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TECHNICAL NOTE
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On Cold-Formed Steel Construction

Cold-Formed Steel Engineers Institute ● Washington, DC ● www.cfsei.org ● 800-79-STEEL

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR

COLD-FORMED STEEL CONNECTIONS

Summary: Cold-formed steel (CFS) connections present unique design challenges to consider due to the thickness of
the steel. Connections with thin steel materials behave differently than connections with thicker hot-rolled steel
materials and are prone to unique limit states. This Technical Note is an introduction to typical CFS connection design
issues as defined by common limit states.

Disclaimer: Designs cited herein are not intended to preclude the use of other materials, assemblies, structures or
designs when these other designs demonstrate equivalent performance for the intended use. CFSEI documents are not
intended to exclude the use and implementation of any other design or construction technique.

INTRODUCTION
Cold-formed steel (CFS) connections present unique design challenges to consider due to the thickness of
the steel. Connections with thin steel materials behave differently than connections with thicker hot-rolled
steel materials and are prone to unique limit states. This Technical Note is an introduction to typical CFS
connection design issues as defined by common limit states. Additional information and equations are
provided in AISI S100-16, North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural
Members, 2016 Edition, Section J, “Connections and Joints.”

Applied Shear
Figure 2
Applied Tension
Figure 1

BEHAVIOR OF COMMON COLD-FORMED STEEL CONNECTION LIMIT STATES

Figures 1 and 2 show typical CFS connections using a dowel type fastener, i.e., screw or power-actuated
fastener (PAF). The top sheet is the material in contact with the fastener head, and the bottom material is not
in contact with the fastener head. In Figure 1, the applied tension load is attempting to pull the top sheet and
the bottom material apart. In Figure 2, the applied load results in a shear force in the two connected sheets.
Each connection could potentially fail in several different ways (referred to as limit states), and each limit
state must be analyzed to determine which will occur first, and therefore control the capacity of the
connection.

Cold-Formed Steel Engineers Institute 1 TECH NOTE B007-20 October 2020

PULL-OUT
Consider a screw or PAF connection as shown in Figure 1. As tension is applied, the connected materials
are held in place by the fastener—the head of the fastener keeps the top sheet in place, and the shaft of the
fastener keeps the bottom material in place. Pull-out strength refers to the amount of tension the connection
can resist before the fastener is “pulled out” of the bottom material, as shown in Figure 3. To illustrate this
limit state with an extreme example, imagine the connection behavior if the bottom material were extruded
polystyrene. In this situation, it would not take much applied tension before the fastener pulled out of the
extruded polystyrene, and pull-out would control the capacity of the connection. (Note: pull-out is not a limit
state for a bolted connection, as it is fastened under the bottom material by a nut.)

Pull-Out
Figure 3
Pull-Over
PULL-OVER Figure 4
In cases where the screw or PAF connection in the base
material is strong and the pull-out capacity is high, pull-over may be the controlling limit state. Again,
consider the connection shown in Figure 1. Pull-over refers to the amount of tension that can be applied
before the top sheet “pulls over” the fastener head, as shown in Figure 4. To illustrate this limit state with an
extreme example, imagine the connection behavior if the top sheet were aluminum foil. In this situation, it
would not take much applied tension before the aluminum foil pulled over the head of the fastener and pull-
over would control the capacity of the connection.
BEARING
Consider a bolt, screw or PAF connection as shown in Figure 2. As
shear force is applied, the connected materials are held in place by
the shank of the fastener. As the magnitude of the applied shear load
increases, eventually one or both materials could deform/buckle and/
or tear around the fastener shank. This limit state is referred to as
bearing. Figure 5 illustrates the top sheet failure in bearing.
TILTING AND TEARING
Consider a screw or PAF connection of two thin steel sheets as
Bearing
shown in Figure 6. The fastener shank is originally oriented
Figure 5
vertically (perpendicular to the applied load), similar to Figures 1 and
2. However, if enough shear force is applied, the fastener could potentially tilt before the steel fails,
deforming the connection and changing the direction of the fastener in relation to the applied force, as shown
in Figure 7. This limit state is referred to as tilting and tearing.

Applied Shear Tilting

Figure 7
Figure 6

TECH NOTE B007-20 April 2020 2 Cold-Formed Steel Engineers Institute

RUPTURE
Rupture is the failure of a member cross-section along its points of connection. One way to describe this
type of failure is to compare it to a perforated sheet of paper. When several holes that are arranged in a
relatively closely spaced pattern or line are made across a member section, the section may fail along that
pattern or line when load is applied. AISI S100-16 provides additional information and equations for
different types of rupture—net section rupture (Section J5.3.4), shear rupture (Section J6.1), tension rupture
(Section J6.2), and block shear rupture (Section J6.3). Figure 8 from the AISI S100-16 Commentary
illustrates an example of the potential failure paths of a stiffened channel connection due to rupture. The
Commentary includes additional illustrations and information. Additional illustrations and information are
included in the AISI S100 Commentary.

