Licence By Post “The apes in this book ean cxich finger. Licence By Post © Copyright ALL 6.7 to 6.9 ISSUE 2 22AUTHORITY It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study training purposes only. When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment manufacturer’s handbook. You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording, report writing, documentation etc. For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations /guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety authorities and national governments.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS With special thanks to: AIRBUS INDUSTRIE for permission to reproduce drawings.CONTENTS Page Springs 1 Bearings 4 Gears 15 Control chains 30 Drive belts and pulleys 34HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK You should be able to describe the terms associated with bearings, springs, chains, gears etc. Written to level 2 for the category B engineer the subject is better understood if you can have access to these components/items in the workplace. Module 7 in these areas covers the maintenance of the components and systems.SPRINGS Usually made of metal, but can be made of composite material. A spring is designed to perform in an elastic fashion, i.e. to deform under a load or force and return to its original size after the removal of the load or force. In general if a force is applied to a spring it will deform and if the force is double the deformation is doubled. Hooks Law Up to the elastic limit the strain (change in length) of an elastic body is proportional to the applied stress (force). Springs are designed to:- * Absorb energy - to convert say kinetic energy to strain energy as in some shock absorbers. * Apply a definite force - e.g. a valve spring to close a valve. * Provide a comparitor - the spring on a spring balance. * Provide an elastic pivot or guide. Terms Used Free Length - This is the length of the spring without any load applied. When checking this length it should be within the limits as laid down in the appropriate maintenance manual. Pitch - This is the distance between the centre of one coil of the spring and its adjacent coil - without any load applied. Coil Distance - This is the distance between two adjacent coils - without any load applied. Wire Diameter - The diameter of the wire from which the coils are made. Outside Coil Diameter - The outside diameter of the unloaded spring (OCD). Inside Coil Diameter - The inside diameter of the unloaded spring (ICD). Mean Coil Diameter - The average between the OCD and the ICD. Tip Thickness - The thickness of the ground section of the end of the spring.Outside coil diameter \ Mean coil diameter \ coil diameter Free length—_____+1 AAAI section Pitch Wire Distance diameter between coils Fig. 1 SPRING TERMS Compression Springs These are coil springs and may be right hand or left hand wound. The coil section may be of round or square cross section and the coil diameter is usually large compared to its free length. Usually has ground ends. Tension Springs Again these are coil springs and may be left hand or right hand wound. The coil diameter is usually smaller compared to its free length and the coils are usually of round cross section. ‘The end of the spring are finished in such a way as to provide for end attachment. The spring may be finished with a single hooked end or the coil diameter may be reduced locally to accept a ball ended hook. Flexural Springs Designed to provide springiness in any direction. Torsion Springs Similar in construction to a compression spring but designed to rotate about its own longitudinal axis to provide for torsional movement.Springs may be designed in several different forms: Helical - very common. Beam spring - Absorbs a great amount of energy but has limited movement. Leaf spring - Similar in principle to a beam spring except that it is thinner and is usually built up of several leaves. Special - e.g. special cupped spring washers - one placed on top of another over a central guide pin - to make up a stack of any length. Materials ‘The materials that springs are made of must exhibit the property of elasticity. In general materials can include:- * Carbon steel - hardened and tempered. * Alloy steels. * Nimonic alloys. * Titanium alloys. * Composites - rare. Maintenance In ust fa) (b) () most cases springs are checked for serviceability and any unserviceability is ually rectified by replacement. Checks include:- An inspection for corrosion, damage, wear, broken coils and distortion. Checking for correct free length of coil springs. Compression springs can be checked using a vernier calliper and tension springs are normally in their fully closed state unloaded. Check for "springiness". This may require a special process using masses and checking the extension /change in length with each added mass. A graph is plotted of mass against change in length from which the elasticity of the spring is ascertained. The spring should return to its free length condition when unloaded.BEARINGS Bearings are designed to reduce the friction between moving parts - usually rotational movement of a shaft within a housing. They may be classified as: * Air Bearings. The rotating parts are kept apart by a thin film of air pumped under pressure between the journal and the rotating shaft. In some systems the air pressure is applied before the shaft starts to rotate and friction (and hence wear) rates can be very low. Journal Bearings. Sometimes called High Friction bearings. The shaft rotates within a bush usually supplied with oil under pressure. Roller/Ball Bearings. Sometimes called Low Friction bearings. Use is made of balls or rollers running between inner and outer races. Lubricated with oil or grease. Most are radial bearings. Ball bearings employ balls, sometimes caged, which rotate in grooved tracks. Roller bearings use cylindrical, tapered or spherical rollers running in suitably shaped tracks. Both types run continuously. Inner and outer races, and balls and rollers are made from high-grade carbon chromium steels, which is resistant to wear (the most important factor) and allow rotary motion while absorbing axial and thrust loads. The metal is also corrosion resistant. RADIAL BEARINGS Fig. 2 BALL BEARINGSSelection of Bearing Type In the selection of the correct type of bearing for any particular part of a transmission system the following factors must be taken into consideration: Magnitude of the load to be carried. Direction of the load or loads. Available space. Rotational speed. Precision accuracy. Alignment requirements. Axial displacement requirements. Noise requirements (silent running?). Rigidity. 