Acknowledgements

I would like to thank my wife

Digna, for her unfaltering support and for believing in me, even in times
where I doubted myself. My beautiful wife was the true force behind making this
book a reality. She was always by my side every step of the way pushing and
motivating me. Her unconditional love is what catapulted me into doing things
that I would have only imagined...and writing this book was one of those things.

I would also like to thank my mother Orquidea, for constantly letting me

know that I could accomplish great things and encouraged me to move forward.
My mother has always believed in me and also provided me with unconditional
love. She has always been present when I’ve needed her and has given me the
encouragement to believe in myself and to never look back at what was, but
rather look forward at what can be. This she did despite the headaches I gave
her and sometimes still do. She has always sacrificed her own livelihood to give
me an opportunity of a better future.

This book is dedicated to the two wonderful ladies in my life whom without,
this book would not have been possible. - Laz

U.S. Copyright ©

2014

ISBN-13: 978-1499373929

ISBN-10: 1499373929

Introduction

I’m sure some of you are somewhat perplexed and asking “ Laz, why are you
writing a book on IP’s when so many books and websites exist on the subject?”
Well, the answer is simple, I want to get rid of any web of confusion you may
have on this particular

subject.

IP’s have been explained in so many ways that it would take me hundreds of
chapters to try and unravel that which has been so unnecessarily

raveled…and I’m not about to go through all that work, mainly because I
don’t want to.

So, after much thought, I decided to put it down in plain text and explain my
method, which is the simplest and easiest method available. “ But w hy Laz?”
you might ask. Well, I wanted you to understand…wait! Let me rephrase that…“
I needed you to understand ” everything that has to do with IP’s. After all, they
don’t call me “ The IP Master” for nothing.

Hopefully, this book will be the one that will finally fill in all those missing
gaps you may have about this much misunderstood subject. However, if this is
the first time you read a book on IP’s, then you should be pre-
 warned; you should expect to gain great understanding and a strong
foundation of the IP protocol when you read this book; both on IPv4 and IPv6 .
So, if this is what you are hoping to achieve, I believe you have come to the right
place.

My IP book will not only help you with the IP part of your Cisco
certification, but it will also help you in passing any test you may take in dealing
with this subject matter. At the very least, it will let you impress your boss or co-
workers when you start subnetting in your head…or fingers. Yes! This book will
let you do just that.

I’ve been told that besides “ Networking ” many other fields within the scope
of IT and Technology need to deal with IP’s as well. My sincere goal is for you
to carry the knowledge you will have learned here and have the ability to transfer
it onto your current or future work environment; making you a greater asset to
any institution and/or corporation.

Like I mentioned before, this book is written in a very simplistic and easy to
understand manner (You will NOT find any IP book in the market today that is
easier, straightforward, more clear-cut and precise than this one!). I call the
process of understanding IP’s “ Journeys ”, since in my view, this is an
adventurous trek to finally reach full comprehension and demystify the whole
concept surrounding IP’s.

Our first journey will begin with the basics of IPv4. Then, we will work our
way into addressing end-devices, switches & routers. From there, we will
maneuver our way slowly into the subnetting of an IP Address; both class-full
and class-less . This book will then take you into the

summarization part of IPv4; explaining the importance of it and of course,

how to summarize networks.

We will then round off IPv4 with wildcard masking; which you normally use
in configuring OSPF, NAT and of course, your access-list.

If you’re thinking “ Laz, it’s just too much information man! ” don’t worry, I
have your back on this one ;) In this book I will explain all these topics
thoroughly. I will break it down for you in a way that you will have no choice
than to understand and comprehend the material. So, expect to see plenty of
illustrations and practices within. This, I have done, so you can
 gain a full understanding of the subject as discussed herein.

Once we are done with the IPv4 portion of the book, we will dive into the
now infamous IPv6 protocol… yes , finally…what we’ve all been waiting for!!!
This, to me, is extremely exiting…I feel like a kid contemplating my favorite
candy! By now you’re probably shacking your head aren’t you? But I assure you
that you will learn its terminology, its format, the diverse sections of it, and learn
about the different types of addresses that exist within IPv6 and the benefits that
it brings to the world. And yes…how can we forget about the transition

mechanisms that this protocol has to offer as well?

The way I see it, no matter how bad we may want to desperately transition to
IPv6 ( at least I do ); we will still be dealing with IPv4 and will continue to do so
for quite a while into the future. So, there is no going around it guys and gals, we
cannot cut corners here.

We have to learn how to configure both protocols so they can work and co-
exist with each other for some time to come. So, don’t hold your breath for IPv4
to go away any time soon.

Now tell me…are you as excited as I am? This is truly my favorite subject
and I hope it comes across in this book.

