CHAPTER, FOURTEEN SEWER PIPES 14-1 The pipe materials used to transport water (Chap. 5) may be used for sewage carriage as well. It is common, however, to employ less expensive materials such as clay, concrete, or plastic, depending upon the particular application. Cast-iron or steel pipes are used only under unusual loading conditions or for force mains in which the sewage is under pressure. PRECAST SEWERS 14-2 Clay Sewer Pipe Clay pipe is made of clay or shale which has been ground, wet, molded, dried, and burned in a kiln. Near the end of the burning process, sodium chloride is added to the kiln and vaporizes to form a hard waterproof glaze by reacting with the pipe surface. The burning itself produces a fusion, or vitrification, of the clay, making it very hard and dense. Vitrified glazed clay pipe is not subject to mineral or bacter- ial corrosion (Art. 14-12). Clay pipe is manufactured with integral bell and spigot ends fitted with poly- meric rings of various designs on the spigot end,’ with fitted fiberglass polyester sockets, and in a plain end configuration in which pipe are joined using a sleeve which fits over two abutting ends.? Clay pipe is manufactured to standard specifications of the ASTM? in diameters from 100 to 1070 mm (4 to 42 in). Tables 14-1 and 14-2 present the strength and dimensions of standard and extra- strength clay pipe.332 WATER SUPPLY AND SEWERAGE Table 14-1 Minimum crushing strength of clay pipe® (Reprinted by Permission of the American Society for Testing and Materials, Copyright 1977.) Extra strength Standard strength clay pipe clay pipe Nominal §=§ ——————_____. —_________ size, Ibfflinear kgfjlinear _tbf/linear___kgfjlinear in(mm) ft m ft m 4 (100) 2,000 2,980 1,200 1,790 6 (150) 2,000 2,980 1,200 1,790 8 (200) 2,200 3.270 1,400 2,080 10 (250) 2,400 3.570 1,600 2,380 12 G05) 2,600 3,870 1,800 2,680 15 (380) 2,900 4320 2,000 2.980 18 (460) 3,300 4910 2,200 3,270 21 (530) 3.850 5,730 2,400 3,570 24 (610) 4,400 6550 2,600 3,870 27 (690) 4,700 6990 2,800 4.170 30 (760) 5,000 7.440 3.300 4910 33 (840) * 5,500 8,190 3,600 5,360 36 (915) 6,000 8.930 4.000 5,950 39 (990) 6,600 9.820 42 (1,070) 7,000 10,410 Table 14-2 Dimensions of clay pipe? (Reprinted by Permission of the American Society for Testing and Materials, Copyright, 1977.) Laying length Limit of Inside diameter of minus Difference in Outside diameter of barrel, socket at } in ‘Nominal variation, length of two in (mm) (13 mm) above size, in/ft opposite sides, base, min, in (mm) — Min, ft (m) (mm/m) max, in (mm) Min Max in (mm)** 4 (100) 2(061) 400) #68) 4] (124) 5 (130) SB. (146) 6 (150) 2 (061) 40) 3 @) THs (179) 7#5 (189) 8 (208) 8 (200) 2 (0.61) 3 (20) ae (1) 9} (235) 93 (248) 104 (267) 10 (250) 2 (061) $20) (11) 11} (292) 12. (305) 123 (324) 12 30s) 2(061) $00) (M1) 132 (349) 14% (364) 15 (384) 15 (380) 3091) 400) 4 (13) 17% (437) 7B (452) 188 (473) 18 (460) 3091) 40) (13) 20$ (524) 217k (545) 224 (565) 21 (530) 3091) (20) % (14) 24b (613) 25 (635) 253. (657) 24 (610) 3091) 360) 4) 274 (699) 284 (724) 298 (746) 27 (690) 3,091) 3.80) § (16) 31 (787) 328 (816) 33. (838) 30 (760) 3091) 3030) § (16) 343 (873) 35$ (905) 364 (927) 33 (840) 3.091) 3 30) § (16) 37h (956) 3848 (989) 393 (1013) 36 (915) 3091) 300) (07) 40; (1035) 42 (1073) 434 (1099) 39 (990) 5 (152) 420) 2 (19) 45 (1152) 474 (1200) 484 (1232) 42 (1070) 5 (152) 330) 3 3) 48} (1232) 51 (1295) 524. (1333) wesSEWER PIPES 333 Table 14-2 (continued) Thickness of barrel Thickness of socket at —— _ Fin (13 mm) from Depth of socket™® Extra strength Standard strength outer end® Nominal size, Nominal, Min, Nominal, Min, Nominal, Min, Nominal, Min, in (mm) — in (mm) in (mm) in (mm) in (mm) in (mm) in (mm) in (mm) in (mm) 4 (100) 12 44) G8) § (16) (14) (13) ie (11) 7 (1) 20) 6 (150) 2457) 2 1) 07) fe (14) § (16) (14) $ (13) 7 (Il) 8 (200) 24 (64) 2857) § 22) (19) 3 (19) He (17) ¥ (14) (13) 10 (250) 2) (67) 28 (60) 1 G5) -§ 2) ¥ 22) (21) (16) (14) 12 20) 2$ (70) 24 (4) 1% GO) He 7) 1 5) 8 (24) (19) 38 (47) 15 (380) 233) 2467) 1} G8) GS) GI) 18 (460) 3 (76) 2 (70) 1g (48) (44). 