

Author surname, initial(s). (Year, month day). Title. Title of the Magazine, pp.

Example:

Mitchell, J.A. (2017). How citation changed the research world. The Mendeley, pp. 26-28

9. Website in APA Format. When citing a website, the basic structure is as follows:

Author surname, initial(s). (Year, month day). Title. Retrieved from URL

Example:

Mitchell, J.A. (2017, May 21). How and when to reference. Retrieved
from https://www.howandwhentoreference.com.

MLA (Modern Language Association)

How to do MLA In-text Citation

In-text references must be included following the use of a quote or paraphrase taken from another piece
of work. In-text citations are citations within the main body of the text and refer to a direct quote or
paraphrase. In-text citations:

 Correspond to a reference in the main reference list.

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  They contain the first word of the reference, which is usually the author’s surname, and the page,
or page-range in which the reference is found.
 They come directly after the quote or parenthetical or in a natural pause.

Using the example author James A. Mitchell they take the form:

Mitchell states “...” (189) Or (Mitchell 189)

Other MLA in-text citation rules:

More than One Author:

For 2-3 authors, all the names can be listed along with the page number in the following format:

(Mitchell, Thomson, and Smith 189)

For 3+ authors, only the surname of the first author should be listed followed by ‘et al’:

(Mitchell et al. 189)

No Authors:

In this case, the whole title italicised, a shortened title within quotation marks or an article or webpage
in quotation marks should be used in place of the author. Using the example of a book ‘A guide to citation’
and an article ‘APA Citation guide’, this takes the form:

Book Title: A Guide to Citation states “..” (189) Or (A Guide to Citation 189)

Article Title: “APA Citation Guide” states “...” (189) Or (“APA Citation Guide” 189)

Authors With Multiple Cited Works:

Include a shortened version of the title within the citation: (Mitchell, A Guide to Citation 189)

Authors With the Same Surname:

In this case, include an initial: (J. Mitchell 76) and (M. Mitchell 100-120)

No Page Number

If the source includes another numbered pattern (eg chapters, paragraphs) then these numbers can be
used instead: (Mitchell, ch. 7) ch referring to chapter.

If there are no numbered sections then the name is quoted alone.

Citing a Quote or Parenthetical:

In these cases, use ‘qtd.’ before the name: (qtd. In Mitchell 189)

Citing Audio-Visual Sources:

In these cases a time stamp must be used in place of the page number in the form hh:mm:ss: (Mitchell
00:18:23)

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 How to do MLA References
Core Component of MLA Reference

APA Referencing according to the Type of Source

1. Book referencing is the most basic type of reference. The basic format is as follows:

Example:

Mitchell, James A. A Guide to Citation. 2nd ed, My London Publisher, 2017.

Note: Author name. Title. Version, Publisher, Year of Publication.

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 2. Edited and Translated Books. The format of these is the same as a book reference except that the editor
or translator must be specified. This is done in one of two ways:

-Editor or translator is added after the names in the author list. This is done if the editing or translation
is the focus of you work. E.g. Mendeley, James, editor.

-The names are added to the contributors list preceded by ‘translated by’ or ‘edited by’. This is done if
the author or work itself is the focus of your work, no the editing or translation. E.g. Edited by James
Mendeley,

The two possible formats are as followed:

Last name, first name, editor. Title. Title of container, Contributors, Version, Number, Publisher, Year of
publication. Or

Last name, first name. Title. Title of container, edited by Contributors, Version, Number, Publisher, Year
of publication.

Examples:

Troy, Ben N., editor, and Mary Smith. A Guide to Citation Rules. Oxford Publishers, 2015.

Coyne, Kate and Nick A. Smith. MLA Citation Rules. Translated by Chris Andrews, New York Publishings,
2004.

3. E-Books. An e-book is considered to be a different version of a book, so the e-book identity is entered into
the version section of the regular book reference template. Specific providers of e-book can be referenced for
instance kindle which is referenced as ‘kindle ed.’. The basic format of an e-book citation is:

Last name, first name. Title. Title of container, Contributors, edition, e-book, Number, Publisher, Year of
publication.

Example:

Troy, Ben N., et al. A Guide to Citation. 2nd ed, e-book, New York Publishers, 2010.

4. Chapter (or Essay) in a Book. This reference takes a slightly different form to the book reference.

Example:

Mitchell, James A. “MLA Citation”. A Guide to Citation, My London Publisher, 2017, pp. 107-134

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 5. Article. The basic format for citing journal, newspaper and magazine articles is the same:

There are variations between journal, magazine and newspaper article references within the date and
title of container sections.

Journal Example:

Mitchell, James A. “Citation: Why is it Important”. Mendeley Journal, vol. 4, no. 6, Summer

1999, pp .607-674.

Newspaper/Magazine Example:

Mitchell, James A. “How Citation Changed the Research World”. The Mendeley, weekend edition, vol. 62,
no. 9, 6 September 2017, pp. 70-81.

Online Example:

The only change when referencing an online article is the addition of the database title and a URL or
DOI corresponding to the article.

Mitchell, James A. “Citation: Why is it Important”. Mendeley Journal, vol. 4, no. 6, Summer 1999,
pp .607-674. Journal Database, https://www.mendeley.com/reference-management/reference-manager

6. Webpage. The basic format for this is:

Last name of author, first name. “Title of page/document”. Title of overall webpage, date, URL.

Example:

Mitchell, James A., and Martha Thomson. How and When to Reference. 25 Jan.
2017: https://www.howandwhentoreference.com/.

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 ACTIVITY
Activity 1. APA and MLA Checker
Directions: Check the right column for each referencing item.

True only for APA True only for MLA True for both APA and
Referencing Item
style style MLA style
1. (Bravo, 2016, p.83)
2. Colon after publication place
3. Date after author
4. Period after bibliographical entry
5. Underlined title of the book
6. Date after the publisher
7. Italicized title of the book
8. Capitalized content words in the
title
9. (Araullo 383)
10. Capitalized initial word and
proper nouns in the title

Activity 2. Multiple-choice
Directions: Circle the letter of the correct answer.

1.What is the correct reference format for a book?

A. Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (2011).
B. Weinberg, RS and Gould, D 2011,
C. R. S. Weinberg & D. Gould, (2011).
D. Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (2011).

2. What is the correct author and year format for a journal article in a reference list?

A. Brill, J. B. (2011).
B. Brill, JB, (2011).
C. Brill, J. B. 2011.
D. John Brill, 2011.

3. What is the correct reference format for a web document?

A. What is holistic medicine? 2012. Retrieved from http://www.holisticmed.com/whatis.html

B. Gold, M. (2012). What is holistic medicine? http://www.holisticmed.com/whatis.html
C. Martin Gold. (2012). What is holistic medicine? http://www.holisticmed.com/whatis.html
D. Gold, M 2012, What is holistic medicine?, viewed 30 July 2014, http://www.holisticmed.com/whatis.html.

4. What is the correct in-text reference format for a direct quote?

A. Veit and Gould (2010) emphasise the importance of ‘using your own words and your own style’ when
paraphrasing.Veit & Gould (2010, p158) emphasise the importance of ‘using your own words and your
own style’ when paraphrasing.
B. Veit & Gould (2010, p158) emphasise the importance of ‘using your own words and your own style’ when
paraphrasing.
C. Veit and Gould (2010) emphasise the importance of “using your own words and your own style" (p. 158)
when paraphrasing.
D. Veit and Gould, page 158, emphasise the importance of ‘using your own words and your own style’ when
paraphrasing.

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5. The reference list is arranged in the order in which resources are cited in your assignment.

A. TRUE
B. FALSE

6. In which text the citation is correct according to APA style?

A. Milgram (1963) was interested in the extend in which people would be willing to obey an authority figure.
The percentage of subjects that obeyed in Milgram’s experiment (1963), was much greater . . .

B. Milgram (1963) was interested in the extend in which people would be willing to obey an authority figure.
The percentage of subjects that obeyed in his experiment, was much greater . . .

C. Milgram (1963) was interested in the extend in which people would be willing to obey an authority figure.
The percentage of subjects that obeyed in Milgram’s experiment (ibid.), was much greater . . .

D. Milgram (1963) was interested in the extend in which people would be willing to obey an authority figure.
The percentage of subjects that obeyed in Milgram’s experiment (see Milgram, 1963), was much greater . . .

7. In which text the citation is correct according to APA style?

A. Vroom & Yetton (1973) define leadership in a more practical way.

B. Vroom/ Yetton (1973) define leadership in a more practical way.

C. Vroom and Yetton (1973) define leadership in a more practical way.

8. What is wrong in this reference?

Eagly, A. H., and Carli, L. L. (1981). Sex of researchers and sex-typed communications as determinants
of sex differences in influenceability: A meta-analysis of social influences. Psychological Bulletin, 90, 1-20.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.90.1.1

A. Between author names “&” should be used instead of “and”.

B. There should be quotation marks around the title: " “

C. The year should not be in parentheses.

9. What is wrong in this reference?

Deaux, Kay. (1976). The Behavior of Women and Men. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.

A. Kay should be K.

B. The year should not be in parentheses

C. The words Behavior, Women en Men should not begin with capitals

10. You want to cite information from the chapter “Culture and social class” of P. J. Henry. This chapter is part
of the book ”Culture reexamined: Broadening our understanding of social and evolutionary influences” from 2014,
of which A. B. Cohen is the editor. How do you cite this source?

A. In text:
. . . culture is defined in many different ways in different disciplines (Henry, in Cohen, 2014).

In the reference list:

Cohen A. B. (Ed.). Culture reexamined: Broadening our understanding of social and evolutionary
influences. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|60

 B. In text:
. . . culture is defined in many different ways in different disciplines (Henry, 2014).

In the reference list:

Henry, P. J. (2014). Culture and social class. In A. B. Cohen (Ed.), Culture reexamined: Broadening our
understanding of social and evolutionary influences (pp. 49-75). Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association.

REFLECTION

Directions: Express your ideas in the following question. Write your answer in
a sheet of paper.

What is the history of plagiarism? What are the root causes of plagiarism?

ASSIGNMENT

Make a table with 2 columns. Each column will be labeled APA and MLA, respectively. Cite all their
differences in in-text citation and referencing. Answer in a sheet of paper.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|61

Lesson 3: Conceptual Framework
Time Frame: Week 3
OVERVIEW
While you are doing your research, you might have included important concepts, elements, and components
in your paper that your readers might overlook or be confused about.
So, wanting to make clear the ins and outs of your
research in a nutshell, you make the CONCEPTUAL
FRAMEWORK of the study.
A conceptual framework is a graphical presentation of your
concepts or ideas on the basic structure or components of
your research as well as on the relationship of these
elements with one another (Baraceros, 2016). It is a broad
outline or plan that shows the components of your study. It is the researcher’s understanding of how the
particular variables in his study connect with each other. Thus, it identifies the variables required in the
research investigation. It is the researcher’s “map” in pursuing the investigation. Simply put, you are being
transparent in the direction your research is taking. Here is an example of a conceptual framework:

Thesis statement: Chronic exposure to blue light from LED screens (of computer monitors and television)
deplete melatonin levels thus reduce the number of sleeping hours among middle-aged adults.