Figure C-J6-4 – Potential Failure Paths of Stiffened Channel

(Tension or Block Shear Rupture)
Figure 8

SPECIFIC CONNECTION TYPES AND ASSOCIATED LIMIT STATES

SCREWS
Self-drilling and/or self-tapping screws are the most common fastener types
used for CFS connections. Self-drilling means that pre-drilling a hole to install
the fastener is not required because the screw tip cuts into the material. Self-
tapping means that the screw taps its own threads. Screws have different drill
tip styles that are designed for the type and thickness of materials they are
intended to connect. For example, there are screws specifically designed for
Courtesy of Simpson metal-to-metal, metal-to-wood, and wood-to-wood connections. It is important
Strong-Tie Company, Inc. to specify the appropriate type of screw and drill tip required, as they are not
intended to be used interchangeably for different materials or different steel
thicknesses. Screws come in a wide variety of diameters, lengths, thread dimensions, and head styles
depending on the materials they are intended to connect, and how much load they will need to resist. For
CFS screw connections, pull-out and pull-over, tilting and tearing, as well as bearing capacities must be
checked. AISI S100 Section J4 provides additional information and equations for screw connections to
CFS. Screw manufacturers typically also provide allowable values for their proprietary screws that
incorporate these limit states. Additionally, the AISI’s Cold-Formed Steel Framing Design Guide, D110-
16 provides design examples. CFSEI Tech Notes F101-12, Screws for Cold-Formed Steel-To-Wood and
Wood-To-Cold-Formed Steel Attachments; F701-12, Evaluation of Screw Strength; and F102-11, Screw
Fastener Selection for Cold-Formed Steel Frame Construction can be referenced for additional
information.

Cold-Formed Steel Engineers Institute 3 TECH NOTE B007-20 October 2020

PAFs
Power-actuated fasteners, or PAF, are also sometimes referred to as
“pins” or “shot pins”.

Different types of PAFs include:

 Powder-actuated fasteners (installation tools use powder cartridges

for driving energy)
 Gas-actuated fasteners (installation tools use compressed gas Courtesy of Simpson
canisters for driving energy) Strong-Tie Company, Inc.
 Pneumatically driven fasteners (compressed air is used for driving
energy)
 Mechanical/battery-driven fasteners.

PAFs can be used to connect CFS to hot-rolled steel or concrete base materials. In these types of
connections, the PAF manufacturer typically provides allowable shear and tension values for the PAF
connection to the base material. However, the tension and shear capacities of the PAF in contact with the
CFS top sheet must also be evaluated to determine the pull-over and bearing capacity of the CFS. If these
values are not provided by the manufacturer, then the designer must analyze them independently. AISI S100
Section J5 provides additional information and equations for PAF connections. CFSEI Tech Notes 562,
Powder- Actuated Fasteners in Cold-Formed Steel Construction and F300-09, Pneumatically Driven Pins
for Wood-Based Panel Attachment are additional resources.
BOLTS
Bolts may be used to connect CFS to CFS, hot-rolled steel or concrete base
materials. In these types of connections, the bolt to base material connection
capacity must be evaluated to ensure that the bolt and the base material are
adequate for the applied loads. Additionally, the bolt-to-CFS connection
must be evaluated to ensure that the CFS material is adequate for the applied
loads. CFS limit states to consider include bearing around the bolt shank and
pull-over from the bolt head/nut/washer. AISI S100 Section J3 provides
additional information and equations for bolted connections to CFS, but it
does not provide an equation for pull-over specifically for bolts. Refer to
applicable product code approvals, product specifications or other literature,
or alternately check pull-over using the equations provided for screws if other information is not available.
WELDS
Welding to cold-formed steel is different than welding to hot-rolled
steel and presents unique challenges due to the thickness range of
CFS material. One challenge is that a welder who is not familiar
with welding CFS can accidentally burn holes in the thinner CFS
sheets. An American Welding Society (AWS) D1.3 qualified welder
should perform CFS welded connections, as AWS D1.3 addresses
welds with thinner steels (3/16” or less). Different types of welds are
designed differently, but in general, both sheets of steel that are being
welded together must be checked for load in both the transverse and
the longitudinal directions (transverse describes when load is normal
to the weld length, and longitudinal describes when load is parallel to
the weld length). Additionally, the capacity of the weld itself must be Courtesy of ADTEK Engineers, Inc.
checked. AISI S100 Section J2 provides additional information and
equations for specific types of welded CFS connections. CFSEI Tech
Note F140-16, Welding Cold-Formed Steel can also be referenced.