But let’s move on ( I tend to digress a bit, and you’ll find this out throughout
the book. ); once you acquire a good understanding of the terminology and how
to identify a proper IPv6 address, we will finally get to the fun part of

SUBNETTING! ”Doc you are insane ! ” ... Nope ! I assure you that you will
be subnetting in IPv6 and you will not be using any complicated formulas or any
type of physics to do it.

Those of you that know me, should know by now that it is not for me, and I
believe or hope, that it’s not for you either; otherwise, why get this book?

Let me start by confessing something…I don’t like math and never have, and
no one is going to convince me that the complicated formulas that are currently
used are easier than the method I’m about to show you in this book.

Now, if you DO like math and love to work with formulas, then knock
yourself out. Easy is not for everyone you know. But for those like myself, that
are always looking to reach the correct answer in the fastest and simplest of
forms, then this is the book for you.

Yes, we all know that a calculator is faster and you don’t have to think… but
in a testing environment, you are NOT allowed to use one. Please, take my word
for it. You will be removed from a testing site if you try to take a calculator…
trust me on this. I have perfected this method so that I can make life easier for
you.

This is the only method where you will be able to do any IP addressing and
subnetting in your head and therefore have a greater chance to pass your CCNA
certification exam. After all, that is the goal isn’t it?

You should know by now that by the time you finish this book, you will be
doing IP addressing in your head; and I repeat…without a calculator! After all,
this is mainly intended to take a certification exam. Once you get your
certification and/or pass your exam, then using a calculator won’t be an issue.
Go right ahead…use a calculator all day long; in fact, I encourage you to use a
calculator to verify what you will have learned here.

Always remember to “ trust but verify ”. After all, you did purchase this
book for a reason didn’t you?

More than likely you need this information to be able to pass a certification,
test or exam or maybe you just feel the need to impress your boss or you need
this information to be able to answer any IP questions they may ask when going
to a job interview.

You certainly didn’t get this book because you had time to spare and wanted
to donate money to a good cause…because if you did…I THANK YOU!

For those that are still in doubt and think that you can take a calculator to a
testing site, I dare you to walk in to a Pearson Vu center with calculator in hand.
See how far you’ll get. I’m here to tell you that this book will give you the
confidence to answer any questions

on IP’s by counting with your fingers… or toes for that matter…oh

wait!...that’s only for IPv4 ( sorry for that ). It’s a slightly different story when it
comes to IPv6. There, you will definitely need pen & paper, after all it is a 128
bit address.

WOW! We went from 32 to 128 bit address; that was quite a drastic jump
wasn’t it, but a much needed one at that. Who would have thought that we would
now have smart refrigerators that would need an IP address? Technology is great
and I love it!

Finally we will have some fun with Hex conversions…did I say FUN? Yes I
did ! It’s just a “good to know” topic; but seriously, we do need to get
comfortable working with Hex numbers since IPv6 is all in hex. Hold on now…
don’t start pulling your hair out yet, this, of course, is for those unlike myself
that have hair, because I will teach you how to use the same concepts we use in
IPv4 and transfer it to the new IPv6 protocol.

This is the future guys & gals, and it is here to stay, so we might as well get
comfortable with it.

With all this said; sit back, relax and get ready to begin a journey into IP’s. It
will be a grand adventure in learning and an exciting one as well… Yes! I said “
exciting ” because learning should be all those things; FUN, EXCITING and
MEMORABLE! Why memorable? Well, some stuff you will have to commit to
memory, just like you did when you had to memorize the alphabet or your time
tables. It’s been said “ If it was easy, then everyone would do it ”.

Another reason why I also call it memorable, is because once you see for
yourself how easy it is, you will never forget it and think back and laugh

at the times that you thought you would not be able to understand IP’s….silly
you.

However, beware! Because, once you’ve reached the end of this journey, you
will have found true enlightenment on this subject. The information I will give
you here is one that you will carry

with you for the rest of your life ( if anything, just try NOT to lose this book
and carry it with you for the rest of your life! ). It will also be a transformational
experience. Because, from this time forward you will look at IP’s in a different
light and will wonder “ how in the world did I survive without this knowledge?
Why would anyone explain this in any other way? And finally, “why would
anyone try to sabotage my understanding of IP’s?” By the end of this book, IP’s
will become second nature to you. The fear you had when dealing with IP’s will
evaporate into thin air and you will no longer have any doubts about tackling an
IP related problem. It will be just like riding a bike! ( This of course is meant for
those of you that know how to ride a bike – I myself learnt at the age of 15.
Hey…it’s better late than never ).

But enough said! I truly hope you enjoy these journeys “ since there will be
more than one ” as much as I will enjoy being your guide.

IPv4

Terminology

When we speak of the IP protocol, we usually hear words like “ TCP/IP

model ”; which we should know by now is the four layer model developed by
the Department of Defense (DoD) to ensure that there’s communication between
source and destination, “ wherever that maybe ”, would always be possible, even
if WW3 where to happen!