The study claims that blue light from the light emitting diodes (LED) inhibit the production of melatonin, a
hormone that regulates sleep and wake cycles. Those affected experience insomnia; they sleep less than required
(usually less than six hours), and this happens when they spend too much time working on their laptops or
viewing the television at night.

Notice that the variables of the study are explicit in the paradigm presented in Figure 1. In the illustration,
the two variables are 1) number of hours devoted in front of the computer, and 2) number of hours slept at night.
The former is the independent variable while the latter is the dependent variable. Both of these variables are easy
to measure. It is just counting the number of hours spent in front of the computer and the number of hours slept
by the subjects of the study (Regoniel, 2015).

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|62

 Here is another example:

You can also make a framework by showing the inter-relationships of your variables and how it will
impact the study.
Based on the diagram, the need of students to belong depends on the significance of others and how the
person perceives that significance. This perception of others greatly influences the level of ‘mattering’ to
Latino students which will greatly impact their persistence to graduate with their peers. This diagram
showed both the INPUT (the research problem) and the OUTPUT (end result) of the study which are to study
the levels and influencers of ‘mattering’ (input) and its impacts on the persistence to graduation of Latino
students (output).

POINTERS IN WRITING A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

1. Familiarize yourself with the objective of the conceptual framework.

2. Base the contents of the conceptual framework on your own understanding of the elements and of
the relationships of the research components.
3. See to it that all aspects of the framework are related to the objective of the research.
4. Let others read your conceptual framework for comments or feedback for improvement purposes.

When you finally structure your conceptual framework, you can use different kinds of concept maps.
CONCEPT MAPS are made up of lines, circles, boxes, or symbols that represent concepts of varied features of your
research. Here are some types of concepts maps you can use:

1. Flowchart
2. Systems concept map
3. Tree diagram
4. Spider Map

If you ever get confused on how to determine the relationship of your variables,
remember to read the literature about them. Remember why you are studying this issue,
what you want to understand about it, and what problem you want to solve. Always stick
to the objective of your research.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|63

 OVERVIEW
Activity 1. Concept Explanation
Directions: Answer each question intelligently and concisely.

1. Describe the behavior of one writing a conceptual framework of research.

______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________

2. In what stage of research is conceptual framework written? Give reasons for your answer.

______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Why should a research be given a conceptual framework?

______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Suppose the research has no conceptual framework, what would the consequences be?

______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________

5. How does a conceptual framework mirror some personality traits of the researcher?

______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________

Activity 2. Creating a Conceptual Framework

Directions: Make a conceptual framework on the research topic provided. Draw your map in the box given.

Research topic: “Improving Critical Thinking through Systemic Functional Grammar”

Systemic Functional Grammar or SFG is a modern language theory which states that man’s critical thinking
increases whenever he uses language for these reasons: first, for ideational function or for knowledge acquisition;
second, for interpersonal function or creating human relationships, and third, for trxtual function or for strategic
and coherent expression of ideas. In this case, the independent variables are the SFG components (ideational,
interpersonal, and textual functions) and the dependent variable is critical thinking.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|64

 REFLECTION

Directions: Express your ideas in the following question. Write your answer in
a sheet of paper.

In a nutshell, how can you describe your chosen career path in life? Make
a conceptual framework on the things you want to achieve in your life.

ASSIGNMENT

Make the conceptual framework of the study on the research topic and problem you have chosen. Encode
your work in a short-sized bondpaper using Times New Roman size 12, double-spacing.

Note: All assignments shall be passed online through Google Classroom. Your class code will be given to you at
the start of the class, so pass your assignments and activities before/on the deadline.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|65

Lesson 4: Operational Definitions
Time Frame: Week 3

OVERVIEW

Every good research study always has some definitions to clarify as regards the variables used in the study.
To do this, researchers do not just define the variable based on what it is (THEORETICAL DEFINITION), but how
it is supposed to be used in the study. This is called OPERATIONAL DEFINITION.
An operational definition allows the researchers to describe in a specific way what they mean when they use
a certain term. Generally, operational definitions are concrete and measurable. Defining variables in this way
allows other people to see if the research has validity. Validity here refers to if the researchers are actually
measuring what they intended to measure.
We need operational definitions, so that we know exactly what researchers are talking about when they refer
to something. There might be different definitions of words depending on the context in which the word is used.
Think about how words mean something different to people from different cultures. To avoid any confusion about
definitions, in research we explain clearly what we mean when we use a certain term.

Operational Definition Examples

Example One:
A researcher wants to measure if age is related to addiction. Perhaps their hypothesis is: the incidence of
addiction will increase with age. Here we have two variables, age and addiction. In order to make the research as
clear as possible, the researcher must define how they will measure these variables. Essentially, how do we
measure someone’s age and how to we measure addiction?
Variable One: Age might seem straightforward. You might be wondering why we need to define age if we all
know what age is. However, one researcher might decide to measure age in months in order to get someone’s
precise age, while another researcher might just choose to measure age in years. In order to understand the
results of the study, we will need to know how this researcher operationalized age. For the sake of this example
lets say that age is defined as how old someone is in years.
Variable Two: The variable of addiction is slightly more complicated than age. In order to operationalize it the
researcher has to decide exactly how they want to measure addiction. They might narrow down their definition
and say that addiction is defined as going through withdrawal when the person stops using a substance. Or the
researchers might decide that the definition of addiction is: if someone currently meets the DSM-5 diagnostic
criteria for any substance use disorder. For the sake of this example, let’s say that the researcher chose the latter.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|66

Final Definition: In this research study age is defined as participant’s age measured in years and the incidence of
addiction is defined as whether or not the participant currently meets the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for any
substance use disorder.

Example Two:

A researcher wants to measure if there is a correlation between hot weather and violent crime. Perhaps their
guiding hypothesis is: as temperature increases so will violent crime. Here we have two variables, weather and
violent crime. In order to make this research precise the researcher will have to operationalize the variables.

Variable One: The first variable is weather. The researcher needs to decide how to define weather.
Researchers might chose to define weather as outside temperature in degrees Fahrenheit. But we need to get a
little more specific because there is not one stable temperature throughout the day. So the researchers might say
that weather is defined as the high recorded temperature for the day measured in degrees Fahrenheit.

Variable Two: The second variable is violent crime. Again, the researcher needs to define how violent crime
is measured. Let’s say that for this study it they use the FBI’s definition of violent crime. This definition describes
violent crime as “murder and nonnegligent manslaughter, forcible rape, robbery, and aggravated assault”.

However, how do we actually know how many violent crimes were committed on a given day? Researchers
might include in the definition something like: the number of people arrested that day for violent crimes as
recorded by the local police.

Final Definition: For this study, temperature was defined as high recorded temperature for the day
measured in degrees Fahrenheit. Violent crime was defined as the number of people arrested in a given day for
murder, forcible rape, robbery, and aggravated assault as recorded by the local police.

GUIDELINES IN GIVING OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS

Gleaned from books on research are the following pointers on defining terms operationally:

1. Have a clear understanding of the concept focused on by your study before you begin such concept
operationally.

2. Base your operational definition on the concept under study.

3. Express the operational definition in only one sentence.

4. Let the operational definition explain the measurement of the variables clearly.

5. Construct an operational definition that other researchers can understand, assess, and repeat in
other research studies.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|67

 ACTIVITY
Activity 1. Theoretical definition vs Operational Definition
Directions: On the line provided, write OD if the sentence defines the term operationally; TD, if it defines the term
theoretically or conceptually.

___________1. A sentence is a worf or group of words that expresses a complete thought.

___________2. A sentence is made up of a subject, consisting of a name word, and a predicate, made up of an
action words, to express a complete thought.

___________3. A bug is a fault or an error in a computer program.

___________4. A bug is an error in a computer program that is characterized by high-speed telegraph key.

___________5. Strangury is less than 20-minute slow and bloody way of urinating.

___________6. Strangury is a person’s abnormal way of urinating.

___________7. Sterilization is any procedure such as the use of a steam-pressure cooker to destroy
microorganisms.

___________8. Sterilization is a complete destruction of all microorganisms.

___________9. Analog is the representation of values through the use of physical variables.

___________10. Cycle is a set of operations.

Activity 2. Making Operational Definitions

Directions: Convert each theoretical definition to operational definition.

1. A unversity is a place for learning.

______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Electric fan is a device for convenience.

______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Painting is an art.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________

4. A phrase is a group of words.

______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________

5. Patience is an ability to wait.

______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|68

 REFLECTION

Directions: Express your ideas in the following question. Write your answer in
a sheet of paper.

Why do we need to define the variables operationally? How do you know if

a term is defined operationally? How do we differentiate a theoretical
definition from an operational definition?
.

ASSIGNMENT

You have two (2) assignments:

1. Surf the internet and look for published research study. Make a list of terms that the study defined
operationally. Then, evaluate the way the online operational definitions were made.

2. Make the definition of terms of the study on the research topic and problem you have chosen. Encode
your work in a short-sized bondpaper using Times New Roman size 12, double-spacing.

Note: All assignments shall be passed online through Google Classroom. Your class code will be given to you at
the start of the class, so pass your assignments and activities before/on the deadline.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|69

 UNIT 4: Understanding Data and
Ways to Systematically Collect
Data
A lot of data from different sources preoccupy your mind as you go through the several stages of
research. To understand the data; that is, to find meanings in them in relation to your study, you have to
conduct an orderly manner of gathering, identifying, and grouping them. A set-by-set arrangement of
facts and information is a must in research, because in arriving at a conclusion about your study on the
basis of the collected data, you don’t only deal with lone proof or evidence but also with several proofs
hinging upon a common theme, concept or theory.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|70

UNIT 4: Understanding Data and Ways to
Systematically Collect Data
Content Standard:
The learner demonstrates understanding of:
1. quantitative research designs;
2. description of sample;
3. instrument development;
4. data collection and analysis procedures such as survey, interview, and observation; and
5. guidelines in writing research methodology.
Performance Standard:
The learner is able to:
1. describe adequately quantitative research designs, sample, instrument used, data collection, and analysis
procedures.
Learning Competencies:
The learner:
1. chooses appropriate quantitative research designs;
2. describes sampling procedure and the sample;
3. constructs an instrument and establishes its validity and reliability;
4. plans data collection procedure;
5. plans data analysis using statistics and hypothesis testing (if appropriate); and
6. presents written research methodology.

Lesson 1: Quantitative Research Designs

Time Frame: Week 4

OVERVIEW
Once you have decided on what research problem to study, have already studied about its background and its
current situation, and have decided the framework , the next thing to do is to plan out how to collect data for your
research questions. This planning section of your research paper is called METHODOLOGY.

