IV.

Literature Review

4.1Theoretical Framework / conceptual Framework

The theoretical framework for this study was based on the cognitive theory of coping developed by
Folkman and Lazarus (1988). This theory was selected because it links the constructs central to this
study. The theory posits that portions of an individual's knowledge acquisition can be directly related to
observing others within the context of social interactions, experiences, and outside media influences.
People do not learn new behaviours solely by trying them and either succeeding or failing, but rather,
the survival of humanity is dependent upon the replication of the actions of others. Coping as a result is
a survival technique. There are three meta-theoretical assumptions: transaction, process, and context. It
is assumed, first, that emotions occur as a specific encounter of the person with the environment and
that both exert a reciprocal influence on each other; second, that emotions and cognitions are subject to
continuous change; and third, that the meaning of a transaction is derived from the underlying context,
i.e., various attributes of a natural setting determine the actual experience of emotions and the resulting
action tendencies. Literature identifies relevant concepts related to coping mechanisms used by
students in ODL. These concepts include theories used to adapt coping mechanisms used by students in
dealing with stressful events. The study will review literature from different authors who have done
research on coping mechanisms or similar concepts. Literature was not limited to ODL students only but
also covered conventional students.

4.2The Concept of Coping Folkman and Lazarus (1988) defined coping as changing cognitive and
behavioural effort to manage specific external and/ or internal demands that are seen as taxing or
exceeding the resources of the person. Muersing (1996), Puhl and Brownell (2003) defined coping as any
behaviour or thought process unconsciously brought into use by an individual to protect himself/herself
against painful or anxiety provoking feelings, impulses and perceptions. This definition includes
defensive coping strategies. Coping is primarily a psychological concept and although there are many
definitions, all share the same concept that of a struggle with conflicts, emotions and demands. In this
paper coping is be defined as the process through which the student successfully manages stressful
events/situations that are seen as taxing or exceeding the available resources.

4.3 Assessment of coping two approaches have been used in the assessment of coping, these are,
episodic or situational assessment and draft or dispositional assessment (Buettner, 1990). He is of the
opinion that tract measures of coping refer to an individual’s habitual or particular way to deal with
tracts or dispositions aligned to the Coping mechanisms used by students in open and distance learning
(ODL) in response to stressful www.iosrjournals.org 59 | Page personality of that individual. Baldwin,
(1990) referred to tract assessment as an enduring property of a person or a disposition to respond in a
certain way under a variety of circumstances. Episodic measures of coping deal with the strategies
individuals actually use in a particular stressful situation (Lazarus and Folkman 1988). Puhl and Brownell,
(2003) pointed out that the measurements of coping have predictive values with respect to the coping
process. Since coping is a process, it changes over time. People use an emotion-focused strategy or vice
versa. Lazarus and Folkman (1988), Taylor (1986), Tomaka and Blascovich (1994), came up with a coping
measuring instrument. They used this instrument to measure the coping mechanism used by
administrators of social and educational institutions. The ways of coping instrument had eight coping
mechanisms which they called scales. They were namely cognitive coping, distancing, self-controlling,
seeking social support, accepting responsibility, escape-avoidance, playful problem solving and positive
reappraisal.