Within this model there are certain terms or words which we need to be
familiarized with; words such as Telnet, SSH, FTP, TFTP, SNMP, HTTP, HTTPS,
NTP, DNS, DHCP/BootP and so on. These are some of the most common “
Protocols ” we should know right off the top of our heads. We need to know
what they are used for and the port numbers they use to send information back &
forth.

This book is solely dedicated to the understanding of the Internet Protocol

(IP) , which sits on the TCP/IP model’s Internet layer. This is where all the other
protocols also exist! They were all created for the sole purpose of supporting this
very important protocol… hint-hint, the one this book is about. Without the IP
protocol, communication would set us back to the dark ages…thank goodness
for technology. Welcome to the 21 st century Ladies and Gentlemen!

Today’s devices have what we call software or logical addresses ( The words
are used interchangeably) . We normally call this what?…that’s right!, an “IP
address”. These addresses, in conjunction with either static or

dynamic routing, help create the pathways to the destinations we are trying
to get to. We are then able to see these pathways in our routers through our
routing tables.

In the IPv4 world, the IP address is broken up into two parts; the network
side and the host side. What determines how these two parts are divided is
something called “the subnet mask” . The subnet mask is the KEY to answering
all your questions when it comes to IPv4…but I digress. By the way, I love
analogies! So excuse me if I use some of them in this book. I only do it to give
you a better understanding and/or to help you visualize the problem we are
tackling. So, let’s make this analogy for example; one part of the address, “the
network side”, is where you live or reside, this is like your neighborhood. The
other part of the address, the host side, is just like your actual house address or “
host address ”… EUREKA...this is you!. This is the part that defines who you
are in a particular network ( or neighborhood if you will ). But keep in mind that
in reality, it is the subnet mask, NOT the “ Class of Address ”, that defines which
network you belong to and who you are within that network.

Now before we go any further, I have reached the point where I have no
choice but to show you a figure of the IP header. This is to give you a visual
picture of what the IP protocol has to go through every time someone sends a
message to a certain destination. But I am not going to get jiggy with it since
what I’m striving for is simply for you to visualize it and be somewhat familiar
with it, if and when it ever comes up in an exam. Let’s just hope it doesn’t. But
you will be prepared if it does . There’s a quote that I love that says more or less
the following: “ it is better to be prepared if a situation arises, then for a
situation to arise and not be prepared”. Food for thought!

The diagram below is what an IP header carries with it going across a

network.

Total length

Fragmented

offset (13)

checksum
 Well, here you go! I am NO “ da Vinc i”. But hey,…close enough for
government work.

One important protocol that uses IP’s; for the sole purpose of letting us know
if there are problems on the network, is the “Internet Control Message Protocol”
or (ICMP). We use it on a daily basis when we ping and we get “Destination

Unreachable” or “Request Timeout”. ICMP is basically a

management/messaging protocol that provides hosts with information about

network problems and are

encapsulated within an IP datagram. With the awakening of the IPv6

protocol, ICMP has been revamped, to include a lot more features, such as;
Neighbor Acknowledgement , Neighbor Solicitation , Router Acknowledgement
and Router Solicitation as well as Neighbor Discovery .

Another trouble shooting command that we use on a daily basis that also
uses IP’s is TRACERT on Windows or TRACEROUTE on the routers. These
commands will go through the pathway, whether created statically or
dynamically, and lets us know where a problem is occurring.
 The last thing I’m going to talk about within the terminology section is about
the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP).

In IPv4, ARP finds the hardware address of a known IP address. How does
that happen? you might ask. Well, it sends out an ARP broadcast. When a
request is made looking for a destination host, it is basically saying “Hey! Who
is the owner of this IP address?” That particular machine replies with its
hardware address or its MAC address in order to complete the frame and voila!
That’s when communication takes place. Are you exited yet?

IMPORTANT! ARP only happens in Ethernet segments. Let’s look at the

following illustration as an example of ARP.

If host A would ping host B for the first time, an ARP request would go from
Host A to R1’s F0/0 interface to learn the MAC address of that interface. Once
you have the MAC address of the F0/0 interface of the router, the packet will
then be able to get to R1 from host A. At that time R1 would discard any layer 2
information, query its routing table and make a routing decision based on that
routing table on where to send that packet to. Since R1 and R2 are connected
using Ethernet, another ARP needs to occur.

R1 would send an ARP request to R2 to acquire the f0/0 MAC address and
once it does it can then send the frame. The same process happens on R2 trying
to get to host B. The router

must know the MAC of the PC in order to complete the packet and be able to
send the data to it.
 Lucky for us that in IPv6, there is no longer a need for ARP broadcast,
because we now have neighbor discovery using link local addresses. But I’m
digressing again . We will get there soon enough.