0. Bearing life. BOSN ONSEN Taking each point in turn: LOAD MAGNITUDE is usually the most important factor in determining the size and type of bearing. Ball bearings are usually used for light to medium loads, whilst roller bearings are better able to cope with heavier loads. RADIALLOAD RADIALLOAD : = Fig. 3 RADIAL LOADS RADIAL LOAD RADIAL LOAD FLANGED OUTER RACES LUNFLANGED INNER RACES Fig. 4 ROLLER & NEEDLE BEARINGS LOAD DIRECTION is important as cylindrical roller bearings having only one race without flanges and needle roller bearings can carry only radial loads. A combined load comprises both radial and axial forces acting simultaneously. The most important factor affecting the ability of a bearing to carry an axial load is its angle of contact (A). -5-contact ve outer aust RACEWAY case “G& Bs 4 CA ner RACE SINGLE ROW pad ROW ANGULAR, ‘THRUST BALL SELF ALIGNING CONTACT BALL BALL BALL. RACE cur PA gm PY oe fil fal ~ ‘STRAIGHT NEEDLE SPHERICAL TAPERED ROLLER ROLLER ROLLER ROLLER FLANGE Fig. 5 EXAMPLES OF BALL AND ROLLER BEARINGS RADIALLOAD RADIAL LOAD “| RANGE AXIALLOAD [AXIS OF ROTATION Fig. 6 RADIAL & AXIAL LOADING BALL & SPHERICAL ROLLERS RADIAL LOAD em wi t010 0 ‘AGAINST THE TAPER INNER RACE, Fig. 7 RADIAL & AXIAL LOADING TAPERED ROLLERS -6-‘The greater the angle (A) the more suitable is the bearing for axial loading. Single and double row angular ball bearings and taper roller bearings are mainly used for combined loads. Deep groove and spherical roller may also be used. Single row angular ball and taper bearings carry axial loads in a single direction only. Where the direction of axial loads vary, two back-to-back (or face-to-face) bearings can be arranged. In the case of high axial loads, separate thrust bearings (eg deep groove ball) and support bearings (roller) are used. Thrust ball bearings are suitable for moderate axial loads, and are designed to be either single or double acting. Spherical roller thrust bearings can carry heavy axial loads but smaller radial forces. Loan 1 4 — Fig. 8 SINGLE & DOUBLE BALL THRUST BEARINGS THRUST LOAD INNER RACE, RADIAL RADIAL tad <+_-* OUTER RACE Fig. 9 SPHERICAL ROLLER BEARING Spherical bearings are not revolving bearings and are used where movement in more than one direction is required. They are used on flying control rod systems for example. They may be used as rod end bearings often located in threaded fixtures to enable control rigging to be carried out. Spherical bearings also allow for misalignment of control rods and components during normal operationAVAILABLE SPACEis determined by the machine design. Deep groove balls are normally used on small diameter shafts while cylindrical or spherical rollers can be considered on larger shafts. Needle bearings can be used when radial space is limited whereas single row cylindrical or deep groove ball thrust bearings are used in areas of limited axial space. —— OUTER RACE BEARING HANGER ROLLING ELEMENTS. FIXED’ INNER RACE SINGLEROW DOUBLEROW RADIAL THRUST DUPLEX E SNAPRING SHIELDED SEALED SELF WHEEL AXIAL ONESIDE ALIGNING THRUST Fig. 11 BALL BEARINGSSPEED LIMITATIONS are determined by the permissible operating temperature of the bearing, and the type of lubrication and cooling available. Low friction bearings (ball or roller) which generate low internal heat are ideal for high rotation speeds. PRECISION bearings are used on shafts where stringent demands are made on accuracy ie high-speed shafts; these inchide double row angular ball thrust bearings. ANGULAR MISALIGNMENT can, for example, be caused by a shaft deflecting under heavy loads or fuselage flexing in flight for a long shaft. Bearings capable of accommodating such movement are self-aligning ball bearings, and spherical roller bearings. STRAIGHT STRAIGHT TAPERED SEPARABLE NON SEPARABLE PARA DOUBLE ROW RACE BARREL BARREL CONCAVE CONCAVE DOUBLE NEEDLE DOUBLE ROW ROW Fig. 12 ROLLER BEARINGS AXIAL DISPLACEMENT of a shaft by a force (for torque measurement) or expansion or contraction (due to temperature change) is permitted by the use of a ‘non-locating’ bearing of the single flangeless race roller or needle type. Note that normal bearing configuration consists of a locating (fixed) bearing and a non-locating (free) bearing.‘00 CORNER + woot Je ‘OUTER RACE Tw ROLLER a INNER RACE BORE CORNER oursive ‘SHOULDERS DIAMETER ‘BORE SEPARATOR Fig. 13 DEFINITIONS - ROLLER BEARINGS wioTH on ‘STANDOUT RADIUS CONE RADIUS SHELL ROLLERS RETAINING rare “ur DIAMETER Fig. 15 DEFINITIONS - NEEDLE BEARINGS -10-SILENT RUNNING is sometimes an important factor in bearing selection (bearings in the vicinity of the flight deck or near passenger compartments) and deep groove ball bearings are normally chosen for this type of application. RIGIDITY of a bearing under load can sometimes be important. Although the elastic deformation of a loaded rolling bearing is very small, roller type bearings deflect less than ball bearings due to the greater contact area between the rolling elements and the raceways. BEARING LIFE is defined as the number of revolutions (or operating hours at a given constant speed) which the unit is capable of enduring before flaking or breakdown occurs on the races or rolling elements. As no two bearings of the same type have identical lives the ‘basic life rating’ is based on the life achieved by 90% of a test population of identical bearings in laboratory test conditions. BEARING ELEMENTS a) Bearing Rings (Races) and Rolling Elements (Rollers and Balls) are made from high-grade carbon chromium steels, allow rotary motion while absorbing axial and thrust