TECH NOTE B007-20 April 2020 4 Cold-Formed Steel Engineers Institute

ANGLE CLIP LIMIT STATES
Angle clips or “L clips” are a common type of CFS connection. Depending on the direction of the applied
load(s), clip capacities should be checked for tension, shear, plate bending, and/or moment due to
eccentricity. Fasteners on each clip leg (anchored leg and cantilevered leg) should also be checked for limit
states explained above, including eccentric loads on fasteners if required. CFS clip connections in tension
are unique in that they tend to display “prying” or “unfolding”/plate-bending behaviors. In “unfolding”/
plate bending, the clip is not strong enough under the applied load to keep its “L” profile shape and yields in
bending.
In “prying”, the clip keeps its “L” profile shape, and the eccentricity
between the applied load on the cantilevered leg and the resisting
fasteners on the anchored leg creates a moment that increases tension
on the resisting fasteners (similar to the behavior of a crowbar or
prybar when used to pry things apart). Additionally, the “prying”
connection behavior produces a nonuniform load on the fasteners in the
anchored leg, resulting in a reduced pull-over capacity (i.e., the tension
load on the anchored fasteners is only resisted by half of each fastener
head). Refer to AISI S100 for tension, shear, and moment equations
for CFS. For additional information and equations specific to clip
angle design, refer to AISI Research Reports RP15-2, Load Bearing
Clip Angle Design and RP18-4, Load Bearing Clip Angle Design -
Courtesy of Simpson Strong-Tie Phase II. Additionally, reference “Suggested Design of Cold-Formed
Company, Inc.
Steel Clip Angles for Tension” from the Spring 2002 LGSEA (Light
Gauge Steel Engineers Association) Newsletter.
ADDITIONAL CONNECTION LIMIT STATE CONSIDERATIONS
MINIMUM SPACING EDGE AND END DISTANCES
The limit state equations for dowel type fasteners such as screws, PAFs, and bolts are dependent on adhering
to the minimum spacing, edge and end distance requirements for the fasteners. These requirements are
minimum limits for how close fasteners can be installed next to each other, and how close fasteners can be
installed to the edge or end of a material. It is important to note that minimum edge and end distance
requirements for the same fastener may be different depending on the direction of the applied load. Refer to
AISI S100 for additional information and for minimum spacing, edge and end distance requirements for CFS
connections.
CHECKING LIMIT STATES IN COMBINATION
When connections experience load in different directions concurrently (for example, tension combined with
shear), then the connection must be checked for the loads in combination. Imagine a typical clip connection.
Both the maximum tension capacity and maximum shear capacity based on the applicable limit states can be
determined. If only tension load is applied to the clip connection, then the full tension capacity of the
connection could be achieved. Similarly, if only shear load is applied, then the full shear capacity of the
connection could be achieved. However, if tension and shear are applied concurrently, then neither the full
tension nor the full shear capacity will be achieved, as the fasteners will have to do “double duty” and resist
load in two directions at the same time instead of resisting load in only one direction. AISI S100 provides
guidance for some types of connections in combined shear and tension. If a proprietary product is used, then
the manufacturer’s technical report and/or specifications may also provide design guidance for the product in
combined loading. In general, the equations provided to address loads in combination will be some variation
of the following:

[Actual Load 1 / Allowable Load 1] + [Actual Load 2 / Allowable Load 2] ≤ 1.0

Cold-Formed Steel Engineers Institute 5 TECH NOTE B007-20 October 2020

FOR OTHER MATERIALS LIMIT STATES
The limit states addressed in this Tech Note are specific to the failure of connected CFS members. The lim-
it states of all other materials and members of the connection, including fasteners and hardware, must also
be analyzed per the appropriate codes, standards and specifications including, but not limited to, the follow-
ing:

 Proprietary manufacturer specifications and allowable load data

 Design of hot-rolled steel and bolts per ANSI/AISC 360
 Connections to concrete per ACI 318
 Connections to masonry per TMS 402/602
 Connections to wood per National Design Specification for Wood Construction (NDS).

Primary author of original Tech Note:

Julie Lowrey, P.E., Insurance Institute for Business and Home Safety

Technical Review:
Roger LaBoube, Ph.D., P.E., Wei-Wen Yu Center for Cold-Formed Steel Structures
Robert Madsen, P.E., Devco Engineering, Inc.
Andrew Newland, P.E., ADTEK Engineers, Inc.
Brandon Wahl, P.E., 360 Engineering Group
Robert Wills, P.E., American Iron And Steel Institute

This “Technical Note on Cold-Formed Steel Construction” is published by the Cold-Formed Steel Engineers Institute (“CFSEI”).
The information provided in this publication shall not constitute any representation or warranty, express or implied, on the part of
CFSEI or any individual that the information is suitable for any general or specific purpose, and should not be used without consult-
ing with a qualified engineer, architect, or building designer. ANY INDIVIDUAL OR ENTITY MAKING USE OF THE IN-
FORMATION PROVIDED IN THIS PUBLICATION ASSUMES ALL RISKS AND LIABILITIES ARISING OR RE-
SULTING FROM SUCH USE. CFSEI believes that the information contained within this publication is in conformance with pre-
vailing engineering standards of practice. However, none of the information provided in this publication is intended to represent any
official position of CFSEI or to exclude the use and implementation of any other design or construction technique.
Copyright © 2020, Cold-Formed Steel Engineers Institute ● Washington, DC ● www.cfsei.org ● 800-79-STEEL

TECH NOTE B007-20 April 2020 6 Cold-Formed Steel Engineers Institute