IPv4 Hierarchical Addressing

An IPv4 address is a 32 bit dotted decimal address. It is divided into 4

separate sections called “Octets” and they are separated by a decimal. Why these
sections are called octets? Let’s

go back to the basics shall we? Remember that it takes 8 bits to create a byte;
therefore, 8 bits X 4 octets would equals a 32 bit address in IPv4.

Below are examples of what an IPv4 address looks like in its different
formats.

The reason why an IP address is called Hierarchical or Structured is due to

the fact that instead of looking at the entire 32 bit address as a unique identifier
of an individual host; the address is broken down into networks, subnet-work
addresses and host addresses. You could also consider the broadcast address as
another part of the address.

If we were to have an address scheme where the entire address would be the
“ Unique Identifier ” of a host, then the router would need to have each and
every address that exists in their routing table. That would certainly not be
feasible, and in turn, routing would literally be

impossible. …this is a NO-NO! Network Address

Let’s move on to the topic of the “ Network Address”. This identifies the
neighborhood you live in ( I’m saying this for visualization purposes only ).
When we create “networks”, each network obviously has nodes ( the devices
connected directly into the network ). All those nodes share that same network
address. This is so they can know what neighborhood they reside in. Below, I
will give you an example.

Example: 192.168.1.0

255.255.255.0

This particular address, because of its SUBNETMASK, will have all hosts
residing in the 192.168.1.0 network. If however, the

SUBNETMASK would change, let us say… to a 255.255.255.248 , then the

network”- don’t worry, this will be explained later ).

Remember that an IPv4 address has two parts; the “ network ” portion and
the “ host ” portion. Again, let’s use the address above as an example;

192.168.1.100 255.255.255.0 . The first 3 Octets of the address 192.168.1 is

the network portion; the .100 would be the host portion. This would then identify
that unique individual host on the network.

IPv4 Address Classes & Types

Classes of Address Oh boy! Here we go… the topic

that just about everyone gets into a freaking frenzy when I mention it. For
some odd reason, every time I discuss the “ Classes ” of IP addresses, the hordes
get into an insane warpath and want my head on a platter ( and not a silver one
at that ). “ There are no such things as classes anymore Laz!” they hurl at me, as
if they could, if they had spears, attempt to penetrate by very being. Sorry for
that Spartacus

moment guys and gals, but I get carried away sometimes.

Going to what I was saying earlier, “ I’m really sorry that I have to prove
wrong those that are incredulous that I would dare talk about classes. ” I am
sorry to disappoint many of you, but you do need to know about “classes” of IP
addresses up until the time comes when we will no longer use IPv4. However,
that time has not yet arrived! Therefore, my job and responsibility is to explain
to you what and how the classes of addresses work and why.

Once we can fully implement IPv6 though, that’s when things will take on a
different twist. But until such a time arrives, we will have to know the classes of
addresses and what they look like. So, without further ado, here we go…..

The classes of address are as follows: Class “ A ”, “ B ”, “ C ”, “ D ” and “ E

”. Each one of these classes has their own specific range, this is to include a
default mask and a default number of host. Let’s first create a table to best
identify the classes and be able to explain each one in detail.

(Note that I did not subtract 2 on the host side)

Default

Number of

Host

16,777,216

65,536

N/A

N/A
 Before we begin explaining the particulars of each class of address, let’s get
familiarized with the format of an IPv4 address; meaning, how an octet is
comprised. Yes, yes…I know I mentioned this before, but I’m going to do it
again in a more visual content so as to engrave it in your brain. And by the way,
repetition breeds retention, so it certainly won’t hurt.

As you already know, each octet has 8 bits with the values of each bit
remaining the same in each octet. This means that when we add the bit values
together within their octets, they equal a maximum of 255 .

The bit values for each octet are added from left to right to acquire your
subnet mask. This format does not change as you can see from the figure above,
and it will always remain the same for IPv4. I bet you thought it was going to be
harder than this didn’t you? I do, however, want to emphasize that you can also
determine the classes of addresses by just looking at the first

octet of that address. Below are some examples:

10 .1.0.100

Class “ A ”
172 .31.25.90

Class “ B ”

192 .168.10.100

Class “ C ”

Moving on, let’s begin to start breaking down the classes of addresses.

Let’s first discuss the Class “ A ” address using the following table:

Default

Number of

Host

16,777,216

65,536

N/A

N/A
 Go ahead and take a look at the “ range ” column above. You can see that it
starts with 1 and goes all the way to 126 . Well then…what happened to the
zero? The zero is a unique address and it’s already allotted for something else…
it is a reserved address. Hence, we are not allowed to use it; that is why we start
with the number 1 (does that make sense?). If you look at the next column,
which shows the default mask, you should notice that in the first octet the bits
are all ones and the rest are all zero’s . Meaning, you can NOT mess with the
first octet. Therefore, you will be doing all of your subnetting and/or addressing
within any of the other octets. Finally, in the last column, you

can see how many host you could have with a class “ A ” address using the
default mask. You’re probably saying “ WOW, that’s a lot of addresses Laz ”. Oh
yes, I almost forgot…I can’t stress this enough! You always, always MUST
subtract 2 from the host address to get the USUABLE addresses. Again, why do
we subtract 2? Remember that one address is your network address and the other
is your broadcast address. This means that the actual number of addresses would
be 16,777,214 . You’re probably asking yourself “Laz man, do we need to
remember this? The answer is a simple YES! Why? Because you are in IT ladies
and gentlemen and this is the minimal of the basic information that you need to
know.