Much like fashion designing and other fields, your own research needs to have a plan of action. How would
you get the answers you need? What instruments will you need to gather data? From whom will you aquire the
data? Where will you get them? These are questions that you need to provide for in this section. In the
methodology section is comprised of: research design, respondent, instruments, sampling technique, data
gatherting procedure, and data analysis.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|71

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

A research design is a systematic approach that a researcher uses to conduct a scientific study. It is the
overall synchronization of identified components and data resulting in a plausible outcome. To conclusively come
up with an authentic and accurate result, the research design should follow a strategic methodology, in line with
the type of research chosen. To have a better understanding of which research paper topic, to begin with, it is
imperative to first identify the types of research to start writing a research proposal.

What is Quantitative Research design?

A quantitative research design is used to examine the relationship between variables by using numbers and
statistics to explain and analyze their findings.

There are 4 types of quantitative research design:

 Descriptive design research: As the name implies, it is intended to describe the present status of this
type of design that does not require a hypothesis, to begin with. These analyses are generated from existing
data.
Here are some methods that you can use in this design:
1. Observational method
2. Case Study Method
3. Survey Method

 Correlational design research: This seeks to discover If two variables are associated or related in some
way, using statistical analysis, while observing the variable. It measures a relationship between
two variables without the researcher controlling either of them. It aims to find out whether there is either:

Positive correlation Both variables change in the As height increases, weight also increases
same direction
Negative correlation The variables change in As coffee
opposite directions consumption increases, tiredness decreases
Zero correlation There is no relationship
between the variables

 Experimental design research: This is a method used to establish a cause and effect relationship
between two variables or among a group of variables. The independent variable is manipulated to observe the
effect on the dependent variable. For example, a certain group is exposed to a variable and then compared
with the group not exposed to the variable.
 Quasi-experimental design research: This experiment is designed just like the true experimental design,
except that it does not use randomized sample groups. Also, it is used when a typical research design is not
practicable.

How to develop a research design?

1. Classify the intended outcome of what needs 5. Identify the ideal data collection method
to be understood 6. Construct Interrelated characteristics
2. Developing the research question 7. Use correct analysis tools
3. What needs to be measured 8. Choose a channel for disseminating your
4. Select the population for the experiment findings

It is imperative that you carefully choose good quantitative research design that fits your
study.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|72

 ACTIVITY
Activity 1. Concept Mapping
Directions: Fill in the circles to complete the concept map. Draw lines from the circles to indicate your answers.

1.

2.

2.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|73

Activity 2. Brief Essay writing
Directions: Answer each question intelligently and concisely.

1. What should you be thinking of before designing your research?

______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________

2. How do you know that one is applying a quantitative research design?

______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Supposing you can not apply a true experimental design but you still want to follow a quantitative research
design, what research can you do? Give reasons for your answer.

______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Why do some people start to applying quasi-experimental design rather than true experimental design?

______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________

5. Do you agree that the best research results come from experimental designs? Justify your point.

______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________

6. If you were to conduct a quantitative research, which quantitative research design would you follow?

______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________

REFLECTION

Directions: Express your ideas in the following question. Write your answer in
a sheet of paper.

What happens when a research design does not match the research
problem or topic? How do you avoid this dilemma?

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|74

 ASSIGNMENT

You have two (2) assignments:

1. Surf the internet and look for 1 sample for each quantitative research design. Then, point out their
similarities and differences in their format, content, variables used, instruments, and methods.
2. Decide on what research design you will use in your study. Encode your research design in a word
document using Times New Roman font size 12 and wtih double-spacing.

Note: All assignments shall be passed online through Google Classroom. Your class code will be given to you at
the start of the class, so pass your assignments and activities before/on the deadline.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|75

Lesson 2: Sampling Methods
Time Frame: Week 4

OVERVIEW
It is crucial to choose appropriate type and number of respondents for your research. If you choose wrong
respondents, it could render your research proposal invalid. You might not even be entertained by the panelists if
they see that your respondents are not appropriate for the research.
To avoid this problem, you must do a sampling of your respondents.

What is Sampling?

Sampling is a technique of selecting individual members or a subset of the population to make statistical
inferences from them and estimate characteristics of the whole population. Different sampling methods are
widely used by researchers in market research so that they do not need to research the entire population to collect
actionable insights. It is also a time-convenient and a cost-effective method and hence forms the basis of
any research design. Sampling techniques can be used in a research survey software for optimum derivation.

For example, if a drug manufacturer would like to research the adverse side effects of a drug on the
country’s population, it is almost impossible to conduct a research study that involves everyone. In this case, the
researcher decides a sample of people from each demographic and then researches them, giving him/her
indicative feedback on the drug’s behavior.

Types of Sampling Methods

There are two main types of sampling method: Probability sampling and Non-probability sampling. Each
main type has sub-branches as shown in the diagram:

Let us delve more on these main types with examples.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|76

 Probability sampling is a sampling technique where a researcher sets a selection of a few criteria and
chooses members of a population randomly. All the members have an equal opportunity to be a part of the sample
with this selection parameter.
There are four types of probability sampling techniques:

 Simple random sampling: One of the best probability sampling techniques that helps in saving
time and resources, is the Simple Random Sampling method. It is a reliable method of obtaining
information where every single member of a population is chosen randomly, merely by chance. Each
individual has the same probability of being chosen to be a part of a sample.
For example, in an organization of 500 employees, if the HR team decides on conducting team
building activities, it is highly likely that they would prefer picking chits out of a bowl. In this case, each of
the 500 employees has an equal opportunity of being selected.
 Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling is a method where the researchers divide the entire
population into sections or clusters that represent a population. Clusters are identified and included in a
sample based on demographic parameters like age, sex, location, etc. This makes it very simple for a
survey creator to derive effective inference from the feedback.
For example, if the United States government wishes to evaluate the number of immigrants living
in the Mainland US, they can divide it into clusters based on states such as California, Texas, Florida,
Massachusetts, Colorado, Hawaii, etc. This way of conducting a survey will be more effective as the results
will be organized into states and provide insightful immigration data.
 Systematic sampling: Researchers use the systematic sampling method to choose the sample
members of a population at regular intervals. It requires the selection of a starting point for the sample
and sample size that can be repeated at regular intervals. This type of sampling method has a predefined
range, and hence this sampling technique is the least time-consuming.
For example, a researcher intends to collect a systematic sample of 500 people in a population of
5000. He/she numbers each element of the population from 1-5000 and will choose every 10th individual
to be a part of the sample (Total population/ Sample Size = 5000/500 = 10).
 Stratified random sampling: Stratified random sampling is a method in which the researcher
divides the population into smaller groups that don’t overlap but represent the entire population. While
sampling, these groups can be organized and then draw a sample from each group separately.
For example, a researcher looking to analyze the characteristics of people belonging to different
annual income divisions will create strata (groups) according to the annual family income. Eg – less than
$20,000, $21,000 – $30,000, $31,000 to $40,000, $41,000 to $50,000, etc. By doing this, the researcher
concludes the characteristics of people belonging to different income groups. Marketers can analyze which
income groups to target and which ones to eliminate to create a roadmap that would bear fruitful results.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|77

 Uses of probability sampling

There are multiple uses of probability sampling. They are:

 Reduce Sample Bias: Using the probability sampling method, the bias in the sample derived from
a population is negligible to non-existent. The selection of the sample mainly depicts the understanding
and the inference of the researcher. Probability sampling leads to higher quality data collection as the
sample appropriately represents the population.
 Diverse Population: When the population is vast and diverse, it is essential to have adequate
representation so that the data is not skewed towards one demographic. For example, if Square would like
to understand the people that could make their point-of-sale devices, a survey conducted from a sample of
people across the US from different industries and socio-economic backgrounds helps.
 Create an Accurate Sample: Probability sampling helps the researchers plan and create an
accurate sample. This helps to obtain well-defined data.

Non-probability sampling makes the researcher chooses members for research at random. This

sampling method is not a fixed or predefined selection process. This makes it difficult for all elements of a
population to have equal opportunities to be included in a sample.
Four types of non-probability sampling explain the purpose of this sampling method in a better
manner:

 Convenience sampling: This method is dependent on the ease of access to subjects such as
surveying customers at a mall or passers-by on a busy street. It is usually termed as convenience sampling,
because of the researcher’s ease of carrying it out and getting in touch with the subjects. Researchers have
nearly no authority to select the sample elements, and it’s purely done based on proximity and not
representativeness. This non-probability sampling method is used when there are time and cost
limitations in collecting feedback. In situations where there are resource limitations such as the initial
stages of research, convenience sampling is used.
For example, startups and NGOs usually conduct convenience sampling at a mall to distribute
leaflets of upcoming events or promotion of a cause – they do that by standing at the mall entrance and
giving out pamphlets randomly.
 Judgmental or purposive sampling: Judgemental or purposive samples are formed by the
discretion of the researcher. Researchers purely consider the purpose of the study, along with the
understanding of the target audience.
For instance, when researchers want to understand the thought process of people interested in
studying for their master’s degree. The selection criteria will be: “Are you interested in doing your masters
in …?” and those who respond with a “No” are excluded from the sample.
 Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling is a sampling method that researchers apply when the
subjects are difficult to trace. For example, it will be extremely challenging to survey shelterless people or
illegal immigrants. In such cases, using the snowball theory, researchers can track a few categories to

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|78

 interview and derive results. Researchers also implement this sampling method in situations where the
topic is highly sensitive and not openly discussed—for example, surveys to gather information about HIV
Aids. Not many victims will readily respond to the questions. Still, researchers can contact people they
might know or volunteers associated with the cause to get in touch with the victims and collect
information.
 Quota sampling: In Quota sampling, the selection of members in this sampling technique
happens based on a pre-set standard. In this case, as a sample is formed based on specific attributes, the
created sample will have the same qualities found in the total population. It is a rapid method of collecting
samples.

Uses of non-probability sampling

Non-probability sampling is used for the following:

 Create a hypothesis: Researchers use the non-probability sampling method to create an

assumption when limited to no prior information is available. This method helps with the immediate
return of data and builds a base for further research.
 Exploratory research: Researchers use this sampling technique widely when conducting
qualitative research, pilot studies, or exploratory research.
 Budget and time constraints: The non-probability method when there are budget and time
constraints, and some preliminary data must be collected. Since the survey design is not rigid, it is easier
to pick respondents at random and have them take the survey or questionnaire.

How do you decide on the type of sampling to use?

For any research, it is essential to choose a sampling method accurately to meet the goals of your study. The
effectiveness of your sampling relies on various factors. Here are some steps expert researchers follow to decide
the best sampling method.

 Jot down the research goals. Generally, it must be a combination of cost, precision, or accuracy.
 Identify the effective sampling techniques that might potentially achieve the research goals.
 Test each of these methods and examine whether they help in achieving your goal.
 Select the method that works best for the research.