loads. The metal is hard, resistant to wear and has good anti-corrosion properties. b) Cages. Primary function is to keep the rolling elements apart and in separate bearings retain the rolling elements. Made from pressed brass, steel or phenolic materials. BEARINGS Radial Bearings Used in all forms of transmission, eg shafts, gears, control rods, pulleys, etc. Manufactured with the balls in single or double rows, normally they are rigid but may be self aligning when accurate alignment may not be maintained during operation. May be sealed to prevent debris from entering the bearing and to retain the lubricant. Balls are normally retained in a cage, but in some cases there is a filling slot which enables more balls to be used giving a greater load capacity. Angular Bearings Suitable for radial and axial loads in one direction. The outer race is recessed on one side to allow assembly /dismantling. Where axial loads in both directions occur two bearings are used back-to-back. The load capacity depends on the contact area. ieThrust Bearings Designed for axial loads only, so are used with either a roller or ball radial bearing. Balls are usually retained in a cage between two grooved races. Most suitable for heavy axial loads at low speeds. Instrument Precision Bearings Manufactured to close tolerances and used in instruments and communication equipment. ROLLER BEARINGS Cylindrical Rollers Capable of carrying greater radial loads than ball bearings because of the greater contact area. Bearings with ribs on both races will also be capable of carrying light intermittent axial loads. Most common are rollers where the length is equal to the diameter. Needle roller bearings have lengths several times greater than the diameter. eee iio NEEDLE SPHERICAL ‘TarereD ROLLER ROLLER ROLLER ‘OLLER Fig. 16 ROLLER BEARINGS Taper Rollers Designed so that the axes of the rollers form an angle with the shaft axis. Capable of accepting radial and axial forces simultaneously. May be installed back-to-back. The axial loads cause rubbing on the cone lip or flange so adequate lubrication is necessary. Used in helicopter rotor heads, gear boxes ete. Spherical Rollers May have one or two rows of rollers running in a common spherical track in the outer race - this gives good self-aligning properties. Can withstand high radial and axial loads. -12-INTERNAL CLEARANCE Standard ball and roller bearings are manufactured in four classes of diametrical clearance and are marked to indicate the class of fit. It is important that any bearings replaced are of the same part number and nomenclature (check JAA form 1 and IPC/AMM) and have the same classification of fit. The marking is generally a series of dots or circles. One Dot Bearing - Group 2 This group has the minimum amount of clearance. Used where minimum axial and radial movement is required - usually precision work. Must not be ‘used where heat is likely to be transmitted to the bearing and are not suitable for thrust bearings or for high speed. “| 5 ee AXIAL CLEARANCE Fig. 17 INTERNAL CLEARANCES Two Dot Bearing - Normal Group Intermediate range and used for most general applications. Used where only one race is an interference fit within its housing (requires force to be fitted /removed) and there is little transfer of heat to the bearing. Three Dot Bearing - Group 3 This group has a larger clearance range and is used where both inner and outer races are interference fits in their housings. Heat transfer is moderate and the bearing is suitable for high speed operation. Four Dot Bearing - Group 4 ‘These have the greatest clearances. Both races are interference fits and heat transfer is considerable. -13-LUBRICATION Provided to reduce friction, dissipate heat and prevent corrosion. For low speeds the bearing is usually packed with grease ~ which might be anti-freeze grease. For high speeds the bearing may be lubricated by an oil spray from a metered supply ~ as in some jet engines. It is important that only oils and greases as specified in the AMM are used and lubrication frequencies as stated in the maintenance schedule are adhered to. SEALING AND PROTECTION Bearings must be protected against the entry of moisture and dirt, and to prevent the loss of lubricant. Considerations affecting the type of seal would be (a) type of lubricant, (b) space available, (c) misalignment of shaft and (d) seal friction. There are two basic forms of seal: a) Non rubbing seals. b) Rubbing seals. Non Rubbing Seals rely on narrow gaps or radial labyrinths to form the seal. This type has negligible friction and wear and is particularly suited for high speeds and temperatures. Straight or spiral grooved labyrinth seals used in areas of extreme temperature (in conjunction with sealing air pressure) are used on jet engines. Rubbing Seals rely on the elasticity of the sealing material and maintaining a minimum pressure at the sealing surface. Can be a simple felt or rubber/polymer washer for grease or grit seals. ‘V’ seals comprise of a rubber ring with a ‘hinged’ rubber lip that is pressed radially against the sealing rotating surface. Used on wheel bearings. ‘v’ seals are used externally with grease lubrication and internally with oil. Carbon rubbing seals are sometimes used with high-speed shafts. Shielding and sealed bearings are pre-packed with the correct lubricant and do not normally require lubrication in service eg deep groove or self-aligning ball bearings. -14-GEARS A gear is a machine element used to transmit motion between rotating shafts/wheels when the centre distance between the shafts is not too large. They provide a positive drive, maintaining exact velocity ratios between driving and driven shafts. Power transmission gears are usually made from chromium molybdenum steel (eg E4130) which provides good toughness and resistance to wear. Some (low power) gears are made from sintered metal (powered metal). Non- power gears can be made of almost any material including composites for quieter running non lubricated arrangements. Most gears are run lubricated either by regular maintenance lubrication or by being run semi submersed in oil. 7 Citical