1 G8) 21 (530) 34 (83) 3. (76) 28 (57) (51) 3 44) 34 (610) 38 (86) 34. (79) 24 (64) 28 (57) 2 G1) FB) 1 G8) OS) 27 (690) 34 (89) 34 (83) 2H (70) 24 (4) 28 (57) (54) E(B) Ae 40) 30 (760) 38 (92) 38 (86) 3 (76) 24 (70) 24 (64) 2$ (60) te (48) HE) 33 (840) 34 (05) 34 (89) 3 (83) 3 (76) 25 (67) 2H (64) 2 I) (HA) 36 (915) 4 (102) 34.5) 35 (89) 38 (83) 28 (70) 28 (67) 2 (52) 18) 39 (990) 4 (105) 34 (98) 32 (95) 38. (86) . 23 (70) 25 (67) 42 (1070) 44 (105) 33 (98) 4 (102) 34 (89) 2 (70) 28 (67) “The minimums for inside diameter of socket and depth of socket may be waived where such dimensions are conducive to the proper application of the joint. * Plain-end pipe shall conform to the dimensions in Table 14-2, except those dimensions pertaining to sockets, Pipe fittings are cast in the forms illustrated in Fig. 14-1. Other shapes may be made on special order. Wyes and tees are used for joining house sewers to common sewers. Stoppers are used in bell ends of pipe or fittings and fastened with mortar to close the pipe until connections are made later. A saddle is used when a hole is broken into the top of a sewer to allow a vertical connection to be made. Such a connection is also used when the common sewer is very deep. Slants are used when a hole is broken in the side of the sewer and the branch comes in at an angle and particularly if the sewer is of concrete or brick. Concrete or mortar is used liberally around the joint to prevent weakness and leakage. The trap pictured is a type sometimes used for main traps in house sewers. 14-3 Strength and Loading of Vitrified Clay Pipe The static load produced on buried pipe may be calculated using an equation of the form: W = CwB? (14-1) in which W is the load on the pipe per unit length, w is the weight of the fill material per unit volume, B is the width of the trench just below the top of the pipe334 WATER SUPPLY AND SEWERAGE @ (o) © @ @ # > G jk ¢ (hy wo G) &) Figure 14-1 Sections of bell-and-spigot fittings. (a) Y branch. (b) Double Y branch. (c) T branch. (4) Reducer. (e) Increaser. (f) Slant, used for making connections to brick and concrete sewers. (g) Short-radius 4 bend. Also obtainable as long-radius and + bend: (h) Y saddle. (i) T saddle, Saddles are ‘used where use of standard branches is impracticable. (j) Long-radius elbow or 4 bend. Also obtainable in short radius. (k) Running trap. (which for ease of joining is generally not less than one and one half pipe diameters plus 300 mm), and C is a coefficient which depends upon the depth of the trench, the character of the construction, and the fill material. For ordinary trench construction the value of C can be calculated from: 1—en2Kenie Cae (14-2) in which H is the depth of fill above the pipe, B is as identified above, K is the ratio of active lateral pressure to vertical pressure, and p’' is the coefficient of sliding friction between the fill material and the sides of the trench. The product Ky! ranges from 0.1 to 0.16 for most soils (Table 14-3). Graphical solutions of Eqs. (14-1) and (14-2) and of similar equations for other construction conditions are presented in references 5 and 6, Tabular listings gree nap maa Ee meEelCerlClcaerlCUcaeerlCUCese lle esc aes eel ees eer eeea" SEWER PIPES 335, Table 14.3 Value of the product Ky’ Soil type Maximum value of Ky Cohesionless granular material 0.192 Sand and gravel 0.165, Saturated top soil 0.150 Clay 0.130 Saturated clay 0.110 of aliowable loadings or depths of fill for the bedding conditions shown in Figs. 14-2 and 14-4 are also available in manufacturers’ publications. The weights of the materials commonly used for backfill are presented in Table 14-4, From these values the backfill load can be calculated using Eqs. (14-1) and (14-2). Table 14-4 Unit weight of backfill material Unit weight Material kg/m? Ib/ft? Dry sand 1600100 Ordinary sand 1840115 Wet sand 1920120 Damp clay 1920120 Saturated clay 2080130 Saturated topsoil 1840115 Sand and damp topsoil 1600100 Example A 610-mm (24-in) sewer is to be placed in an ordinary trench 3.66 m (12 ft) deep, 1.22 m (4 ft) wide which will be backfilled with wet clay weighing 1920 kg/m? (120 Ibyft®), Determine the load upon the pipe. SOLUTION