Choose a sampling method that best fits your research.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|79

 ACTIVITY
Activity 1. Differentiating Probability and Non-Probability Sampling
Directions: Fill in the table on the differences between probability and non-probability sampling.

Probability Sampling Methods Non-Probability Sampling Methods

Probability Sampling is a sampling Non-probability sampling is a sampling
technique in which samples from a larger technique in which the researcher selects
Definition
population are chosen using a method samples based on the researcher’s subjective
based on the theory of probability. judgment rather than random selection.
Alternatively
1. 2.
Known as
Population
The population is selected randomly. 3.
selection
Nature 4. The research is exploratory.
Since the sampling method is arbitrary, the
Sample 5. population demographics representation is
almost always skewed.
Takes longer to conduct since the research
Time Taken design defines the selection parameters 6.
before the market research study begins.
This type of sampling is entirely biased and
Results 7. hence the results are biased too, rendering the
research speculative.
In probability sampling, there is an
underlying hypothesis before the study
Hypothesis 8.
begins and the objective of this method is
to prove the hypothesis.

Activity 2. Identifying Sample and Population

Directions: Answer the following questions. Write your answer on the space provided.

1. A scientist takes a big bucket of water from a lake and counts how many species of bacteria, bugs, and
other creepy crawlies he finds in the bucket. Identify the population, the sample, the parameter, and the
estimate in this situation.

______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

2. A school takes a poll to find out what students want to eat at lunch. 70 students are randomly chosen to
answer the poll questions. What are the population, the sample, the parameter, and the estimate of this study?

______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________

3. When is it okay to NOT use random sampling?

______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

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 REFLECTION

Directions: Express your ideas in the following question. Write your answer in
a sheet of paper.

What do you think would be the best sampling method to use? Why?

ASSIGNMENT

Start profiling your respondents by determining their age, sex, etc. Decide on what sampling method you will
use to determine your sample and to know how many respondents you would select to answer your research
instruments.

Note: All assignments shall be passed online through Google Classroom. Your class code will be given to you at
the start of the class, so pass your assignments and activities before/on the deadline.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|81

Lesson 3: Data Collection Technique and Research Instruments
Time Frame: Week 4

OVERVIEW

Knowing how to collect your data and what

instrument you will use is very significant to
a researcher.

Undermining the importance of choosing data collection

methods will result in the production of inaccurate data that
will, of course, render your study invalid. Hence, in collecting
data, stress is given to the accuracy or appropriateness of your
data-gathering technique as well as of the right instrument or
tool to collect data. Here are the most used quantitative
data-gathering techniques with their research instruments:

1. Observation - using your sense organs, you gather facts or information about people, things, places, events,
and so on. You do so by watching and listening to them; then, you record the results through an observation form
and convert these sensory experience to numbers.
Example: You watch the patients lining up at a medical clinic. Insteadd of focusing on their looks, you focus
your attention on the number, weight, and height of every patient standing up at the door of the medical clinic.
You can gather these data through the use of instruments like audiotapes, video records, and other recording
devices to capture earlier events, images, or sounds.

2. Survey - this is a data-gathering technique that makes you obtain facts or information about the subject
through instruments like interview and questionnaire. In a quantitative survey you may use a short answer
responses or dichotomous questions, multiple choice answers, paragraph, check boxes, drop down, linear scale,
multiple choice grid and more. As you can see there are various question formats that can be adapted to your
research needs. Here are some examples of survey method instruments:

-Interview. You ask a set of questions orally. In asking questions, you see to it that it must be done
sequentially. So, follow this order:
First set of questions - opening questions to establish friendly relationships, like questions about place,
time physical appearance of the participant, or other non-verbal things not for audio recording.
Second set of questions - generative questions to encourage open-ended questions like those that ask
about the respondents’ inferences, views, or opinions about the interview topic.
Third set of questions - directive questions or close-ended questions to elicit specific answers like those
that are answerable by yes or no.
Fourth set of questions - ending questions that give the respondents the chance to air their satisfaction,
wants, likes, dislikes, reactions, or comments about the interview.

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 Guidelines in formulating interview questions:
1. Use clear and simple language.
2. Avoid using acronyms, abbreviations, jargons, and highfalutin terms.
3. Let on question elicit only one answer; no double-barrel question.
4. Express your point in exact, specific, bias-free, and gender language.
5. Give way to how your respondents want themselves to be identified.
6. Establish continuity or free flow of the respondents’ thoughts by using appropriate follow-up
questions.
7. Ask questions in a sequential manner; determine which should be your opening, middle, or closing
questions.

-The Dichotomous Question .This type of questions are generally answered “yes/no”. For example:
Have you traveled to Guatemala?
Yes
No

-The Multiple Choice Questions

Where do you get the news from?

A. Television
B. Radio
C. Newspaper
D.Magazine
E. Word-of-mouth
F. Internet
G. Other: Please Specify _______________
*For this type of question it is important to consider including an "other" category because there may be
other avenues by which the person first heard about your site that you might have overlooked”

-Rank Order Scaling. Rank order scaling questions allow a certain set of brands or products to be ranked
based upon a specific attribute or characteristic. Perhaps we know that Toyota, Honda, Mazda, and Ford are most
likely to be purchased. You may request that the options be ranked based upon a particular attribute. Ties may or
may not be allowed. If you allow ties, several options will have the same scores.

Example:

Based upon what you have seen, heard, and experienced, please rank the following brands according to their
reliability. Place a "1" next to the brand that is most reliable, a "2" next to the brand that is next most reliable, and
so on. Remember, no two cars can have the same ranking.

Honda__
Toyota__
Mazda__
Ford__

-The Rating Scale . A rating scale question requires a person to rate a product or brand along a well-defined,
evenly spaced continuum. Rating scales are often used to measure the direction and intensity of attitudes.

The following is an example of a comparative rating scale question:

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|83

 Which of the following categories best describes your last experience purchasing a product or service on our
website? Would you say that your experience was:

Very pleasant - 5
Somewhat pleasant -4
Neither pleasant nor unpleasant -3
Somewhat unpleasant -2
Very unpleasant -1

-The Semantic Differential Scale. The semantic differential scale asks a person to rate a product, brand, or
company based upon a seven-point rating scale that has two bi-polar adjectives at each end. The following is an
example of a semantic differential scale question.

Example:
(7)Very Attractive
(6)
(5)
(4)
(3)
(2)
(1) Very Unattractive

Notice that unlike the rating scale, the semantic differential scale does not have a neutral or middle
selection. A person must choose, to a certain extent, one or the other adjective.

-The Staple Scale. The staple scale asks a person to rate a brand, product, or service according to a certain
characteristic on a scale from +5 to -5, indicating how well the characteristic describes the product or service.
The following is an example of a staple scale question:

When thinking about Data Mining Technologies, Inc. (DMT), do you believe that the word "innovative" aptly
describes or poorly describes the company? On a scale of +5 to -5 with +5 being "very good description of DMT"
and -5 being "poor description of DMT," how do you rank DMT according to the word "innovative"?

(+5) Describes very well

(+4)
(+3)
(+2)
(+1)

Innovative
(-1)
(-2)
(-3)
(-4)
(-5) Poorly Describes

-The Constant Sum Question. A constant sum question permits collection of "ratio" data, meaning that the
data is able to express the relative value or importance of the options (option A is twice as important as option B)

Example:
The following question asks you to divide 100 points between a set of options to show the value or
importance you place on each option. Distribute the 100 points giving the more important reasons a greater
number of points. The computer will prompt you if your total does not equal exactly 100 points.

When thinking about the reasons you purchased our TargetFind data mining software, please rate the
following reasons according to their relative importance.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|84

 Seamless integration with other software __________
User friendliness of software __________
Ability to manipulate algorithms __________
Level of pre- and post-purchase service __________
Level of value for the price __________
Convenience of purchase/quick delivery __________
Total 100 points

This type of question is used when you are relatively sure of the reasons for purchase, or you want
input on a limited number of reasons you feel are important. Questions must sum to 100 points and point
totals are checked by javascript.

-The Open-Ended Question. The open-ended question seeks to explore the qualitative, in-depth aspects of a
particular topic or issue. It gives a person the chance to respond in detail. Although open-ended questions are
important, they are time-consuming and should not be over-used.

-The Demographic Question. Demographic questions are an integral part of any questionnaire. They are
used to identify characteristics such as age, gender, income, race, geographic place of residence, number of
children, and so forth. For example demographic questions will help you to classify the difference between
product users and non-users.
Perhaps most of your customers come from the Northeast, are between the ages of 50 and 65, and have
incomes between $50,000 and $75,000.
Demographic data helps you paint a more accurate picture of the group of persons you are trying to
understand. And by better understanding the type of people who use or are likely to use your product, you can
allocate promotional resources to reach these people, in a more cost effective manner. Psycho-graphic or life style
questions are also included in the template files. These questions provide an in-depth psychological profile and
look at activities, interests and opinions of respondents

3. Experiment -is a systematic and scientific approach to research in which the researcher manipulates one or
more variables, and controls and measures any change in other variables.
4. Content Analysis - a technique that makes you search through several oral or written forms of
communication to find answers to your research questions.
=========================================================================

How to ensure validity and reliability in your research methodology

The reliability and validity of your results depends on creating a strong research design, choosing
appropriate methods and samples, and conducting the research carefully and consistently.

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What is Validity?

Validity refers to how accurately a method measures what it is intended to measure. If research has high
validity, that means it produces results that correspond to real properties, characteristics, and variations in the
physical or social world.

High reliability is one indicator that a measurement is valid. If a method is not reliable, it probably isn’t valid.

Ensuring validity
If you use scores or ratings to measure variations in something (such as psychological traits, levels of ability
or physical properties), it’s important that your results reflect the real variations as accurately as possible. Validity
should be considered in the very earliest stages of your research, when you decide how you will collect your data.

 Choose appropriate methods of measurement

Ensure that your method and measurement technique are high quality and targeted to measure exactly what
you want to know. They should be thoroughly researched and based on existing knowledge.

For example, to collect data on a personality trait, you could use a standardized questionnaire that is
considered reliable and valid. If you develop your own questionnaire, it should be based on established theory or
findings of previous studies, and the questions should be carefully and precisely worded.

 Use appropriate sampling methods to select your subjects

To produce valid generalizable results, clearly define the population you are researching (e.g. people from a
specific age range, geographical location, or profession). Ensure that you have enough participants and that they
are representative of the population.

What is Reliability?

Reliability refers to how consistently a method measures something. If the same result can be consistently
achieved by using the same methods under the same circumstances, the measurement is considered reliable.

Ensuring reliability
Reliability should be considered throughout the data collection process. When you use a tool or technique to
collect data, it’s important that the results are precise, stable and reproducible.