4.4 Coping Mechanisms Used in Education EUA (2008), Geser (2007), Kauffman (2010), Van Dorp and
Monteros (2010), highlighted that stressful events will always be there for ODL students in educational
institutions. What students need to do is find ways in which they can cope and manage.Swent in
Buettner (1990) reported on the results of a study in the state of Oregon where one thousand two
hundred and forty five respondents reported the way they handled the tensions and pressures of their
tasks.The activities were divided into three major areas; physiological activities, cognitive and
psychological activities and interpersonal and organisational activities. Activities of a physiological type
were the most frequent stress-reduction technique (65%). More than (85%) of these respondents used
some form of exercise or physical labour, (22%) of the respondents indicated coping strategies in the
cognitive/ psychological area with more than half of these responses related to separating one’s sense
from one’s environment. The study found a low level (12%) of reported coping responses characterised
as inter personal or organisational management skills. Swent concluded that stress affects each
individual differently and a variety of coping techniques should be adapted to that individual. Barley,
Fillos, Kelly in Buettner (1990) in a study conducted in the mid-Atlantic region examined exemplary
conventional vocational students’ stress and how they coped. They found that these students were
more likely to use vocational / recreational skills approaches to coping than physiological or
sociopsychological approaches. The study found that these students developed strong stress coping
strategies through developed skills. Diederick (1987) identified the significant issues, conflicts and
experiences which occurred during the time respondents underwent their first year at institutions. In his
study he found out that the subjects were able to cope with stressful events by using the following
strategies. They took things slowly, sought psycho-social support from the system, learnt from mistakes,
being organised, anticipating problems and kept a calendar. The study also concluded that negative
feelings amongst the subjects related to loss of one’s previous support system. Recommendations in the
study included lesser vice programme opportunities for space and time to be away as important. Yackel
(1998) investigated ways of coping used by male subjects in rural public centres in Saskatchewan. He
statistically compared the frequency and intensity of stress. He concluded that there was no relationship
between leadership style, stress and the role of coping methods employed. Results from the study
indicated that task-oriented subjects and relationship-oriented subjects perceived themselves similarly
in terms of total frequency and intensity of stress experience. The study also noted that the choice of
coping mechanisms was not based on an individual’s broad motivational structure of task or person
orientation. Methods of coping are not employed as a response to the specific nature of the stresses
experienced but rather as a general response. Yackel (1988) then speculated that the selection of coping
methods is governed by reasons such as personal likes and dislikes, past experiences, accessibility, cost,
social, acceptability and peer influence. Puhl (2010) assessed the relationship of demands, ability to
cope, and stress in a study of administrators in school subjects in the United Kingdom and States of
America .The overall average of the intensity scale indicated a mild to moderate amount of stress. In the
area of coping effectiveness, Hierbert and Basserman (1986) found out that subjects saw themselves as
coping very effectively with the demands of their tasks. They found no statistically reliable differences
on any of the demographic dimensions with the frequency, intensity, and copying effectiveness scales.
Taylor (1986) model of coping has been adopted and used by social workers, teachers, students and
administrators when managing stressful events. The model which was further adopted and perfected by
Muersing (1996) shows the individual’s mental and physical wellbeing and his/her preventive behavior
as the outcome variables of coping. The variables are posited to be the product of mismatch between
task demands on one hand and social support influences and individual factors on the other hand
(Muersing 1996).The variables in this model are social support, material resources, individual factors,
community factors, medical, self-efficacy beliefs, coping responses and lastly coping outcomes, (Taylor
1986; Muersing 1996).Self-efficacy beliefs for coping with the stresses are influenced by factors such as
cultural, community factors, the availability and nature Coping mechanisms used by students in open
and distance learning (ODL) in response to stressful of the relevant social support, material resources
and individual personality factors (Taylor- 1986; Muersing - 1996).

This model of coping can be used by ODL students in ZOU Harare as it assumes that social support
influences, self-efficacy, beliefs and material resources enhance problem-focused coping. Effective
coping generates more social support with better or more material resources, D’cruz (2000) Puhl 2010.
In Muersing’s view a coping outcome is management of stressful events and even notes that important
contextual variables are the availability of social support and material resources for coping. Whereas in
Muersing’s adaptation of Taylor’s model of coping, the issue of social coping and emotional coping are
fairly attainable, material or economic coping and medical coping may be difficult for ODL students in
developing countries due to scarcity of resources. The literature review looked at the theoretical
framework for this study, which was based on the theory of coping developed by Folkman and Lazarus.
Researches on coping mechanisms used by students in other countries were also reviewed. The
countries include the United States of America, Sweden and the United Kingdom. It was noted from
literature reviewed that coping assumes that social support influences self-efficacy beliefs and enhances
problem-focused coping. Many forms of coping mechanisms were identified and some were found to be
more effective than others