This is precisely why I wrote this book. I wanted to make sure this
information stuck and was embedded in your brain. I don’t care how many times
I repeat myself over and over

again, which you will see I do a lot here, as long as I get this point across. If
you’re thinking “ Laz must be OCD”, I assure you ladies and gentlemen, I am

not, although some may argue that point.

 Le t’s now move on to a Class “B” addre ss:

In the second row, again referring to the table above , let’s look at the class “
B ” address and analyze it. If you look at the second column of the class

“ B ” address, you will notice that the range starts with 128 . Say what ? How
is that possible? What happened to 127 Laz? Well, it’s very simple, the 127 ,
which includes the entire range from 127.0.0.0 – 127.255.255.255, has been
reserved for loopback. The loopback is what we use to check and see if our
TCP/IP stack is working correctly. The exact address we use would be 127.0.0.1,
again, remember that this is for testing purposes only

( never deviate from the main goal… which is passing your certification
exam! ).

We finish off the range in a Class B address with 191 …great! No worries
here. Let’s move on to the next column and there we see the default mask, which
is 255.255.0.0 . Again, the first two octets are completely “ on ” and the last two
octets are completely “ off ”. This is to enable you to subnet or do your
addressing for nodes on the network.

Moving on to the last column, we see that we have 65,536 addresses, but
wait!...do not forget to subtract 2. By now you should know that this is for

the network address and the broadcast address . We are then left with
what?...you got this! The usable addresses of 65,534 . See how things are
starting to come together?

Le t’s move on to the ne xt addre ss on the list…the Class “C” addre ss:

The class “ C ” address is one that we should all be very familiar with and it
begins with 192 . There’s nothing mysterious or special in this range since it
continues on from the last number of 191 all the way to 223 . When you look at
the mask for the class “ C ” address, you can observe that the first three octets
are all “ on” and the last octet is “ off” (example:

255.255.255.0) , once again leaving only the last octet for you to do your
subnetting and/or addressing. With this particular class of address you can

have 256 addresses as you can see in the last column on the table above. But,
please remember that you must subtract 2 from the host side, which is the
network address and broadcast address . Consequently, this will leave you with
only 254 usable addresses for subnetting and addressing.

We ’ve now come to the last two classe s of addre sse s…“D” & “E”.

You really shouldn’t concern yourself with these two types of addresses too
much, just know about their ranges, just in case they may ask you this in an
interview. We really don’t do much with these addresses and to tell you the truth,
it’s not part of your certification exam. But for informational purposes, just know
that they do exist and that the class “ D ” address is used for multicasting and
that the routing protocols use it to send their updates to neighboring routers. The
class “ E ” address, however, is just for experimental purposes. ??? Don’t ask me
why…I did not participate in the decision process. I guess this is something
reserved for use in area 51. As a result, I stress to you to please don’t concern
yourself too much about these two class of addresses. No one really talks much
about them…no, actually, they NEVER talk about them. Subsequently, just
know their ranges, but that’s about it. After all, who cares the why, where and
what they are used for? It’s nice to know about them, but it’s not what will get
you certified. Well, there you have it! The classes of addresses; their ranges,
their default mask and their default hosts.

Private Addressing Now that you have familiarized

yourself with the classes and ranges of addresses as well as their mask, let’s
take a look at a special range of addresses called “Private Addresses”. These are
not routable on the public internet; they are exclusively used for internal
purposes within an

organization. As usual, let’s look at our table below and then we will define
each column.
 Default Mask

255.255.255.0

In the class “A” the entire ten (10) range is dedicated to internal addressing.
As a result, when you see an address that in the first octet starts with a 10.x.x.x,
it will always be an address that is not routable on a public interface. Naturally,
you are still left with the last three octets for subnetting and addressing.

In the class “B”, it starts to get a bit more interesting; I am referring of

course to the first and second octet, whose range is from 172. 16 .x.x –

172. 31 .x.x. But Laz, why is it 16 to 31 in the 2 nd octet? The majority of

networking books will tell you that the subnet mask is as you see it on the
column for the default mask, however, the Cisco Press books will explain it to
you with a slightly different mask. Let me show you exactly how they came up
with the mask of 255.240.0.0 .:

X.111 1 |0000.00000000.00000000 the value to the left of the line, which is

highlighted in red is 16 .