 Apply your methods consistently

Plan your method carefully to make sure you carry out the same steps in the same way for each
measurement. This is especially important if multiple researchers are involved.

For example, if you are conducting interviews or observations, clearly define how specific behaviours or
responses will be counted, and make sure questions are phrased the same way each time.

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  Standardize the conditions of your research

When you collect your data, keep the circumstances as consistent as possible to reduce the influence of
external factors that might create variation in the results.

For example, in an experimental setup, make sure all participants are given the same information and tested
under the same conditions.

Where to write about reliability and validity in a thesis

It’s appropriate to discuss reliability and validity in various sections of your thesis or dissertation. Showing
that you have taken them into account in planning your research and interpreting the results makes your work
more credible and trustworthy.

Reliability and validity in a thesis

Section Discuss
Literature review What have other researchers done to devise and improve methods that are reliable and
valid?
Methodology How did you plan your research to ensure reliability and validity of the measures used?
This includes the chosen sample set and size, sample preparation, external conditions
and measuring techniques.
Results If you calculate reliability and validity, state these values alongside your main results.
Discussion This is the moment to talk about how reliable and valid your results actually were.
Were they consistent, and did they reflect true values? If not, why not?
Conclusion If reliability and validity were a big problem for your findings, it might be helpful to
mention this here.

Do not just freely choose what research method and instrument you like. Make sure that
the research tool you chose will help you find answers to your research questions.

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 ACTIVITY
Activity 1. Identifying Interview Questions
Directions: Check the right column that corresponds to the given questions.

Opening Generative Directive Closing

Interview Questions
questions Questions Questions Questions
1. Is there anything you want me to
know more about your meeting
with the Pope that you failed to
reveal to me?
2. Can you describe your feelings
upon seeing the Pope?
3. We have agreed to have this
session in 30 minutes. Is this okay
with you?
4. What makes you so eager to see
the Vatican City, soon?
5. What time of the year do you
want to go to Rome?
6. You took a taaxi cab in coming
here, didn’t you?
7. Why do you think the Pope loves
visiting many countries?
8. Would you like sitting at the
window or near the bulletin board?
9. Compare and contrast your
experience in meeting the previous
and the current Pope.
10. What do you think was the
most significant thing that we dealt
with in the interview?

Activity 2. Evaluating Research Instruments

Directions: Compile samples of each research instrument mentioned above. Then, evaluate their validity and
reliability by answering the questions given.

Did the instrument successfully measure what it intends to measure?

Was the instrument used asligned with the purpose of the research study?
Will the instrument yield the same results if it is administered again by other researchers?
What have other researchers done to devise and improve methods that are reliable and valid?

REFLECTION

Directions: Express your ideas in the following question. Write your answer in
a sheet of paper.

How do you know if a research instrument used is valid and reliable?

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|88

 ASSIGNMENT

1. Decide on what research instrument you will use for collecting your data. Make a sample research tool for
your study.
2. Outline the procedure on how you will collect your data. Indicate it step-by-step.
3. Create your research methodology by including your research design, sampling technique, respondents,
research instrument, research environment, and data collection procedure.

Note: All assignments shall be passed online through Google Classroom. Your class code will be given to you at
the start of the class, so pass your assignments and activities before/on the deadline.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|89

 UNIT 5: Finding Answers
through Data Collection
You want to satisfy your curiosity about a certain subject matter. The only way to do this is to link
yourself with people, things, and other elements in your surroundings because, by nature, research involves
interdependence or interactions among people and things on earth. The answers to your investigative acts
about the topic you are interested in come from people you get to communicate with and from things you
subject to observations. Research is an act of gathering opinions, facts, and information to prove your point
or to discover truths about your research problem or topic. ~Esther L. Baraceros

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|90

UNIT 5: Finding Answers through Data
Collection
Content Standard:
The learner demonstrates understanding of:
1. data collection procedures and skills using varied instruments; and
2. data processing, organizing, and analyzing.
Performance Standard:
The learner is able to gather and analyze data with intellectual honesty, using suitable techniques.

Learning Competencies:
The learner:
1. collects data using appropriate instruments;
2. presents and interprets data in tabular and graphical forms; and
3. uses statistical techniques to analyze data

Lesson 1: Data Collection Procedures and Analysis

Time Frame: Week 5

OVERVIEW
After planning about how to collect your data, it is also important that you recognize the steps on how
to do it.

Data collection is a systematic process of gathering observations or measurements. Whether you are
performing research for business, governmental or academic purposes, data collection allows you to gain
first-hand knowledge and original insights into your research problem.

While methods and aims may differ between fields, the overall process of data collection remains largely the
same. Before you begin collecting data, you need to consider:

 The aim of the research

 The type of data that you will collect
 The methods and procedures you will use to collect, store, and process the data

To collect high-quality data that is relevant to your purposes, follow these four steps.

Step 1: Define the aim of your research

Before you start the process of data collection, you need to identify exactly what you want to achieve.
You can start by writing a problem statement: what is the practical or scientific issue that you want to
address and why does it matter?

Next, formulate one or more research questions that precisely define what you want to find out.
Depending on your research questions, you might need to collect quantitative or qualitative data:

 Quantitative data is expressed in numbers and graphs and is analyzed through statistical methods.
 Qualitative data is expressed in words and analyzed through interpretations and categorizations.

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 If your aim is to test a hypothesis, measure something precisely, or gain large-scale statistical insights,
collect quantitative data. If your aim is to explore ideas, understand experiences, or gain detailed insights into
a specific context, collect qualitative data. If you have several aims, you can use a mixed methods approach
that collects both types of data.

Examples of quantitative and qualitative research aimsYou are researching employee perceptions of
their direct managers in a large organization.

 Your first aim is to assess whether there are significant differences in perceptions of managers across
different departments and office locations.
 Your second aim is to gather meaningful feedback from employees to explore new ideas for how
managers can improve.

You decide to use a mixed-methods approach to collect both quantitative and qualitative data.

Step 2: Choose your data collection method

Based on the data you want to collect, decide which method is best suited for your research.

 Experimental research is primarily a quantitative method.

 Interviews/focus groups and ethnography are qualitative methods.
 Surveys, observations, archival research and secondary data collection can be quantitative or qualitative
methods.

Carefully consider what method you will use to gather data that helps you directly answer your research
questions.

Data collection methods

Method When to use How to collect data
Experiment To test a causal relationship. Manipulate variables and measure their effects
on others.
Survey To understand the general Distribute a list of questions to a sample online,
characteristics or opinions of a in person or over-the-phone.
group of people.
Interview/focus To gain an in-depth understanding Verbally ask participants open-ended questions
group of perceptions or opinions on a in individual interviews or focus group
topic. discussions.
Observation To understand something in its Measure or survey a sample without trying to
natural setting. affect them.
Ethnography To study the culture of a community Join and participate in a community and record
or organization first-hand. your observations and reflections.
Archival research To understand current or historical Access manuscripts, documents or records from
events, conditions or practices. libraries, depositories or the internet.
Secondary data To analyze data from populations Find existing datasets that have already been
collection that you can’t access first-hand. collected, from sources such as government
agencies or research organizations.

Step 3: Plan your data collection procedures

When you know which method(s) you are using, you need to plan exactly how you will implement them.
What procedures will you follow to make accurate observations or measurements of the variables you are
interested in?

For instance, if you’re conducting surveys or interviews, decide what form the questions will take; if
you’re conducting an experiment, make decisions about your experimental design.

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 Operationalization
Sometimes your variables can be measured directly: for example, you can collect data on the average
age of employees simply by asking for dates of birth. However, often you’ll be interested in collecting data on
more abstract concepts or variables that can’t be directly observed.

Operationalization means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations. When
planning how you will collect data, you need to translate the conceptual definition of what you want to study
into the operational definition of what you will actually measure.

Example of operationalizationYou have decided to use surveys to collect quantitative data. The concept
you want to measure is the leadership of managers. You operationalize this concept in two ways:

 You ask managers to rate their own leadership skills on 5-point scales assessing the ability to delegate,
decisiveness and dependability.
 You ask their direct employees to provide anonymous feedback on the managers regarding the same
topics.

Using multiple ratings of a single concept can help you cross-check your data and assess the test
validity of your measures.

Sampling
You may need to develop a sampling plan to obtain data systematically. This involves defining
a population, the group you want to draw conclusions about, and a sample, the group you will actually collect
data from.

Your sampling method will determine how you recruit participants or obtain measurements for your
study. To decide on a sampling method you will need to consider factors like the required sample size,
accessibility of the sample, and timeframe of the data collection.

Standardizing procedures
If multiple researchers are involved, write a detailed manual to standardize data collection procedures in
your study.

This means laying out specific step-by-step instructions so that everyone in your research team collects
data in a consistent way – for example, by conducting experiments under the same conditions and using
objective criteria to record and categorize observations.

This helps ensure the reliability of your data, and you can also use it to replicate the study in the future.

Creating a data management plan

Before beginning data collection, you should also decide how you will organize and store your data.

 If you are collecting data from people, you will likely need to anonymize and safeguard the data to
prevent leaks of sensitive information (e.g. names or identity numbers).
 If you are collecting data via interviews or pencil-and-paper formats, you will need to
perform transcriptions or data entry in systematic ways to minimize distortion.
 You can prevent loss of data by having an organization system that is routinely backed up.

Step 4: Collect the data

Finally, you can implement your chosen methods to measure or observe the variables you are interested in.

Examples of collecting qualitative and quantitative dataTo collect data about perceptions of managers,
you administer a survey with closed- and open-ended questions to a sample of 300 company employees
across different departments and locations.

The closed-ended questions ask participants to rate their manager’s leadership skills on scales from 1–5.
The data produced is numerical and can be statistically analyzed for averages and patterns.

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 The open-ended questions ask participants for examples of what the manager is doing well now and
what they can do better in the future. The data produced is qualitative and can be categorized
through content analysis for further insights.

To ensure that high quality data is recorded in a systematic way, here are some best practices:

 Record all relevant information as and when you obtain data. For example, note down whether or how
lab equipment is recalibrated during an experimental study.
 Double-check manual data entry for errors.
 If you collect quantitative data, you can assess the reliability and validity to get an indication of your data
quality.

In collecting data, make sure that the respondents are seriously answering your
questions. Remember to be polite and understanding towards your respondents.

ACTIVITY
Activity 1. Illustrating Data Gathering Procedure
Directions: Fill in the flow chart on the procedures you will follow in gathering your data for your own research.
Add more boxes as you like.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|94

 REFLECTION

Directions: Express your ideas in the following question. Write your answer in
a sheet of paper.

What guidelines should you follow in gathering your data? How should
you approach your respondents?

ASSIGNMENT
1. Include data analysis procedure in your methodology section.

2. Provide a sample of all the research instruments you will use for gathering your data. Once approved by
your teacher, you can now start collecting your data.