From Eq, (14-2), 0,110(21(3.66/1.22) (2)(0.110) = 2.20 Cc From Eq, (14-1), W = 2.20(1920)(1.22)* = 6290 kg/m (4220 Ib/ft)336 WATER SUPPLY AND SEWERAGE - Class a 12in(300 _ mm) min 074 in LC100%mm) min F ace 8/4 aedaing | seve 0/4, ain moterial (00mm) min ESSinm) in ' am ~My mat cnc ra or concrete Note —Minimam gt of conrae croc or concrete SE Sin Sasa sc bn psentitrsciki bea E2emtocte ttn, sco 4pecet Admmnoeseouee, 3206S0cen ‘Al Conrete crodle A-2 Conzete arch toss 8 class € wens wy Gy veint300 Sty Y (2m 1300 Betta y [amie amie O Bere @ cvecing _M s 7 7 oer meters < seve. an Sesong UA ST acre ain 5 Pore (Beatin KTR 8 Frnt eins beading © Minimo bedaing loss 0 ood factor 1 Bett or couping note D. Uniorm pipe support Figure 14:2 Methods of bedding clay pipe and load factors applicable to strength.* (Reprinted by Permission of the American Society for Testing and Materials, Copyright 1977.) The type of bedding required may then be determined from Table 14-1 and Fig. 14-2. Standard strength clay pipe has a minimum crushing strength of 3870 kg/m. Applying a safety factor of 1.5 yields an allowable load of 2580 kg/m. The load factor for the pipe is thus 6290/2580 = 2.44. From Fig. 14-2 one may observe that only a concrete encasement (Class A) will provide this load factor. Alternately, extra strength pipe could be used with a crushing strength of 6550 kg/m which, through a similar calculation, provides vaseSA ‘SEWER PIPES 337 Table 14-5 Proportion of “long” superficial loads reaching pipe in trenches a — Ratio of depth to Sand and Saturated Damp yellow Saturated width damp topsoil topsoil ~— clay yellow clay 00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 os 085 086 088 089 10 0.72 075 07 0.80 15 061 0.64 0.67 0.72 20 052 oss 0.59 0.64 25 044 048 052 ost 30 037 041 04s 051 40 027 031 035 041 50 019 023, 027 03 60 ous 017 020 026 80 0.07 0.09 0.12 017 100 0.04 0.05 0.07 ou SS a load factor of 1.4. This, from Fig. 14-2, may be provided by any bedding other than Class D. The method of bedding the pipe is important in developing its strength, in assuring it is laid to grade, and in Preventing subsequent settlement. In areas with Poor soil conditions (heavy clays, peats, etc.) bedding is particularly critical. In some circumstances trenches may require sheeting and flooring or even pile sup- Port to prevent excessive settling or damage to the pipe.” In addition to the loads imposed by backfill, loads produced by building foundations, stockpiled bulk materials, traffic, and machinery may also reach buried sewers. The proportion of the load reaching the sewer may be estimated from Tables 14-5 and 14-6. Long loads (Table 14-5) are those longer than the trench width, such as stockpiled bulk materials. Short loads (Table 14-6) are those resulting from traffic, foundations at right angles to the trench, etc. In Table 14-6 the maximum values are for a length of load equal to the trench width. The minima are for a load length one-tenth the trench width. Example A sewer trench in damp clay, 1.22 m wide is crossed by a concrete tunnel carrying steam pipes. The tunnel is 0.91 m wide and weighs 1340 kg/m. Its bottom is 1.83 m above the top of the sewer. What load will be transmitted to the pipe? SoLuTION The weight of the tunnel per meter of pipe length covered is (1340/0.91) x 1.22 = 1796 kg/m. The ratio of depth to width is 1.83/1.22 = 1.5, From Table 14-6, the maximum proportion of the load reaching the pipe will be 0.51. Therefore the load reaching the pipe will be 0.51 x 1796 = 916 kg/m. :338. WATER SUPPLY AND SEWERAGE Table 14-6 Proportion of “short” superficial loads reaching pipe in trenches Sand and Saturated Saturated damp topsoil topsoil Damp clay clay Ratio of depth to width Max = Min Max Min. Max Min’ Max Min 00 100 1001.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 05 077012078013 0.79, 0.308103 10 059 002-061-0263. 0020.66 002 15 0460. 048 ost 0.54 20 035 038 040 O44 25 02700. 029 + 032 2 038 30 021 2 023 02. 