The y start with the actual bit value , and the n the y add the sum of the
othe r octe ts according to the ir particular octe t:

15+16 = 31 , 255+0= 255 , and 255+0= 255.

This is how Cisco come s up with the mask of 255.240.0.0.

 But if you are aske d on an e xam; what is the default subnet mask for a
class “B” address?

You will always answe r

255.255.0.0.

Now you also know the secret that lies beneath the private class “B”
address.

IPv4 Addressing Classes & Types of Private Addressing

Let’s now investigate the class “C” address. This is a very familiar address
and it falls under the same criteria as the class “B” address.

If you look at the table again, you will notice that the first two octets do not
change; it is only the last two octets that change.

Cisco states that the mask is really

255.255.0.0 . However, I remind you here as well; if asked on an exam, “

what is the default mask for a class “C”? You will respond;

255.255.255.0 . This is because that is the default mask in TCP/IP.

X.X.00000000.00000000 the first two octets will always be 192.168 in order for
it to be a private address.

Again, they, I’m referring to “ the powers that be ”, add the sum of the bit
values on the right to the corresponding octet in order to get the range.

I’m sure by now you are a bit baffled as to why in the world would I be
telling you this. Well, simply put, it was due to the curiosity of many of my
students asking how these numbers

were chosen. So, I decided to put their minds at ease … and yours as well .
You can find this information in any Cisco Press book and I’m pretty sure you
can Google it too.
 The grand finale to this section is just simple definitions of reserved IP
addresses that we do NOT use, but DO need to understand their importance on a
network.

Loopback: As stated previously, it is used to test the TCP/IP stack. The

actual address used is 127.0.0.1 , or you can simply replace the IP with the word
“ Loopback ”.

Laye r 2 Broadcast: This type of broadcast is all in hexadecimal format

using all “ F’s ”, FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF . These are sent to all nodes in a LAN
segment.

Laye r 3 Broadcast: This type of broadcast is in decimal format using all

255 ’s in the address:

255.255.255.255 . They are sent to all nodes on a network.

Unicast: this particular type of address is a single source that is sent to one
destination.

Multicast: These addresses are sent from a single source to many

destinations. As stated earlier, your routing protocols use these addresses to send
updates to neighbor routers; for example: EIGRP uses the following multicast
address 224.0.0.10 .

APIPA: “ Automatic Private IP Address ”. These addresses are present only

when DHCP is enabled and the host is incapable of receiving an IP address.
These addresses are NOT routable.

IPv4 Subnetting Why Do We Subnet?

Yeah Buddy…here is where the fun really begins!

We need to take this ginormous network we just created and break it up into
smaller chunks. Why? You might ask.

Well, this is why…we’ve realized that we can not properly administrate a

network of that size. Especially if it’s an Ethernet network, which by the way,
about 99.9% of the time these networks are Ethernet. Therefore, we have
something called CSMA/CD. This is the access method for Ethernet Networks
and it is how packets get onto the media to send data across. Not to mention that
the layer 2 broadcast will KILL our network. This, on top of the fact, that we
would have to deal with the security issues as well.

One network accessing another network, willy-nilly? I don’t think so!

It really boils down to eliminating broadcast and noise on your network.

Let me illustrate what I mean with the picture below.

As you can see in the illustration above, all the PC’s are in the same network.
This means that every time a node tries to send a packet to any destination, all
nodes on the network pay attention to that noise, therefore, slowing down the
network.

Let’s imagine that the PC’s connected to the switches are classrooms, and
that those switches in these classrooms are connected to one core switch which
in turn connects to the main router that goes out to the internet.

So…let’s say that class starts at 9am sharp, and the students are sitting at
their desk, with their computers on and are already logged in. But,
“EVERYONE IS TRYING TO GET TO FACEBOOK!” However, no one can
get to the internet. What happened? The network will start crawling right? To
top it off, the poor IT guy is also trying to send an image to a couple of
computers he did not finish the night before… AHHH …the shock! Now the
network now goes from a crawl to a complete STOP!. No one will be able to do
anything at all. Even a simple task like printing will become utterly impossible.
 Why is that Laz ? Well, even though we have switches, we are all under one
broadcast domain and forced to listen to any noise on the media.

So what do we do?... ta-ta-ta-da …SUBNETTING to the rescue! In this

scenario, we would separate each switch into its own subnet. This would mean
each would have its own broadcast domain. Meaning, it will not hear the noise
of the other networks it’s trying to reach…to include the IT guy who is trying to
image those couple of computers in a specific class room.

Let’s illustrate one way we could do this.

Now, would you agree this is somewhat better? We have increased from one
(1) broadcast domain for the LANS to two (2) broadcast domains by subnetting
the networks and putting them into different interfaces of the router. When a
node on one network attempts to communicate with one computer on that same
network, they only hear their own noise… or do they? The other network is
oblivious as to what is going on…hmm?. Does this mean that the more broadcast
domains we have, the fewer number of nodes exists on that subnet, making the
network run more efficiently? You got it! And it also makes sense doesn’t it?
The fewer people on a segment, the less noise they generate.