Note: All assignments shall be passed online through Google Classroom. Your class code will be given to you at
the start of the class, so pass your assignments and activities before/on the deadline.

Practical Research 2: Quantitative Research|95

Lesson 2: Quantitative Data Analysis
Time Frame: Week 5

OVERVIEW

It is crucial that after you gather your data, you know what to do with it. After

planning out your reesearch design, method and data gathering procedures, it is also important to include in your
methodology the steps on how you will analyze the data.

Quantitative data analysis is time-consuming because it involves a series of examinations, classifications,

mathematical calculations, and graphical recording, etc. Hence, a thorough and advance planning is needed for
this major aspect of your study. However, all these varied analytical studies that you pour into your research
become significant only if prior to finalizing your mind about these activities, you have already identified the
measurement level or scale of your quantittative data; that is, whether your study measures the data through a
ratio or interval scale, not by means of nominal or ordinal scale because these last two levels are for qualitative
data analysis. It is important for your to know what scale of measurement to use, for the kind of quantitative
analysis you will do depends on your measurement scale (De Mey, 2013; Letherby, 2013; Russel, 2013).

STEPS IN QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS

Having identified the measurement scale or level of your data means you are now ready to analyze the data
in this manner (Badke, 2012; Letherby, 2013; Mc Bride, 2013):
Step 1. Preparing the Data
Keep in mind that no data organization means no sound analysis. Hence, prepare the data for analysis
by first doing these two preparatory sub steps:
1. Coding System
To analyze data means to quantify or change the verbally expressed data into numerical
information. Converting the words, omages, or pictures into numbers, they become fit for analytical
procedures requiring knowledge of arithmetic and mathematical computations. But it is not possible for
you to do the mathematical operations of division, multiplication, or subtraction in the word level,
unless you code the verbal responses and observation categories.
For example, as regards gender variable, give number 1 as the code or value of Male and number 2
for Female. As to educational attainments as another variable, give the value of 2 for Elementary; 4 for

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 High school, 6 for College, 9 for MA, and 12 for PhD level. By coding each item with a certain number
ina data set, you are able to add the points or values of the respondents’ answers to a particular
interview question or questionnaire item.

2. Data Tabulation
For easy classification and distribution of numbers based on a certain criterion, you have to collate
them with the help of a graph called TABLE. Used for frequency and percentage distribution, this kind of
graph is an excellent data organizer that researchers find indispensable. Here’s an example of tabulated
data:
Total sample size: 24
Gender Male: 11 (46%)
Female: 13 (54%)
Course Fine Arts: 9 (37%)
Architecture: 6 (25%)
Journalism: 4 (17%)
Com.Arts: 5 (20%)
School FEU: 3 (12%)
MLQU: 4 (17%)
PLM: 3 (12%)
PUP: 5 (20%)
TIP: 4 (17%)
UE: 5 (20%)
Attended in 2016 Summer Yes: 18 (75%)
Arts Seminar-Workshop No: 6 (25%)
Role in the 2016 Speaker: 4 (17%)
Seminar-Workshop on Arts Organizer: 3 (12%)
Demonstrator: 5 (20%)
Participant: 12 (50%)
Satisfaction with the Strongly agree: 11 (46%)
demonstration and practice Agree: 5 (20%)
exercises Neutral: 2 (8%)
Disagree: 4 (14%)
Strongly Disagree: 2 (8%)

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 Step 2: Analyzing Data
After preparing the raw data using coding and data tabulation, you are now ready to analyze the data.
Here are two techniques that you can use in analyzing your data:
1. Descriptive Statistical Technique
This quantitative data analysis technique provides a summary of the orderly sequential data
obtained from the sample through the data-gathering instrument used. The results of the analysis reveal
the follwing aspects of an item in a set of data (Morgan, 2014; Punch 2014; Walsh, 2010):
-Frequency Distribution -gives you the frequency distribution and percentage of the occurence of
an item in asset of data. In other words, it gives you the number of responses given repeatedly for one
question.
Example:

Question: By and large, do you find the Senators’ attendance in 2015 legislative
sessions awful?

Frequency Percent
Measurement Scale Code
Distribution Distribution
Strongly Agree 1 14 58%
Agree 2 3 12%
Neutral 3 2 8%
Disagree 4 1 4%
Strongly Disagree 5 4 17%

-Measure of Central Tendency - indicates the different positions or values of the items, such that
in a category of data, you find an item or items serving as the:
Mean - average of all the item or scores
Example: 3 + 8 + 9+ 2 + 3 + 10 + 3=38
38÷7= 5.43 ( Mean)

Median - the score in the middle of the set of items that cuts or divides the set into two groups
Example: The numbers in the example for the mean has 2 as the Median.

Mode - refers to the item or score in the data set that has the most repeated appearance in the
set.
Example: Again, in the given example above for the mean, 3 is the Mode.

- Standard Deviation - shows the extent of the difference of the data from the mean. An
examination of this gap between the mean and the data gives you an idea about the similarities and
differences between the respondents. Here is a sample formula:

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 Step 1: Find the mean.

Step 2: For each data point, find the square of its distance to the mean.

Step 3: Sum the values from Step 2.

Step 4: Divide by the number of data points.

Step 5: Take the square root.

Example:

Standard Deviation of the category of data collected from selected faculty members of
one university

(Step 1) Mean: 7
(Step 2) (Step 3)
Data Item Deviation Square of Deviation

1 -8 68
2 -5 25
6 -1 1
6 -1 1
8 +8 1
6 -1 1
6 -1 1
14 +7 49
16 +9 81
________
Total: 321

(Step 4) Sum of Squares: 321

(Step 5) Variance = 36 (321÷9)
Standard Deviation: -6 (square root of 6)

2. Advanced Quantitative Analytical Methods

An analysis of quantitative data that involves the use of more complex statistical methods needing
software like the SPSS, STATA, or MINITAB, occurs among graduate-level students taking their MA or
PhD degrees. Here are some of the methods:
-Correlation - uses statistical analysis to yield results that describe the relationship of two
variables.
-Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) - the results of this statistical analysis are sued to determine if the
difference in the means or averages of two categories of data are statistically significant.
Example: If the mean of the grades of a student attending tutorial lessons is significantly
different from the mean of the grades of a student not attending tutorial lessons.

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 -Regression - has some similarities with correlation, in that, it also shows the nature of
relationship of variables, but gives more extensive result than that of correlation. Aside from indicating
the presence of relationship between two variables, it determines whether a variable is capable of
predicting the strength of relation between the treatment (independent variable) and the Outcome
(dependent variable). Just like correlation, regression is incapable of establishing cause-effect
relationships.
Example: If reviewing with music (treatment variable) is a statistically signifiant predictor of
the extent of the concept learning (outcome variable) of a person.

You can choose what type of statistical method fits your research. If you have difficulty in
mathematical equations, you can ask help from a statistician.

ACTIVITY
Activity 1. Matching Type
Directions: Match the expression in A with those in B by writing the letter of your answer on the line before the
item.

A B

______ 1. Mean a. data set divider

______ 2. Ration b. facts or information

______ 3. Data c. part-by-part examination

______ 4. Coding d. data-preparation technique

______ 5. Analysis e. repetitive appearance of an item

______ 6. Mode f. sum ÷ no. of items

______ 7. Median g. valuable zero

______ 8. Standard Deviation h. ANOVA

______ 9. Regression I. shows variable predictor

______ 10. Table j. data organizer

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Activity 2. Statistical Computation
Directions: Have make-believe or imaginary grades of yours in all your subjects in the last three grading periods.
Also, compute the mean per grading period including the general average.

Activity 3. Data Tabulation

Directions: Using data from verified health web sites, tabulate data on the state of coronavirus in Asian countries.
Tabulate the number of COVID-19 victims, number of recoveries, number of deaths, and percentage of new cases
per day.

Percentage of new cases

Asian Country Number of Victims Number of Deaths
per day
1. Philippines

REFLECTION

Directions: Express your ideas in the following question. Write your answer in
a sheet of paper.

What other statistical methods can you use in analyzing the data? How
can you ensure the accuracy and reliability of your results?

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 ASSIGNMENT
Provide documentation pictures that give evidence that you have collected your data. Afterwards,
provide drafts of your coding and tabulation of your data gathered.

Note: All assignments shall be passed online through Google Classroom. Your class code will be given to you at
the start of the class, so pass your assignments and activities before/on the deadline.

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Lesson 3: Interpreting, Organizing, and Presenting the Data
Time Frame: Week 5

OVERVIEW

In this stage, you should have finished gathering your data, and have already analyzed them. You already
have your answers. But the question is: How do you organize and present them to your readers? To
understand more about this situation, let us follow Nick’s storyline again.

Nick is finished in gathering his data and analyzing it. He asks advice from his classmate, Dave, on how to
present his data in his research paper.

Nick: Dave, do you know how I can write the presentation for my data in my paper? I seem at a loss. My results
are quite hard to understand if not described properly. And I don’t want to make it too complicated to my readers.

Dave: Well, how do you want to present it? Visual or textual?

Nick: What do you mean?

Dave: You have to decided whether to present the results of your analysis visually like graphs and tables; or
textually like words and descriptions. I suggest you do both.

Nick: Visual and textual?

Dave: Yes. You can explain how you arrived with your results and partner it with graphs and tables to simplify
your discussion. That way, your readers can easily follow what you mean.

Nick: Oh, right. I seem to get it. Thanks, Dave!

Dave: You’re welcome. Remember that your discussion is about organization. An unorganized discussion section
will lead to chaos.

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 After gathering and analyzing your data, the next section of your research is the discussion section. Formally,
it is known as Chapter 4: Presentation, Analysis, and Interpretation of Data.
The discussion section is essentially written for the sake of explaining your findings. In very simple terms,
you explain what you did to answer the research questions and why you did it that way. It explains the results of
your study, and connects the results to each research question. To help you write your discussion, here are
approaches that you can use:
Approach 1: Explain the Findings

a) give reasons for the findings - you give explanations as to why you arrived with a certain result

Example 1 : Based on the statistical analysis, the results show that some of the school teachers have
integrated well within the community in which they were residing. The percentage, however, is not high and
this could be attributed to the fact that most of them were female. They were already occupied with their job
and household duties which did not allow them to be active in community services.

b) explain the scenario or circumstances during the data collection period or at the time of
experiment which might have some influences on the results of the research
- you will explain the factors that might have changed or affected the results of your study

Example 1 : Based on the statistical analysis, the results revealed that most of the students were receptive
to the idea of using Arabic vocabulary in their English classes. This is not surprising considering the
institution is an Islamic institution.

c) explain the results based on the limitations or constraints of the research during the data collection
period

Example 1 : The results from the study only indicated the language errors made by students in the final
examination. Since the error analysis indicated were only taken from the postgraduate students, the findings
cannot represent all the university students’ performance. Due to the time constraint, errors from the
undergraduate students were excluded as there was a big number of students involved.