0.29 40 012 . oa O16 a OUD 50 007 sae 009 0.10 013 60 0.04 00s 006 ee 0.08 8.0 0.02 02 0.03 0.04 100 0.01 2 00L 0.01 0.02 14-4 Plain Concrete Sewer Pipe Precast concrete pipe may be used for small storm drains and for sanitary sewers in locations where grades, temperatures, or sewage characteristics prevent corro- sion (Art. 14-12). It should not ‘be used for sanitary sewers in the southern United States where high temperatures and fiat sewer grades are common. Precast conerete pipe is manufactured to specifications of the ASTM.* For use in sanitary sewers, joints should be constructed using rubber gaskets Table 14-7 Physical and dimensional requirements for nonreinforced concrete pipe (Reprinted by Permission of the American Society for Testing and Materials, Copyright 1977.) Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Minimum Minimum Minimum strength, Strength, strength, Internal Minimum —kN/linear m, Minimum — KN/linear m, Minimum — kN/linear m, diameter, thickness of three-edge thickness of three-edge thickness of three-edge mm (in) wall, mm bearing wall,mm bearing wall, mm bearing 100 (4) 159) 219 190 292 222 350 150 (6) 159 219 19.0 292 25.4 350 200 (8) 19.0 219 222 292 28.6 350 250 (10) 222 23 254 29.2 318 350 310 (12) 254 263 349 328 445 379 380 (15) 31.8 292 413 379 416 422 460 (18) 381 32 508 438 512 481 530 (21) 445 35.0 512 481 69.9 362 610 24) 540 379 162 525 953 a2SEWER PIPES 339 (Fig. 14-3). Pipe manufactured for rubber gasket joints must be held to closer tolerances than ordinary concrete pipe,? and must be more carefully placed. Loads upon concrete pipe are calculated using the techniques of Art. 14-3. The dimensions and load-bearing capacity of concrete pipe are presented in Table 14-7. The pipe is manufactured in diameters from 100 to 610 mm (4 to 24 in) in three wall thickness classes and two strengths. Bedding classes for concrete pipe are shown in Fig. 14-4. These, it should be noted, while similar, are not identical to those shown in Fig. 14-2 for clay pipe. Allowable loads for various sizes of concrete pipe as a function of strength and bedding are presented in Table 14-8. Joints for use in storm sewers may be made as in sanitary sewers, of bitu- minous material, or of cement in the form of mortar, neat cement, or grout (Fig. 14-3). Procedures for forming these joints are presented in reference 6. 14-5 Reinforced Concrete Sewer Pipe Precast concrete pipe in diameters larger than 610 mm (24 in) is reinforced. Rein- forcing can also be obtained in smaller sizes. The pipe is manufactured in sizes from 305 to 4570 mm (12 to 180 in). Joints are either bell and spigot or tongue and groove from 305 to 760 mm and tongue and groove above that size. Table 14-8 Supporting strength of concrete pipe” per linear foot of pipe in thousands of pounds (kips) Standard strength Extra strength concrete sewer pipe concrete sewer pipe ASTM C14 ci4 spec. no, Safety factor = 1.5 Safety factor = 1.5 6 Og Lt 15 200-2540 8 o9 130 6 815 20 25° 40 10 10 14 4 15, 20 25° 40 2 115 0:16 2202845 15 1200172: 5-20-28 33S 18 14 20 10 240330 4266 2 16 22 23 28 38 49° «78 4 1724 29° 40 «51-80 * Supporting strengths shown in table are for concrete pipe meeting ASTM specifications (3-edge bearing test) and include safety and bedding factors as indicated. (kips/ft x 14.6 = KN/m, in x 25.4 = mm)A —Typical cross sections of joints with mortar or mastic packing Wa Z Mortar packing Mastic packing B _—Typical cross sections of basic compression type rubber gasket joints C — —Typical cross sections of opposing shoulder type joint with O-ring gasket D = —Typical cross section of spigot groove type joint with O-ring gasket Figure 143 Typical concrete pipe joints.* (Courtesy American Concrete Pipe Association.) 