Now, by no means is the above illustration the best method of subnetting the
network. It would be nice, nonetheless, if each one of those switches would be
its own broadcast domain and its own subnet. That way we could increase the
amount of broadcast domains even further at layer 2; which would really tweak
our network to work more efficiently.

However, the reality is, that even though the core switch is connected to
different interfaces on the router, the LAN switches are all connected to the core
switch, which still creates one broadcast domain. Consequently, all computers
are still forced to listen to noise placed on the media. Tricky-tricky!

To really segment a network, you should do it at layer 2, and you would

NEED to use Vlans. That is how each switch can be its own broadcast domain
within its own subnet. Thus, a particular network would not hear any of the other
networks’ noise.

To know which device separates broadcast domains and collision domains is

very important. Knowing what functionalities these devices

bring into the picture is of equal importance.

IPv4 Subnetting Why Do We Subnet?

A better topology is called “ a router on a stick ”. I will show how that would
look, but we are not going to get jiggy with it here either. We need to know how
to subnet so we can assign the networks to each VLAN. Thus, let me illustrate
the “ Router on a stick” method, so we can then begin with subnetting the
address.

Here, you can see that we have increased to seven (7) broadcast domains due
to the VLAN’s, and 19 collision domains. This will make a huge difference on
the performance of the network. We have also isolated each of the LAN’s traffic
within itself. Thereby, if you should need to send data to another LAN, it would
have to go through the router. No one else will be the wiser.

The purpose of subnetting is to create smaller, more efficient, manageable

and secure networks. You would do this at layer 2 by creating multiple Vlans;
and since each VLAN has its own subnet, you have now increased the amount of
broadcast domains and reduced the amount of broadcast per network. How Do
We Subnet?

Now, you know the “why”. But how or where do we begin to subnet an
address? There are a million ways to subnet an address. Everyone has their own
unique method and you can look at all the different books, or the thousands of
YouTube videos or even Google the types of subnetting and you will get tons of
information on the different ways and/or variations of subnetting out there.
However, I am going to show

you one simple method that you can apply using your fingers. No need for
calculators and you’ll be able to do it in under 30 seconds - MAX! It’s taken me
years to perfect this method, and so I am writing this book to present this method
to you…consider it a gift.

The key, as stated previously, is your subnetmask. If you are given the mask,
then that’s all you need to focus on. Let’s say you are given the following mask
255.255.255.248 and are asked to find how many networks and host can be used
with this mask or what is the Network-ID, Range and Broadcast address for the
second network? This is quite easy if you use my method of course!

First, let start by focusing on? You got it!...on the last octet of course. That is
the octet that is partially on and off. This is where you are going to do all your
calculations.

Let’s break it down:

1. How many networks? ( You count from Left to Right, starting with 2, and
double as you go )
 1. 32 Networks

2. How many hosts?

(You count from Right to Left, starting with 2 and double as you go)

1. 8-2= 6

(Why do we subtract 2? Because we need a NetID and the broadcast

address)

Can see how easy it is to get the number of host and networks? But how do
we come up with network, range and broadcast addresses? Well, if you look at
where we drew the line; the bit value to the left of the line will ALWAYS be how
your network

increments, which in this case is 8 . The bits to the right get added; in this
case 4+2+1= 7 so you would take that “7”, which is your broadcast calculation
number and add it to the Network-ID, thereby giving you the broadcast address.
You must, however, make sure you are adding the 4 th Octet to the 4 th Octet.
Sometimes a simple error can throw you off.

To clarify it further, I have broken down the design if you will, so you can
understand each section from the problem above.
 Before we continue with subnetting, I would like to explain something called
subnet-zero. This is something that is sometimes asked in the CCNA exam and it
has certainly been used in the real world for some time now.

Notice that I did not subtract 2 from the Network side. Subtracting 2 or NOT
subtracting 2 depends on the instructions you will be given: either “ use the Zero
network” or “ do not use the Zero network” . This is the indicator to know when
to subtract 2 or when not to subtract 2. I know you’re getting this! Let us take a
look at an easy example:

Using the Ze ro Ne twork

Not using the Ze ro Ne twork

At one point, in a time long forgotten, routers did not understand how to use
these two networks. Therefore, we would subtract two from the network side as
well. But in today’s routers, that is no longer an issue and we are allowed to use
all available networks. Life is getting easier as technology advances, does it not?
Anyway, I think so!
 What makes all this possible is the IOS or Internetworking Operating System
of the router which has the command - “ IP SUBNET-ZERO”- on , by default .