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 Approach 2: Compare the Findings

a) compare the findings of the research with the findings of other research within the same fields

Example : It can be summarized that SMS was the most popular means of communication among
students of higher learning institutions. This trend was very much expected as students liveon a strict budget.
This was similar to the findings of another study conducted by Lim et al. (2002) at University Telekom
Malaysia which found that SMS was the primary reason why students owned a handset.

b) compare and relate the different findings of the research to highlight certain results as significant

Example : Cell phone call rates are based on the location of the caller and the location where the
destination number was registered. Since the student population came from different parts of the country,
making long distance calls to family members back in the respective states could be very expensive for
students. Therefore, the number of calls made by the students to the family members compared to the SMS
was relatively small. This shows that financial limitation was a significant factor in the lives of students in the
higher learning institution.

Approach 3: Evaluate the Findings

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 a) provide assessment of the findings - evaluate the validity of your result

Example 1 : The findings suggest that there is a mismatch between the written literacy demands of the
job market and the level of proficiency of applicants who were university graduates. This claim seemed to
have found its basis only for local companies. However, there was no way of verifying this claim for the
international companies as there were no previous studies conducted on them. As such, the feedback from
these companies is still needed to produce a more substantive finding.

b) decide if the results is negative or positive, successful or otherwise.

Example : From the data collected, there is no doubt that the engineering students generally had positive
experiences with Problem Based Learning (PBL) as they worked together on the their project in groups.
Students acquired self-directed learning as they worked together in finding a solution to a problem which
mirrors the real world. Through feedback from peers, students also learnt to express their ideas and share
tasks assigned to them.

Approach 4: Infer from the Findings

a) develop your own viewpoint and ideas based on the facts and results

Example : The finding suggested that traffic information was the least attractive peripheral service
provided by the hand phone service provider among the respondents. This was expected as the university was
situated far from the busy metropolitan area. Apart from that, many of the students lived on the campus and
did not need traffic information to travel to their classes. As such, traffic information may not be useful to
them.

b) make sense of findings

Example : Comparing reactors where yeast extract and glucose were added, it was observed that the
gradients of the graphs for variation in nitrate concentration in these reactors are all very close and similar to
that of the control reactor. Thus, it can be deduced that at the beginning of the experiment the biomass were
utilizing the naturally occurring readily biodegradable substrate as the electron donor for denitrification.

c) do not leave findings in the statistical form as no one would be able to understand what the
numbers mean

Example : The finding suggested one quarter of the those surveyed were doing some form of part time
jobs. 98% of those who responded are postgraduate students who have families.

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 d) be creative and do not be afraid to speculate

Example : The statistical analysis has shown that more and more female students are selected for the
dean’s list. The numbers show that even in the Faculty of Engineering, the ladies are outdoing the male
students in terms of examination results and performance in the industrial training. Perhaps in the future, the
ladies will be more in demand in the industry than their male counterpart. It would probably be difficult for
male engineers to find a job.

HOW TO VISUALLY PRESENT YOUR DATA

You can also present your data using graphic organizers. These are visual and graphic display that depict the
relationships between facts, terms, and ideas. Here are some points to remember when using graphic organizers:
 Whatever you choose, text, table, or chart (or all three), your visual information should be
self-explanatory.
 Any headings should be clear and informative.
 Any text accompanying a table or chart should reference the key points you want to highlight, but the
visual should be understood even if the text is not read.

No matter which visual display you use for your data, keep these things in mind:

 Only include information pertinent to your key points. Too much extra data can be distracting.
 If you include very involved visuals, those that will require time and attention to wade through, use them
as appendices, not in your summary.
 When formatting, whether decimal spaces or fonts and column widths, be consistent throughout.
 Only get as technical as your audience and your data demands.
 Sort your data before finalizing any display. An unsorted table, chart, or graph is not self-explanatory.
With sorting comes enlightenment.
 As much as possible, group your information so there are less data points to wade through. Grouping
leads to clarity.
 Graphs, charts, and tables should answer more questions than they pose.

Forms of Graphic Organizers that can be used in presenting Data

1. Table - best used for tabulation of scores and numerical figures

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 2. Pie Charts - work best for general findings (rather than nuanced differences) and are best understood
with no more than five or six slices. They can only be used to show parts of a whole (if all parts total 100%).

3. Bar Graphs - best used for comparing data directly

When working with bar graphs, keep the following in mind:

- As with other graphics, remember to sort your data before finalizing and stay away from 3-D formats.
- If you are reporting on several different series of data, clustered bar graphs are often clearer than
stacked bar graphs.

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 4. Line Graph - most effective in presenting five or more data points over a period of time.

When using graphic organizers, make sure that the details are well-laid in order to avoid
confusion. Make sure that you use appropriate visuals to present your data.

ACTIVITY
Activity 1. Graphic Organizing
Directions: Using the details you filled in at Lesson 2 activity 3, organize the details using a graphic organizer. You
can freely choose what organizer you can use.

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Activity 2. Graphiv Organizing Part 2
Directions: Make a graphic organizer on the topic given.

THIS IS HOW I GET GOOD GRADES AT SCHOOL

REFLECTION

Directions: Express your ideas in the following question. Write your answer in
a sheet of paper.

What other graphic organizer can you use? Draw them and explain what
they are best used for.

ASSIGNMENT
Start making your discussion section. Then, provide a draft to your research adviser for correction.

Note: All assignments shall be passed online through Google Classroom. Your class code will be given to you at
the start of the class, so pass your assignments and activities before/on the deadline.

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 UNIT 6: Reporting and Sharing
Findings

Research adheres to a certain manner of making public its findings. It is incapable of convincing any
readers of the genuineness of the research report, unless it follows the academically and professionally
accepted standards of writing the report in terms of its language, structure or format, and acknowledgement
or recognition of the sources of knowledge responsible for making the entire research study reputable,
genuine, and credible basis for effecting positive changes in this world. ~Esther L. Baraceros

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UNIT 6: Reporting and Sharing Findings
Content Standard:
The learner demonstrates understanding of:
1. guidelines in making conclusions and recommendations;
2. the techniques in listing references; and
3. the process of report writing.
Performance Standard:
The learner is able to:
1. form logical conclusions;
2. make recommendations based on conclusions; and
3. write and present clear report.
Learning Competencies:
The learner:
1. draws conclusions from research findings;
2. formulates recommendations;
3. lists references; and
4. presents written research report.

Lesson 1: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations

Time Frame: Week 6

OVERVIEW
At last! You are finally at the last chapter of your research. Since you are done in organizing and presenting
your findings, the last thing you need to do is to make your SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND
RECOMMENDATIONS. First, search your prior knowledge and answer this KWL chart.
What do you remember about summary, conclusions, and recommendations?

What I learned (Do this after

What I already know What I want to know
going the lesson)

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PURPOSE OF SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The last section of your research paper consists of the summary of your study, conclusions, and
recommendations. How essential are these parts to your paper?
 They refresh the readers' understanding of the findings or results of the study.
 They highlight the major findings discussed in Chapter 4.
 They provide insights to the research problem undertaken.
 They give confirm the final answers to your research questions.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
A SUMMARY contains all of the highlights in chapters 1-4. You may include the following:
 objectives/research questions
 respondents
 sampling procedures
 data analysis
 tools used in gathering the data
 findings
TIPS TO CONSIDER:
 You must go direct to the point. There is no need for thorough details.
 Avoid copy pasting what you have written in the first 4 chapters.
 Use the simple past tense.
 Organize the results according to the questions.
 Just KISS (Keep it Short and Simple)

CONCLUSIONS
The conclusion section of is the CORE of your paper. It is the overall result of your findings in
chapter 4. In the course of writing your chapter 4 and 5, you might be confused on the difference
between FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION. Let’s have this example:

He went to the doctor for a

medical check-up.
After the examination, the doctor
said that the man has symptoms
of excessive bleeding and
unexpected bruises appearing on
his skin. From these symptoms,
the doctor concluded that the
person has cancer.

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 In this situation, the findings would be the symptoms and the conclusion is the diagnosis of cancer.
So, the difference between findings and conclusion is:

FINDINGS are the specific results CONCLUSION is the final and

taken from your research tools or most condensed form of idea
experiments. These lead you to conclude taken from the findings.
an overall phenomena/condition to the
problem encountered.

TIPS TO CONSIDER:
 draw out a conclusion from each major finding (can be done per question or by topic/subtopic)
 use the PRESENT TENSE of the verb

LET'S HAVE SOME EXAMPLES!

1. Findings: soggy eyes, skinny figure, demotivation, sad demeanor
Based on the findings, we can conclude that the person is experiencing DEPRESSION.
2. Findings: dark clouds, strong winds, and thunder
Based on the findings, therefore, there’s a storm coming.

RECOMMENDATIONS
The recommendations must contain practical suggestions that will improve the situation or solve
the problem investigated in the study. Your recommendations should be divided into two (2) sections:
for educational prospects and for future researchers. The first section is where you would recommend
new and potential subjects to be investigated from your research. The second section is where you
would suggest steps to improve in your research for future researchers who might replicate your study.
Example:
For educational prospects

1. Critical Discourse Analysis as a research approach may be introduced to students so they would know

how to use it in analyzing texts.

2. Researchers may engage in a critical study of language and society to expand their awareness of how

language and society affect one another.

3. Teachers and students interested in the field of politics could explore the dimensions of political

hierarchy and their specific roles through the use of Critical Discourse Analysis.

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 For future researchers

1. Since the focus of this study is on the hidden meanings of the speeches, it may be useful to compare

both speeches and discern Trump’s language patterns.

2. Researchers may examine the change of Trump’s intentions from his campaign to his presidency in

order to see the societal, institutional, and situational factors that influenced his change in perspective.

Sometimes your conclusions might contradict your research questions or aim. However,
do not tamper your results just because they did not come with your expectations. Research
should be honest and transparent.

ACTIVITY
Activity 1. Making Conclusions
Directions: Read the passages and make a conclusion.

1. I've been having really bad allergies ever since I moved across the state. I know you have a lot of goldenrod
here, but we had that where I used to live, and I've never been allergic to it. Or any other plants, really. There
doesn't seem to be anything different here that we didn't have at my old house. What conclusion can you draw
from this passage?
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Gavin plays baseball and accidentally breaks a window. How do you think he feels? What conclusion can you
draw from this passage?
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Tobey tucked his swim float back into his bag as he watched his friends run and jump into the pool. Hopefully,
no one had figured out his secret. He decided he would just invite his friends to play in the shallow part of the
pool with him. What can you say about Tobey?

______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Megan could hear the chirping from the top of the tree but couldn't see anything. The red bird had been flying
back and forth for the last few weeks. Any time she got close to the tree, the red bird would swoop down as if to
scare her away. The reader can infer that…

______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________

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5. First, his arm started to sting. Then, Neo noticed it was starting to turn red and form a small bump. Before
long, Neo's arm was itching like crazy! Neo probably…

______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________

Activity 2. Providing Recommendations

Directions: Suggest some recommendations on the situation given.