3409 2did sjasoued 10} spoyrow Suippog. p-p1 aun3uy pa Pa a ssvio 9 ssvi9342. WATER SUPPLY AND SEWERAGE or wih grout ‘Anchorage Estee! bond > Subaquecus joint for concrete pipe outfall Nomina toying tength . Typicel cross section of stee! end ring joint with spigot groove ond O-ring gosket Figure 145 Reinforced concrete pipe joints. (Courtesy Portland Cement Association and American Concrete Pipe Association.)Table 14-9 Design loads for reinforced concrete pipe!” (Reprinted by Permission of the American Society for Testing and Materials, Copyright 197.) SSS Design load To produce a 0.25-mm crack Ultimate Class N/m per mm dia Ib/ft per in dia_-N/m per mm dia _Ib/ft per in dia I 383 800 S74 1200 u 479 1000 18 1500 rit 64.6 1350 958 2000 Vv 958 2000 1440 3000 v 144.0 3000 180.0 3750 Table 14-10 Dimensions of reinforced concrete pipe® Wall thickness, mm (in) Internal diameter, $< mm (in) Wall A Wall B Wall C 310 (12) 46 (1) st Q) 380. (13) 47 (1) 57 (24) 460 (18) SI Q) 6 (2h) 330, (21) 37 Qh 70 (23) 610 (24) 6 Qh) 6 (3) 95 (33 690. (27) 66 (28) 83 (4) 101) 760 (30) 70 (23) 89 (4) 108 (48) 840 (33) 2B QB 95 G3) 14 (at) 910 (36) 76 (3) 101 (4) 120 (43) 1070 (42) 89 GB) 1s (4) 13054) 1220 (48) 101 (4) 127 (5) 146 (53) 1370 (54) 1d 4 140, (54) 159 (64) 1520 (60) 127 (5) 152.) 1m (6) 1680 (66) 140 (51) 165 (64) 84 (71) 1830 (72) 152 (6) 178 (1) 197 (72) 1980 (78) 165 (68) 190 (73)——209 (83) 2130 (84) 178 (7) 203 (8) 222 (83) 2290 (90) 190 (74) 216 (88) 235. (94) 2440 (96) 203 (8) 29 (9) 248. (93) 2590 (102) 216 (83) 241. (94) 260 (108) 2740 (108) 29 (9) 254 (10) 273 (103) 2900 (114) 241 (04) 3050 (120) 254 (10) 3200 (126) 267 (104) 3350 (132) 279 (11) 3500 (138) 292 (11) 3650 (144) 308 (12) 3800 (150) 318 (124) 3960 (156) 330 (13) 4110 (162) 343 (133) 4270 (168) 356 (14) 4420 (174) 368 (144) 4570 (180) 381 (15) * Not all sizes are available in all classes. (See Table 14-11 and references 5, 6, and 10)(wu = ‘pateorpur se ssoroey Suippaq pur Arapes apnjaut pu (1591 BuUe2q 2Bpo-¢) suoneaytads WY Buntzow adid ayasou0d Joy 248 2jqe Ut Us 'W/NA = 9'PL x W/sd) muoddns , ons (uu 919 2did 29m: ql (sdry) spunod yo spuesnowp ut adid jo 3005 svauy sad , ,adid ayas9u09 jo yyBuo.s Supsoddng [I-p1 qu =\ SEWER PIPES 345 Joints are made by mortaring the cleaned and wetted tongue and groove before assembly or by mechanical or O-ring joints like those shown in Fig. 14-5. Reinforced concrete pipe is made in five classes with two wall thicknesses in class I and three wall thicknesses in the other four classes. Strength is based upon either the load which produces a 0.25-mm (0.1-in) crack, or the ultimate load. The design load for the different classes is presented in Table 14-9. Dimensions are given in Table 14-10. Allowable design loads are shown in Table 14-11. Special fittings are seldom used with reinforced concrete pipe. In large sizes curves are made by deflecting the joints and then filling the resulting opening with poured concrete. Connections are made by cutting an opening and mortaring the smaller line to the larger. If reinforced concrete pipe is used to convey untreated sanitary sewage it may be subject to corrosion in the same fashion as plain concrete pipe. Large concrete sewers may be lined in place with corrosion-resistant material (Art. 14-12). Outfall lines carrying treated sewage are unlikely to be subject to corrosion save in very unusual circumstances. 14-6 Asbestos Cement Pipe Asbestos cement pipe is manufactured in the sizes and classes shown in Table 14-121! The load upon this pipe may be calculated as for other rigid pipe (Art. 14-3). Joints are made using a sleeve and ring arrangement which slips over Table 14-12 Minimum crushing loads for asbestos cement pipe’! (Reprinted by Permission of the American Society for Testing and Materials, Copyright 1977.) Crushing strength per lineal foot, Nominal Ibf (kN/m) size —_———_—_——. in(mm) Class 100 Class 150 Class 200 44 (102) 4,100 (59.8) 5,400 (78.8) 8,700 (1269) 6 (152) 4,000 (58.4) 5,400 (78.8) 9,000 (131.3) 8 (203) 4,000 (58.4) 5,500 (80.2) 9,300 (135.8) 10 (254) 4,400 (64.2) 7,000 (102.1) 11,000 (160.5) 12 (304) 5,200 (75.8) 7,600 (110.8) 11,800 (1723) 14 (356) 5,200 (75.8) 8,600. (125.5) 13,500 (197.1) 16 (406) 5,800 (84.6) 9,200 (134.2) 15,400 (224.8) 18 (457) 6,500 (94.8) 10,100 (147.4) 17,400 (254.0) 20 (508) 7,100 (103.6) 10,900 (159.0) 19,400 (283.2) 24 (610) 8,100 (118.2) 12,700 (185.3) 22,600 (329.9) 30 (762) 9,700 (141.5) 15,900 (231.9) 28,400 (414.6) 36 (914) 11,200 (163.4) 19,600 (285.9) 33,800 (493.5)346 WATER SUPPLY AND SEWERAGE the ends of the pipe which are somewhat reduced in diameter and grooved to retain the rubber ring.!? Wyes and tees are made. Asbestos cement is subject to the corrosion mechanism common to sanitary sewers and may be undesirable for that reason. 