sections of wheeland pinions, INVOLUTE CONFORMAL Fig. 18 BASIC GEAR TYPES There are two basic gear tooth profile forms the origins from which all gear types are derived. They are the involute gear, by far the most common in general use, and the conformal gear, but because of problems that were largely insurmountable until now, has not been used much in the past. Modern manufacturing techniques have brought about its resurrection and at least one helicopter (the Lynx) now utilises conformal gearing. An involute tooth is laid out along a curved line which is generated by taut wire as it is unwound from a cylinder. The generating circle is called the base circle of the involute. The involute curve establishes the tooth profile outward from the base circle. From the base circle inward, the tooth flank simply follows a radial line and is faired into the bottom land with a small fillet. If you are going to be involved at any time with the inspection of gears, then it is essential that you should be aware of at least some of the terms used: Addendum - ‘The radial distance between the Pitch Circle of a gear wheel and the top of a tooth. SeAddendum Circle Circular Pitch Clearance Dedendum Dedendum or Root Circle Face Flank Interference Line of Action Pinion, In designing wheel teeth, the circle that passes through the tips of the teeth. Length of the arc of the Pitch Circle between the centres of other corresponding points of adjacent teeth. Generally referred to simply as the ‘pitch’, The difference between the Addendum and the Dedendum. ‘The radial distance between the Pitch Circle and the root circle (depth of wheel tooth below pitch circle). The circle that contains the roots of the teeth. That surface of the tooth which is between the pitch circle and the top of the tooth parallel to the axis of the gear. That surface which is between the Pitch Circle and the bottom land parallel to the axis of the gear (the flank also includes the fillet). If contact does not occur on the line of action then interference may occur. This is often the case when a pinion with a small number of teeth is in mesh with a gearwheel with a large number of teeth - the faces of the wheel teeth binding with the flanks of the pinion teeth. If this happens the pinion teeth will be undercut at the roots. This will cause debris causing further wear and weakening of the teeth with eventual failure. Contact between the teeth of meshing gears takes place along a line tangential to the two base circles. This line passes through the Pitch Point and is called the Line of Action. ‘The term applied to the smaller of two mating gears. iceFig. 19 INVOLUTE GEAR TOOTH DETAIL circular pitch top tooth land space face wioth tooth \ thickness. addendum circle pitch bottom root root base circle land fillet’ curcle circle Fig. 20 SPUR GEAR TERMS - 1 Pitch - Gear teeth pitch may be measured as follows: Daimetral Pitch is the number of teeth per inch of Pitch Circle Diameter. It is a ratio. Circular Pitch is the distance between two corresponding points on two adjacent teeth around the Pitch Circle. Pitch Circle - A circle, the radius of which is equal to the distance from the gear axis to the Pitch Point. Pitch Circle Diameter - ‘The diameter of the Pitch Circle. Pitch Point - The point at which two pitch circles meet — the point of contact which transmits the motion tooth to tooth. -17-CENTRE DISTANCE, ROOT CIRCLE L Pressure Angle Top Land Root Fillet Toe Tooth Space Tooth Thickness UNE OF ACTION ADDENDUM CIRCLE, PITCH CIRCLE DEDENDUM OR i cma ADDENDUM TOOTH THICKNESS CIRCULAR PITCH Fig. 21 SPUR GEAR TERMS - 2 The angle between the line of action and the common tangent to the Pitch Circles at the Pitch Point. Is the top surface of a tooth at the tip or crest. The Bottom Land is the surface between the fillets of each adjacent tooth at the root. ‘That bottom portion of the tooth profile where it joins the bottom land. It is usually concave. ‘That part of a bevel gear that is the shortest 2 part of the tapered tooth. It subscribes the smallest diameter. The heel is the other end of the tooth that subscribes the largest diameter. Distance between two adjacent teeth measured along the pitch circle. ‘The thickness of a tooth measured along the pitch circle. piesWorking Depth - Is the maximum depth that the tooth extends into the tooth space of the mating gear. Whole Depth - Is the sum of the Addendum and Dedendum. Types of Gears Various types of gears transmit power through gearboxes. The type selected for use in a specific application will depend on various factors: How much power to be transmitted? Is a change of rpm required? Is a change of torque required? Is a change of angle or direction of drive required? Is the gear system to be free from feedback (non-reversible)? Using a smaller driver gear than the driven the speed is reduced of the driven but its torque is increased. If a larger driver than driven is used the reverse is true. A gear system is made up of gears that are: * Driver - a gear wheel that drives another gear wheel. * Driven - the other gear wheel that is driven. * Idler - this is a driven and a driver wheel as it is a wheel between two others. Often used to change the direction of rotation or change the speed. DRIVER (-) IDLER Y DRIVEN Fig. 22 GEAR TRAIN Figure 23 shows an internal and external Spur Gear where either the larger or the smaller gear could be the driver so loads in the system would be fed- back’ from the driven to the driver. -19-Figure 24 shows a Worm Gear where the worm is the driver but the driven gear (Pinion Gear) could not be the driver as any movement of it would not turn the worm (non reversible, no feedback). INTERNAL, EXTERNAL Fig. 23 SPUR GEARS Fig. 24 WORM GEAR Gears are named according to the angle of intersection of the axis and the shape of their teeth: * Spur * Helical * Worm * —— Hypoid * Bevel ete GEAR TYPES Spur These are classified as external (the most common), internal, and Rack and Pinion. External spur gears have teeth, which point outward from the centre of the gear. Internal or annular gears have teeth pointing inward towards the gear axis. A rack (a gear with teeth spaced along a straight line), together with a pinion gear, convert straight-line motion into rotary motion and vice versa. -20-Normally straight toothed (but can be spiral cut ~ helical gear). Used on shafts that run parallel to one another but not on the same axis, Can be noisy due to impact of engaging teeth. PITCH LINE OF RACK Fig. 25 RACK TOOTH DETAILS Fig. 26 RACK & PINION SPUR GEAR Helical Gears ‘These are a development of Spur Gears. Instead of the teeth being parallel to the axis of the gear they lie at an angle (a helix angle in fact). The main advantage of helical gears over straight cut gears is that more teeth area are in contact at any one time. Meshing takes place along a diagonal line across the faces and flanks of the teeth. Thus one pair of meshing teeth remain in contact until the following pair engage so the load on the teeth is distributed over a larger area. This provides a smoother and quieter drive as well as enabling more power to be transmitted. -21-‘The disadvantage of helical gears is that they give a heavy axial load to the shaft. This axial load can be eliminated by the use of double helical gearing but can also be absorbed by thrust bearings that support the gear shaft. A double helical gear has two sets of teeth, one with a right hand helix and the other with a left hand helix. SINGLE Fig. 27 HELICAL SPUR GEARS 2) In some drive systems from engines to propellers and rotor heads, the axial thrust load on a shaft fitted with helical spur gears is utilised for torque measurement. The shaft is allowed to float and, as torque is applied, the shaft moves axially. This axial movement is felt as pressure oil in a piston cylinder arrangement. The oil pressure is transduced into an electrical signal for flight deck indicators reading torque in Nm. ne ut GEAR eYuNDE [sun Gea HELICAL GEAR {nivnc GEAR) x THRUST WHEN onaue APPLE L = HeLicaL cea {RIVEN GEAR) OUTPUT SHAFT Fig. 28 GEAR BOX SHOWING HELICAL GEAR AS TORQUE TRANSDUCER -22-Spur gears are found in gearboxes; in epicyclic reduction gear trains; accessory drive trains, and in gear-type oil pumps - for engine oil systems and some older hydraulic systems (give low pressure high flow rates). For internal spur gears, the positions of the addendum and dedendum are reversed from those of the external gear but are still related to the root and tip. This results in a different tooth action and less slippage than with an equivalent external spur. ‘The internal gear makes it suited to closer centre distances than could be used with an external gear of the same size. When it is necessary to maintain the same sense of rotation for two parallel shafts, the internal gear is especially desirable because it eliminates the need for an idler gear. These conditions make the internal gear highly adaptable to epicyclic and planetary gear trains. ‘As mentioned above, helical gears are essentially spur gears. They run on parallel axes with teeth oblique to the tooth surface, starting at one edge proceeding across the face of the tooth. This action results in reduced impact stress and quieter operation, particularly at high speed. Herringbone gears are equivalent to two helical gears of opposite hand placed side by side. They are suited to high-speed operation and eliminate the axial thrust produced by single helical gears. Helical gears are referred to as right or left hand in the same manner as screw threads. A right hand gear being one on which the teeth twist clockwise as they recede from an observer looking along the axis. Bevel Gears Used to connect shafts in the same plane where the centre lines intersect and a change of direction is required. The teeth can be either straight cut or spiral cut and its basic form is that of a cone. They are commonly found on intermediate and tail rotor gearboxes on helicopters where a change in the direction of drive is required. They are also used in many gearbox accessory drives at the input stage of the turbine shaft and the accessory drive. Used to change the shaft axis direction and/or change the speed. The angle between the shafts is usually a right angle but it may have any angle up to 180°. The velocity ratio is the inverse ratio of the diameters of their bases or teeth ratios. ‘Two bevel gears with equal numbers of teeth and running together with their shaft axes intersecting at 90° are called Mitre gears. Several forms of bevel gears are in use, including straight-tooth, spiral and skewed gears. External bevel gears have pitch angles less than 90°. Internal bevel gears have pitch angles greater than 90° Base(WHOLE DEPTH OF T0oTH — PITCH CIRCLE OUMETER Fig. 29 BEVEL GEAR TERMS A crown gear is one having a pitch angle of 90°. In a crown gear therefore, its pitch surface is a plane and the crown gear corresponds in this respect to a rack and spur gearing. The simplest form of bevel gear has straight teeth. The diametrical pitch of a bevel gear is constant across the full width of the teeth. Because each point on a straight tooth bevel gear remains a fixed distance from the pitch cone apex, there is no sliding along as the tooth engages. Spiral bevel gears provide a gradual engagement compared to the full line engagement of straight bevel gears. Their teeth are curved and oblique. They have greater load carrying ability than with straight gear of the same size. -24-Bevel Gear Terms STRAIGHT SPIRAL Fig. 30 BEVEL GEARS If the curved surface of the back cone is viewed normally the teeth have the same profile as the teeth on a spur gear. The addendum and dedendum have the same proportions as spur gear teeth but are measured above and below the pitch circle parallel to the back cone driver. Pressure angles for bevel gears are usually 14%4° or 20° as for spur gears. Additional to those terms used for spur gears the following are used: Pitch Cone Angle Face Angle Edge Angle Addendum Angle Dedendum Angle The angle between the axis of the gear and the pitch cone teeth centre. When the pitch cone angle is 45° the gear is a mitre gear. Angle between the line at right angles to the axis and the top surfaces of the teeth. ‘The angle between a