The world is stricken with the COVID-19 virus. The economy has sunk in most countries and most people left
jobless. As a student, what can you recommend the government and the people do to lessen the damages of this
global pandemic? What regulations should be abolished or improved?

REFLECTION

Directions: Express your ideas in the following question. Write your answer in
a sheet of paper.

What ethical standards should you follow in making conclusions for your
research paper? How about in makign recommendations?

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 ASSIGNMENT
Make the summary, conclusions, and recommendations of your research. Provide a draft to your research
adviser for correction.

Note: All assignments shall be passed online through Google Classroom. Your class code will be given to you at
the start of the class, so pass your assignments and activities before/on the deadline.

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Lesson 2: Abstract
Time Frame: Week 6

OVERVIEW

Although this section of your research paper is located just before your table of contents, the abstract is the
last one that is written.
An abstract is a 150- to 250-word paragraph that provides readers with a quick overview of your essay or
report and its organization. This is different from a summary, of course.

FUNCTIONS OF AN ABSTRACT

 The function of an abstract is to describe, not to evaluate or defend, the paper.

 The abstract should begin with a brief but precise statement of the problem or issue, followed by a
description of the research method and design, the major findings, and the conclusions reached.

 The abstract should contain the most important key words referring to method and content.

Note: Your abstract should read like an overview of your paper, not a proposal for what you intended to study
or accomplish. Avoid beginning your sentences with phrases like, “This essay will examine...” or “In this research
paper I will attempt to prove...”

Example:

Bad abstract: This paper will look at the human genome project and its goals. I will prove that scientists
have ethical and moral questions about genetic engineering because of this project.

Good abstract: Begun in 1988, the human genome project intends to map the 23 chromosomes that provide
the blueprint for the human species. The project has both scientific and ethical goals. The scientific goals
underscore the advantages of the genome project, including identifying and curing diseases and enabling people
to select the traits of their offspring, among other opportunities. Ethically, however, the project raises serious
questions about the morality of genetic engineering. To handle both the medical opportunities and ethical
dilemmas posed by the genome project, scientists need to develop a clear set of principles for genetic engineering
and to continue educating the public about the genome project.

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 Your abstract should only consume one paragraph and one page. It’s also important that
your key words can also be found within your abstract.

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 ACTIVITY
Activity 1. Arranging the Abstract
Directions: Rearrange the contents according to the parts: introduction, research method/design, major findings,
conclusion. Combine them in one (1) paragraph in the box below.

1. The results showed that America is torn among political parties and invisible caste systems. Due to this, we
found out that the country’s development is selective and biased. Furthermore, Trump is pushing for
Americanism which is a cry for self-preservation.

2. This study, therefore, analyzed the hidden meanings found in Donald Trump’s Inaugural Address and
Acceptance Speech.

3. This aimed at describing the speeches’ macrostructure and social cognition, using linguistic devices such as
cohesion, coherence, presuppositions, implicatures and speech acts, and explaining their socio-cultural practices
in terms of their situational, institutional and societal contexts.

4. Everyone thinks that America is still as great as it was but due to the challenges it is facing now, America is just
like other countries. It will experience global challenges and it is up to the people to notice or ignore it.

REFLECTION

Directions: Express your ideas in the following question. Write your answer in
a sheet of paper.

If you could describe your whole life like an abstract, what would you
write?

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 ASSIGNMENT
Make the abstract of your study. Provide a draft to your research adviser for correction.

Note: All assignments shall be passed online through Google Classroom. Your class code will be given to you at
the start of the class, so pass your assignments and activities before/on the deadline.

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Lesson 3: Research-Report Writing
Time Frame: Week 6

OVERVIEW
It feels different when you can finally hold your research in paper than when you’re making it in your laptop.
It truly feels like you have accomplished something really great and that you have come a long way with your
blood, sweat, and tears.

In order to do this, you need to organize different sections of your paper to be ready for printing and
publishing. You need to print your research especially when you finally report and share your study to a group of
people.
GUIDELINES IN RESEARCH-REPORT WRITING
1. Organize the parts of your research report based on the standard research-report structure that
consists of the following sequential components:
a. Title. This part of your research paper gives information and descriptions of the things focused on by
your research study.
b. Abstract. Using only 100 to 150 words, the abstract of your research paper presents a summary of
the research that makes clear the background, objectives, significance, methodologies, results, and
conclusions of the research study.
c. Introduction. Given a stress in this section of the paper are the research problem and its background,
objectives, research questions, and hypotheses.
d. Methodology. This section explains the procedure in collecting and analyzing data, and also
describes the sources of data.
e. Results or Findings. This section presents the research findings that are expressed through graphics,
statistics, or words.
f. Conclusions. This section explains things that will lead you to significant points, insights, or
understanding, or conclusions that derive their validity, credibility, or acceptability from the factual evidence
gathered during the collection stage. You are finally answring your research questions in this section.

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 g. Recommendations. This section gives something that will expand or extend one’s understanding of
the conclusions. It suggests a solution to the problem or recommending further research on the subject.
h. References. This section displays the identities or names of all writers or owners of ideas that you
incorporated in your research paper. List your references in alphabetical order by their surname.
i. Appendices. Included in this section are copies of materials like questionnaires, graphs, and letters,
etc. that you used in your study.

2. Observe the mechanics of research-report writing which are as follows:

a. Physical Appearance. Use short-sized white bond paper with 1 and a half inches left-right margin,
plus 1 inches top-bottom margin. Unless your teacher instructs you to use a particular font style and size, use
the standard Time New Roman, 12 pts.
b. Quotations. A one-line double-spaced quotation is in quotation marks; 4- to 5-line, single-spaced
quotations are indented further from the margin to appear as block quotation.
c. Use double-spacing.

3. Familiarize yourself with the language of academic writing.

a. Dominantly use passive voice than active voice sentences.
b. Use the third-person point of view by using words like his or her, they, or the user, instead of the
personalized first-person point of view like I, We, Me, Our, etc.
c. Avoid using emotional words like dissatisfied, uninteresting, or undignified. Your paper should be
formal and impersonal.

SAMPLE RESEARCH PAPER FORMAT

Title Page
Approval Sheet
Acknowledgment
Dedication
Abstract
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Figures
Chapter
I The Research Problem
Background of the Study
Conceptual Framework
Statement of the Problem
Significance of the Study
Scope and Delimitations
Definition of Terms.
II Review of Literature
III Methodology
Research Design
Sampling
Research Respondents

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 Research Tool/Instruments
Research Locale
Data Collection Procedure
Data Analysis
IV Presentation, Analysis, and Interpretation of Data
V Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations
Summary of Findings
Conclusions
Recommendations
References
Appendices
Curriculum Vitae

It’s important that when you prepare your manuscript for printing, you should ensure
that it is free from typographical errors and don’t forget to put proper paginations.

ACTIVITY
Activity 1. Comparing and Contrasting
Directions: Without going back to the text, compare and contrast each given pair of expressions.

Words in Pairs Comparison Contrast

1. Research vs. Report Writing

2. MLA vs. APA

3. One-line quotation vs.

Five-line quotation

4. Conclusions vs.
Recommendation

5. Conclusion vs. Findings

6. Left-Right margin vs.

Top-Bottom margin

7. Abstract vs. Introduction

8. Academic language vs.

Literary language

9. Passive voice vs. Active voice

10. Research report vs.

Literature report

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Activity 2. Agree or Disagree? Justify it.
Directions: Check the column that represents your view about the given statement. Justify your choice in the last
column.

Statements Agree Disagree Reasons/ Justification

1. You are free to use any language form in
academic texts.
2. Facts and opinions in all report types are
genuine.
3. Things mentioned in the conclusion are
evidence-based information.
4. Very little difference exists between APA and
MLA.
5.
6. APA and MLA are applicable in any area of
knowledge.

7. Read data analysis in the body of the paper, not

in the conclusion portion.

8. Research paper submission occurs immediately

after writing all major research parts.

9. Recommendation is not as compulsory as

conclusion.

10. Discipline-specific writing rules come from the

school heads.

11. Research writing is report writing.

REFLECTION

Directions: Express your ideas in the following question. Write your answer in
a sheet of paper.

What techniques can you follow when sharing your research study to the
panel members? How will you catch their attention and keep it?

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 ASSIGNMENT
Follow the sample format given above. Finalize your research paper for printing. List your references
properly. Decided with your research adviser on when you will have your final defense. Submit a final copy of
your research paper to your teacher.
The schedule for submission will be announced. So keep posted.

Note: All assignments shall be passed online through Google Classroom. Your class code will be given to you at
the start of the class, so pass your assignments and activities before/on the deadline.

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 APPENDICES

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 Appendix A
Approval Sheet Template

APPROVAL SHEET

This thesis entitled _____________________________________________________________

prepared and submitted by ____________________________________________________________
in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the subject ______________________________________
has been examined and is recommended for acceptance and approval for oral examination.

_____________________________
Thesis Adviser

THESIS COMMITTEE

__________________________________
Chairman

_______________________ ___________________________
Member
Member

PANEL OF EXAMINERS
Approved by the Committee on Oral Examination with a grade of _______.

____________________________________________________
Chairman

__________________________
__________________________
Member Member

ACCEPTED and APPROVED in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the

subject ____________________

____________________________
School Director, ACLC

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 Appendix B
Curriculum Vitae Template

Name:
Date of Birth:
Place of Birth:
Permanent Address:
Parents:

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

Elementary:
Secondary:
Tertiary:

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 REFERENCES

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 References

Book/ Journal/ Research

Badke, W.B. 2012. Teaching research process: The faculty’s role in the development of skilles student researchers.
As cited from Baraceros, E. 2016. Practical Research 2. New Delhi: CP Cados Publishing.
Baraceros, E. 2016. Practical Research 2. Manila: Rex Book Store
Burns, N., Grove, S. K. 2005. The practice of nursing research: Conduct, critique, and utilization (5th edition). As
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De Mey, L. Dr. and Smith, D. Dr. 2013. Advanced research methods. As cited from Baraceros, E. 2016. Practical
Research 2. London: Sage.

Letherby, G., Scott, J., and Williams, M. 2013. Objectivity and subjectivity in social research. Los Angeles: Sage

Mc Bride, D. M. 2013. Process of research in psychology. Los Angeles: Sage.

Russell, B. 2013. Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Los Angeles: Sage.

Norazman Abdul Majid, Masdinah Alauyah Md. Yusoff, Tina Abdullah, Sahirah Marzuki, Zanariah Md. Salleh,
Faruk Muhammad, Siti Aishah Abd Hamid & Rohayah Kahar. (2007). Academic report writing : from
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Accessed June 21, 2020. https://www.scribbr.com/research-process/research-problem/

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