14-7 Plastic Truss Pipe Plastic truss pipe (Fig. 14-6) consists of an extruded shell with integral diagonal stiffeners between the inner and outer membranes. The space between the inner and outer surfaces is filled with lightweight concrete, which increases the pipe stiffness. The pipe sections are joined by chemical welding of the parent ABS material which yields, in effect, a continuous pipe. Miscellaneous fittings are avail- able to permit connection to household sewers made of clay, solid plastic, asbestos cement, impregnated fiber, etc. The pipe is manufactured only in sizes of 200 to 380 mm (8 to 15 in)? Plastic truss pipe is not rated in the same fashion as concrete or clay pipe. The manufacturer claims that its flexibility makes the three-point bearing test mean- ingless, since it can deform sufficiently to develop lateral support when in place. Design procedures are available in the manufacturer's literature. The major\ SEWER PIPES 347 advantages of this pipe are its watertightness and its ability to undergo differential settling without failure."* Its long-term durability and resistance to corrosion if the inner surface were to be damaged, can only be established by the passage of time. Truss pipe has been in use since 1965 14-8 Other Sewer Materials Bituminized fiber pipe is manufactured in small sizes and is primarily used for house sewers. Solid wall plastic pipe is manufactured in sizes from 100 to 305 mm (4 to 12 in) under one specification," and in sizes from 100 to 380 mm (4 to 15 in) under another."® The pipe is made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) in either case. The difference between the two specifications is dimensional—wall thickness, etc. Solid wall plastic pipe may be used alone, in conjunction with plastic truss pipe, and in vacuum and pressurized collection systems (Art. 16-17, 16-18). Like plastic truss pipe, the cemented joints tend to be virtually watertight. Cast or ductile iron is used in force mains and small outfall lines. It may also be employed where sewers are constructed above the ground surface and in in- verted siphons. Lines within sewage treatment plants are often constructed of iron. Joints are made in the same fashion as in water distribution systems Corrugated metal pipe is sometimes used for storm sewers. It may be gal- vanized, coated with bituminous material, or coated with asbestos. Corrugated metal pipe sections are available in many thicknesses and cross-sections. Their primary use is in roadway drainage. 14-9 Infiltration and Sewer Joints All water which enters a sewer is likely to remain in it and pass through whatever pumping and treatment units are incorporated in the system. Since both pumping and treatment are expensive it may be economical to spend more upon the sewer to reduce the possibility of infiltration. The cost of treating wastewater depends upon the plant size and the actual processes employed, anid ranges from $0.013 to 0.066/m: ($0.05 to 0.25/1000 gal). The annual cost of treating infiltration can be calculated from: AC. =I xd x Lx 365 x UC. (14-3) the annual cost of treating infiltration the diameter of the line its length infiltration per unit diameter per unit length per day, and unit cost of waste treatment The annual cost per kilometer of sewer could be as much as $1000. The climination of this flow could justify an additional capital investment of $10,000/km ($16,000/mi) or more, depending upon the cost of money.348 WATER SUPPLY AND SEWERAGE Pumping costs depend upon the total flow, the head against which the flow is Pumped, and the cost of power. For typical pumping conditions the cost of transporting infiltration might be as much as $300/km per year, justifying a capital investment of $3000/km ($4800/mi). The costs listed above are probable maxima, but indicate the savings possible through careful design, construction, and main- tenance of a sewer system. SEWERS BUILT IN PLACE 14-10 When the required sewer size exceeds that which can be economically precast and transported to the site, cast in place sewers are used. Specially designed sections may also be required to clear obstacles in the sewer path. 14-11 Design of Concrete Sewers Large concrete sewers may be analyzed as closed rings or fixed arches using the techniques of structural design.'’ For small diameters or spans, empirical designs may be used since theoretical calculations lead to thicknesses too small for ordin- ary construction techniques. Reinforced concrete arches are often constructed with the thickness of the crown equal to 7s the span with a minimum of 125 mm (5 in). For plain concrete the thickness might be y the span with the same minimum. The thickness of the invert is 25 mm (1 in) greater than the crown, and the haunches two to three times the crown thickness. The shape of the sewer depends upon hydraulic considerations, construction conditions, and available space. The lower surface is generally curved to concen- trate low flows and maintain self-cleansing velocities. Figure 14-7 shows some typical sewer shapes. The sewer must be designed to conform to the bearing capacity of the founda- tion material. This may require placing a sub-base of crushed stone or gravel or, in some cases, piles. The bottom should be excavated to conform to the invert of the sewer, which is usually placed immediately following excavation. The invert should be consolidated by vibration and troweled to a smooth finish. The concrete is usually placed in two or more lifts with waterstops at con- struction joints. For large sections the invert, walls, and arch may be constructed in separate pours. When a constant sewer cross section is maintained for some distance, collapsible steel forms may be used to form the arch. 14-12 Corrosion of Sewers Organic matter is likely to accumulate in sanitary sewer lines as a result of deposition at low flow velocities or coagulation of grease at the water surface. This material will undergo decomposition and, under the conditions existing in mostSEWER PIPES 349 _Thapaverse reds Kf" 49, 12%. toe, Section in Earth — Section in Rock Circular and inverted egg, Louisville. Circular section in earth is suitable for soft material. Figure 14-7 Sewer shapes. (ft x 0.305 = m, in-x 25.4 = mm.)350 WATER SUPPLY AND SEWERAGE cots yoru Enix 48987 F122 prix, ‘oF bettom slob Figure 14-7 (continued) stings Foot BFSEWER PIPES 351 ‘Horseshoe shape on piles. Pile support is necessary in very soft material. Figure 14-7 (continued) sanitary sewers, the breakdown of organic matter will be accompanied by bacter- ial reduction of sulfates originally present in the waste matter or water. ‘The anaerobic oxidation of complex organics is accompanied by formation of short chain fatty acids which may depress the pH in the sewer. The combination of sulfate reduction and low pH can produce free hydrogen sulfide in the air spac= of the sewer. The hydrogen sulfide in the sewer atmosphere may redissolve in condensed moisture at the sewer crown (Fig. 14-8) where the bacterium thiobacillus'® can reoxidize it to sulfuric acid. In sewers made of acid soluble materials such as concrete, iron, or steel, this acid formation can lead to destruction of the crown and failure of the sewer. The problem is aggravated by warm temperatures and flat sewer grades which produce low velocities and long retention times. Extensive damage to concrete sewers has. occurred in the Gulf Coast region where both conditions exist. ‘Sewer corrosion has been combatted by chlorination, forced ventilation, and lining with inert materials. Chlorination halts biological action, at least tem- porarily. Forced ventilation reduces crown condensation, strips HS from the atmosphere of the sewer, and may provide sufficient oxygen in solution to halt anaerobic action. ‘Sewers which flow full and outfall lines carrying sewage treated to secondary standards do not provide the necessary conditions for crown corrosion. Ordinary sewer lines are normally made of vitrified clay since this is the only material which has been proven by long service to be resistant to corrosion. In new construction, particularly where