line at right angles to the axis and the top end of the teeth. Angle between the gear wheel and the top surfaces of the teeth. Angle between the gear wheel and the bottom surfaces of the teeth. On some gear boxes, to establish correct wear patterns, one of the bevel gears may be adjusted forwards or backwards along its axis (by a few fractions of a mm). This may be carried out as per the manual using shims. -25-Hypoid Gears These are used where the centre lines of the two shafts neither intersect or run parallel to each other. They are similar to bevel gears in application and form but the basic surfaces on which they are cut are hyperboloids instead of cones. The teeth are helical and the axes of the shafts do not intersect. Fig. 31 HYPOID GEAR Worm Gear Used where a high reduction in speed and an increase in torque is required. Provides a ‘no back-feed’ provision. Used on lifting equipment. ‘These connect shafts at right angles which lie on different planes. The worm is essentially a screw which may have a single, double or triple start thread. ‘These engage with teeth on the pinion gear. Older teeth on pinions were straight but now are usually wasted to give a greater contact area with the worm. Worms may be know as Encircling or Hindley Worms. With parallel worms the teeth are straight sided on a section through the axis, and have the same proportions as standard involute track teeth. The worm is the driver and the pinion is the driven. Movement cannot be transmitted the other way. ‘SKEW GEAR Fig. 32 WORM GEARS -26-Gear Trains A principle function of gears is to change the speed of rotation and/or their direction. Besides changing speeds the torque can be reduced or increased. ‘The change in speed of two gears in mesh is calculated as the Velocity Ratio. Velocity Ratio (VR) is the number of revolutions N! of the driving gear divided by the number of revolutions N? of the driven gear in the same time interval. For gears with teeth T! and T?, respectively, VR is expressed as the following equation: VR = N= Tt Ne Tr Example 1. If a 20 tooth pinion (the smaller of a pair of gears) drives a 40 tooth gear, the pinion must rotate twice for one revolution of the gear. vR = WM N2 % or 0.5 (half as fast) gb aR c Example 2. Driver spur 200 teeth @ 400rpm. What is the speed of the driven gear with 30 teeth? VR= Mos TD ne p = 200 = 6.66 (6.66 times faster) 30 = 400rpm x 6.66 = 2666rpm approx. Stepping up or stepping down the speed of the driven gear will also affect its torque. Stepping up the speed reduces the torque by the same ratio and stepping down the speed increases the torque by the same ratio. If the final, or driven gear, in a two gear gear-train is to rotate in the same direction as the driver then an Idler gear is required between the two. If the distance between the driver gear the final gear is large then several idler gears may be required. The idler gear does not affect the speed ratio. ‘The most important distinction on classifying gear trains is that between ordinary and epicyclic gear trains. In ordinary trains, all axes remain stationary relative to the frame but in epicyclic trains, at least one axis moves relative to the frame. -27-PuaeT Pneon CARTER PLANET PmONS. Fig. 33 SPUR EPICYCLIC GEAR ‘The reduction in the speed of the final drive may be achieved in several stages as in some helicopter main rotor drives. The first stage is normally comprised of an input gear driving an input driven gear, which has a larger number of teeth than the driver. The reduction achieved across this type of gearing is expressed as a ratio, where the number of teeth on the driven are compared with the number of teeth on the driver. Thus a gear train consisting of a driver with 30 teeth and driven with 90 teeth would have a reduction ratio of 90 : 30 or 3: 1. ‘The second reduction stage is usually in the form of a spur epicyclic reduction gear. This consists of a central, or Sun gear, which revolves inside a stationary Ring gear (the ring gear — fixed annulus - normally forms part of the gearbox outer casing and is internally toothed). Interposed between the sun gear and the ring gear, and meshing with both, are sets of Planetary Pinions, varying in number from three to eight (figure 3 shows 3). The planetary pinions are housed in a carrier to which is secured the output shaft. As the sun gear rotates, the planetary pinions are made to rotate about their axis, and, because they are in mesh with the ring gear, which is stationary, they “walk” round the gear, taking with them the planetary pinion carrier. This transmits a drive to the output shaft, which rotates in the same direction as the sun gear, but at a reduced speed. ‘The reduction achieved in an epicyclic gear assembly is also expressed as a ratio, but the numbers of teeth of the sun gear and the ring gear only are considered. The actual reduction can be found using the following formula: Number of teeth of SUN + Number of teeth of RING Number of teeth of SUN ‘Thus an assembly consisting of a sun with 40 teeth and a ring with 120 teeth would have the following reduction: Cie shh) i) ct 40 40 1 -28-‘This can be expressed as a ratio of 4: 1 From the above it can be seen that the planetary pinions are, in fact, idler gears and their number of teeth is of no consequence to the actual reduction ratio. They are, of course, an essential part of the assembly, providing the means of transmitting the output drive power. In some assemblies, the epicyclic gearing is in two stages, with the lower stage output shaft driving the upper stage sun gear. In a single-stage assembly the planetary pinion carrier transmits the drive directly to the main rotor drive shaft. Bevel Epicyclic Gear This gear train consists of two opposed bevel gears of different diameters. ‘The large gear in figure 34 is the driving gear and the smaller gear is a fixed stationary gear. Three planet gears or pinions, free to rotate, are mounted on equally spaced arms which are part of the output shaft (eg a propeller shaft). They are situated between, and are in engagement with, both the driving and fixed bevel gears. Rotation of the driving gear