foundation conditions are poor or the groundwater table high,352 WATER SUPPLY AND SEWERAGE Condensation woler (Thiobocitus) Hp S+ 0, >H,: Figure 14-8 Schematic diagram of sewer corrosion. solid wall plastic or plastic truss pipe should be considered for pipe 380 mm (15 in) or less in diameter. Iron, concrete, and asbestos cement pipe are used for force mains and outfall lines. Where sewer sizes larger than 1070 mm (42 in) are required, concrete is used. If corrosion is anticipated the sewer may be cast with an integral lining or be lined in place with plastic, clay tile, or asphaltic compounds. Joints are made with plastic, hot tar, or mastic (Fig. 14-3). PROBLEMS 141 A 250-mm clay sewer is to be placed in a trench 5 m deep. The backfill material is damp clay Weighing 1920 kg/m”. Determine the minimum required width of the trench at the top of the pipe and the total load per unit length. Using a factor of safety of 1.5, what type of bedding is required? 342 A200-mm clay sewer is to be buried 3 m deep in damp topsoil weighing 1600 kg/m? in a trench of minimum width. A building foundation 300 mm wide crosses the trench at right angles. It has a load ‘of 3000 kg/m and bears 25 m above the pipe. Determine the load per unit length of sewer in the ditch and under the foundation. 143 A precast reinforced concrete sewer 1220 mm in dia is buried under a m cover (to the top of the Pipe)in a trench 2m wide. Consider the safe load to be that which produces a 0.25-mm crack modified by a factor of safety of 1.25, Determine the type of bedding and class of pipe to be specified. REFERENCES 1. Standard Specification for Compression Joints for Vitrified Clay Bell-and-Spigot Pipe,” (C-425), American Society for Testing Materials, Philadelphia, 2, “Standard Specification for Compression Couplings for Vitrified Clay Plain End Pipe,” (C-594), American Society for Testing Materials, Philadelphia. 3. "Standard Specification for Extra Strength and Standard Strength Clay Pipe and Perforated Clay Pipe,” (C-700), American Society for Testing Materials, Philadelphia.10, ir 12, 13, 14, 15, 16. 17. 18, SEWER PIPES 353 “Standard Recommended Practice for Installing Vitrified Clay Sewer Pipe,” (C-12), American Society for Testing Materials, Philadelphia. Concrete Pipe Design Manual, American Concrete Pipe Association, Arlington, Va., 1970. Design and Construction of Concrete Sewers, Portland Cement Association, Chicago, 1968, |. Mayer, John K., et al: Sewer Bedding and Infiltration—Gulf Coast Area. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1972 . “Standard Specification for Concrete Sewer, Storm Drain, and Culvert Pipe,” (C-14), American Society for Testing Materials, Philadelphia. “Standard Specification for Joints for Circular Concrete Sewer and Culvert Pipe, Using Flexible Watertight, Rubber-Type Gaskets,” (C-443), American Society for Testing Materials, Philadelphia. “Standard Specification for Reinforced Concrete Culvert, Storm Drain, and Sewer Pipe,” (C-76}, American Society for Testing Materials, Philadelphia. “Standard Specification for Asbestos-Cement Pressure Pipe,” (C-296), American Society for Testing Materials, Philadelphia. “Standard Specification for Rubber Rings for Asbestos Cement Pipe,” (D-1869), American Society for Testing Materials, Philadelphia. “Standard Specification for Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) Composite Sewer Pipe.” (D-2680), American Society for Testing Materials, Philadelphia. “Standard Recommended Practice for Underground Installation of Flexible Thermoplastic Sewer Pipe,” (D-2321), American Society for Testing Materials, Philadelphia. “Standard Specification for Type PSP Poly (VinylChloride) (PVC) Sewer Pipe and Fittings,” (D-3033), American Society for Testing Materials, Philadelphi “Standard Specification for Type PSM Poly (VinylChloride) (PVC) Sewer Pipe and Fittings,” (D-3034), American Society for Testing Materials, Philadelphia. Analysis of Arches, Rigid Frames, and Sewer Sections, Portland Cement Association, Chicago. McKinney, R. E.: Microbiology for Sanitary Engineers, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1962.