causes the planet gears to rotate which drives their respective mounting arms and the shaft. The assembly allows for high torque transmission and acts as a reduction gear. PROPELLER SHAFT Fig. 34 BEVEL EPICYCLIC GEAR Figure 28 shows a two stage speed reduction gear box for a helicopter. Stage one is a spur gear and stage two is a helical gear. This gear also acts as a torque transducer utilising the fact that when power is transmitted through the gear the helical teeth produce an axial movement of the shaft. Pressure is created in an oil filled cylinder which is converted to an electrical signal for transmission to cockpit instruments. EgeCONTROL CHAINS These comply with the requirements of British Standards 228 or ISO606. Chains and sprockets provide a strong flexible positive connection in control systems and are generally used where it is necessary to change direction or to connect to a push/pull rod system. Used where high loads are encountered, eg engine controls, flying controls etc. ‘The chain consists of: * Two inner and two outer plates. * Rollers. * Bearing pins and bushes. The chain has three principal dimensions: * Pitch. The distance between the centre of two rollers. * Roller diameter. * The width between the inner plates. ‘These dimensions are important for the serviceability of the chain and for its correct fitment around sprocket wheels, pulleys etc. PLaTE: ere OUTER UNK, ‘OUTER PLATE (secure by peering the end ofthe bearing pit ‘cn smater cham this sa dsconnect pot ‘would be secured by chad ris on the ‘earng pn ence or aome er poutve cece) Fig. 35 ROLLER CHAIN CONSTRUCTION Chain assemblies are supplied from the manufacturer (approved supplier) as complete proof load tested units and no attempt should be made to dismantle riveted links or attachments. Only the bolted or screwed attachments can be disconnected. -30-Any peened nuts and bolts and split pins must be used once only ‘The chain is supplied boxed, lightly oiled and coiled in oil-paper. It is identified by part number and name and should be accompanied by the appropriate stores release documentation. When fittings are connected to the end of the chain they must be fitted in a positive way using locked pins, locked nut and bolt assemblies etc. The SBAC standard for locking a nut a bolt assembly is to peen the bolt end for chains of 8mm pitch or under and use a split pinned lock nut for larger chains (the outer plate of the chain is normally tapped). ENO CONNECTOR {allows atachment to component such as ‘tube, pustvpul ro, betcrank ever ee.) \ ‘SPROCKET WHEEL (changes cretion of chain) BBLPLANER BLOCK (tats chain about its oun ‘ats by 90 degrees) Fig. 36 CHAIN & SPROCKET ASSEMBLY [EXTENSION FECES {GUARD Wil nat allow the chain tobe ted ‘ound the sprocket Wine the extension Dleces on the chai wal Sniy tt TOWARDS the NONANTERCHANGEABLE ENO FITTINGS. Fig. 37 NON-REVERSIBLE CHAIN -31-‘The use of cranked links for the attachment of end fittings to chains is not permitted. Nor is it permitted to use spring clips for the attachment of links to join the ends of a looped chain. Positive methods must be used such as bolted joints. Change of direction is achieved by the use of sprocket wheels. And the axis of the chain may be changed by 90° by the use of a b-planer block. To prevent the chain from being fitted the wrong way round Non-reversible chains are used. Non-Reversible Chains ‘These are the same as the standard chain except that they have extension pieces every other link and they are fitted to sprocket wheels where there is a guard close to the wheel. When fitted to the sprocket wheel the extension pieces pass around the wheel either side of the wheel. If the chain is tried to be fitted to the wheel the wrong way round the extension pieces will be on the outside circumference of the wheel and will not pass under the guard. Fig. 38 NON-REVERSIBLE CHAIN FITTED TO THE A320 TAILPLANE MANUAL TRIM CONTROL SYSTEM aoeChains may have handed or non-interchangeable end fittings, this means that, together with the chain extension pieces and guard it is impossible to fit the chain incorrectly into the system. Maintenance Cleaned using paraffin - but dried thoroughly afterwards to prevent corrosion ~ and lightly oiled. ‘A control chain is checked for stiffness by running the (cleaned) chain over the finger so that each link rotates through 90° as passes over the finger. The chain is then rotated along its length through 180° and the process is repeated to rotate each link the other way when the chain is pulled over the finger. In this way each chain link is rotated through 180°. If there is a stiff link it will be immediately felt on the finger. ‘To check for link wear in a control chain (ie it will increase its overall length). ‘Accurately measure the length of one link (pin centre to pin centre) using a vernier calliper (not easy) and multiply the number of links by this length to give the length of the chain when new. Place the chain on a flat surface and apply a moderate spring force to put the chain in tension (typically 12Ib for an 8mm chain and up to 28Ib for a 13mm chain). Ensure all links articulate freely. Measure the complete length of the chain to give the “old length”. Compare the “new length” with the “old length”. This should not exceed that stated in the overhaul manual. Typically 2% maximum elongation is specified. If this figure is reached or exceeded the whole chain should be changed. A control chain is checked for twist by letting it hang, ensuring it is clean and each link articulates freely and sighting (looking) down the chain. AESDRIVE BELTS AND PULLEYS ‘These are used to drive comparatively lightly loaded components such as generators ~ on some piston engine aircraft, and timing mechanisms. Correctly installed and tensioned they provide an inexpensive lightweight drive system which is easy to maintain. The fabric reinforced rubber belt forms a continuous loop around two (or more) pulleys. Note: Pulleys are called sheaves in some publications. On some systems the belt may go around more than one pulley with one being the driver and the others being driven. To maintain tension a sprung loaded or adjustable idler pulley may be fitted (normally in the longest run) between the driver and driven pulleys. This chapter deals with the different types of belts and pulleys that may be found in service. For the actual design and maintenance practices of a particular belt drive system you should refer to the belt drive manufacturer’s manual and/or the AMM. Most belt drives are of the “V” type, though there are examples of flat belt drives in use and synchronous belts for applications where it is important that components operate synchronously - cam belts on piston engines for example. Flat Belts ‘These are used with flat pulleys with flanges and/or with guides. The flanges or guides are to ensure the belt does not come off the pulley. The flat belt system is cheaper than other belt systems and used where very little load transmission is required. They are of thinner cross section and the specification dimensions as for V belts are less important. V Drive Belts These are divided into 2 groups ~ heavy duty and light duty. The V design ensures it sits within the V shaped pulley with no tendency to come off and increases its grip as more tension (power) is applied. The belts are made of rubber or synthetic materials and are strengthened by fabric material, this provides strength in tension and reduces the belts ability to stretch. The rubber provides grip and a wearing surface. It also protects the fabric from moisture and contamination. The classical cross section is shown in figure 40. It is sometimes called Banded Construction. The main tension fabric yarns run longitudinally and the complete belt is enclosed by a fabric covering. -34-Fig. 39 FLAT BELT CONSTRUCTION MAIN TENSION FABRIC ‘SUPPORTING FABRIC: (telps keep shape of bet) Fig. 40 VEE BELT CONSTRUCTION Its loading is higher than the flat belt but the radius of the pulleys must not be too small. For smaller pulleys where a reasonably load is required a notched belt should be used. ‘The Molded Notched V belt is shown in figure 41 with the tension fabric plies in the outer section - where the tension loads are highest. The belt is designed to take similar loads to the Banded V Belt but will accommodate pulleys of smaller radii. Notched V belts are usually designated with an ‘X’, so a 3V notched belt, for example, would be designated a 3VX. Size ‘There are three measurements that are used to designate the size of a V belt: its Outside Circumference (OC); its Effective Length (EL) and its Pitch Length (PL). aoeMANN TENSION FABRIC MOULDED NOTCHES Fig. 41 MOULDED NOTCHED V BELT Outside Circumference (OC) This is measured using a tape measure wrapped around the outside of the belt. It is not very accurate and does not provide a measurement of the belt when under tension (it will stretch slightly under load), which it would be under normal working conditions. However, it does provide a nominal length which is easy to measure. Effective Length (EL) This requires a special measuring rig consisting of two pulleys, one fixed and one loadable with an attached measuring scale. To measure the Effective Length of a belt it is placed around two pulleys with specified groove sizes, One pulley is fixed and the other is designed so it can be loaded to stretch the belt. There is a scale on the loaded pulley to indicate the length between the two pulley centres. ‘The belt is placed around the pulleys and the second pulley loaded to a specified load, the belt is moved through three complete revolutions whilst being subjected to the load. The Effective Length of the complete belt is calculated by taking the indicated measurement of the loaded pulley times 2 and adding this to the circumference of one pulley (this equals the two halve circumferences of each pulley). It is the Effective Length that most manufacturers quote in their specifications. 36sreo pune BeLr WER TEST oe TO) Fig. 42 EFFECTIVE LENGTH (EL) MEASURING RIG Pitch Length (PL) When the belt bends around a pulley the outside of the belt is in tension and the inside is in compression. Where the centre of the tension occurs is called the neutral axis or tensile chord line. The tensile chord is within the belt (towards to outer edge) and therefore cannot be measured. The PL is the length of the tensile chord around the complete belt. It is calculated using equations but a qualitative approach will serve to indicate its relationship to OC and EL. Assume we have two identical belts with the same external dimensions but one belt (belt 2) has a lower tensile chord (it is designed with its fabric yarns further away from the outer edge). For the two belts the OC and EL would be the same but the PL of belt two would be smaller than the PL of belt 1. Pulleys (Sheaves) These are usually made of steel and supplied in various diameters and groove angles. Diameters specified include outside diameter and pitch diameter and include groove angles ranging from 32 to 38°. Synchronous Belts These are similar to flat belts in design except that they are toothed. The teeth are moulded as part of the inner surface and provide a positive drive with no slip (the other belts are used where any slip, if present, is not a problem). -37-Synchronous belts are used with toothed pulleys and used with timing drives such as ignition systems and valve lifting mechanisms of some piston engines. ‘They are more expensive than the other belts. Figure 43 shows an example of the use of a synchronous belt system. It connects the tailplane trim wheel in the flight deck of the A320 to sprocket drives under the floor for chain and cable connections back to the tailplane. The system is duplicated. Fig. 43 SYNCHRONOUS BELT SYSTEM - A320 General It is important that when replacing either a pulley or a belt of any system that it is checked for serviceability and also that it is the correct part (check belt markings). Many pulleys/belts, particularly of the V type construction look very similar, and it is important that’ the IPC/AMM is followed closely and documents such as JAA form ones clearly specify the correct part by name, part number, batch number, serial number etc. -38-