Why am I throwing this monkey wrench at you, because you will be asked
questions on this subject (i.e.: if using the Zero Network, what would be the
subnet? ). Do not take the Zero Network into consideration. This is only so you
can recognize what the Zero Network is. I hope this clarified it a bit. If not, just
go over this section again and again and you will eventually get it. Remember
that I have YouTube videos explaining this subject as well and practice,
practice…I cannot stress this enough.

Now, let’s re-cap…just to drive it home one more time.

If “ you DO use the Zero Network ” - DO NOT SUBRACT 2!

If “ you are NOT using the Zero Network ”, - YOU MUST SUBTRACT

2.

End of discussion. GOT IT? Subnetting a Class “C” Address

Ok, I have drawn out the road map to subnetting, but let’s keep practicing
with different examples.

Let’s go ahead and start using different classes of addresses in different

situations.

However, before we go on, I would like to start using CIDR notation instead
of Dotted Decimal notation for the subnet mask. It’s just too much typing and
frankly it’s tiresome.

So instead of typing 255.255.255.0 I will use /24 ; they both mean the same
thing. The “ / ” is called the CIDR and the 24 means how many bits are “ on ”
from left to right.

Let me give you a guide that you MUST commit to memory: This table will
save your life… trust me on this one!
 Now that you have memorized the table above, let’s now do some commonly
asked questions:

1. You have the following Class “C” address: 192.168.1.0/24. You need to
subnet this address into six separate networks; what mask would you need?

1. /26

2. /27

3. /24

4. /30

To attack this problem you first need to figure out what octet you will be
working on. In the scenario given, the class of address tells us that we will be
working in the last octet. Also, if you look at the CIDR, it’s a dead giveaway.
Once you figure this out, then all you need to do is count from

left to right, starting by two and double as you go, to reach your objective of
six networks; at that point you would draw your line.

Let’s visualize this:

X.X.X.1 1 1|0 0 0 0 0 2 4 8

In this example, you would need to turn on three bits. Wait a minute Laz,
don’t we need six networks? Yes we do, but here we had to go over the six
networks because we had no other

alternative. Let’s analyze - two bits would have only given us four networks
and that was not enough for the requirements needed so we had to go one bit
over to get the six networks we want and then some.

Now that we understand that, let’s move continue.. Since we now have our
line, what is the mask? If you look at the table, three bits on gives us 224. None
the less, aren’t we looking for the CIDR? The X ’s represent all bits on ;
therefore, 8+8+8+3=27. This means that the only possible answer is a /27 which
equates to

255.255.255.224. Easy stuff right? Are you keeping up?...yes, no,

maybe so? “ Laz bro, I think you’ve left something out!” Possibly, I know
that I may have eluded some important information as to how I converted CIDR
notation to a Dotted Decimal notation. And since I don’t want to leave you in the
dark, here’s the explanation that will have your head spinning; are you ready for
it?...the secret is that you first need to add the bit values together…THAT’s IT!
The mystery is over guys and gals. It really doesn’t get any simpler than that.
Let’s look at the following example:
 In this example the “ X ” represents 8 bits “ on ”. Which means you added
the entire bits on that octet together to come up with a value of 255. You would
do the same for the 2 nd octet. In the third octet, however, you would have to add
128+64+32+16 to get to

240. That is how you would get these values. On the other hand, if you
memorize the table I gave you ( you know the one I said would save your life ),
you would have no need to add, it would become second nature to you, just like
the time tables you memorized in elementary school. I strongly suggest that you
MEMORIZE the table I gave you, like if your life depended on it. Finally, the
last octet is all zeroes.

2. You have the following IP address

192.168.100.90/29, what sub-network address does the IP address belong to.

1. 192.168.100.64

2. 192.168.100.80

3. 192.168.100.96

4. 192.168.100.88

5. 192.168.100.0

Once again, to tackle this question you first need to know in which octet you
are going to be focusing on. This question is easy because you are given

the subnet mask or CIDR /29. Meaning you are in the last octet. By now we
should already know this. So, let’s do another example for visualization
purposes:

The bit value highlighted is 8 , which is the network increment, therefore we

must increment by 8 until we get to 90, which is the number within the fourth
octet.
 This means that we could increment as follows: 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48…and so
on. That, however, takes too long! And as you should know by now, I like things
simple, short and to the point. But again, I digress…you could ask yourself, “
what number can I multiply by 8 to get close to 90 without going over? ” Well,
how about 11x8 = 88 . Hey, that works for me! You certainly can’t use 12x8 = 96
- t’s just too big and you would go over.

As a result, the sub-network address is 192.168.100.88 . Here, you can even

use your multiplication table to help you out.

Let’s try another scenario: In the following topology PC1 cannot

communicate with the Web Server.

What is the problem?

1. PC1 has the wrong subnetmask

2. PC1 has the wrong gateway address

3. The IP address on R2 F0/1 is invalid

4. The Web Server is using a wrong IP address for the subnet

5. The Web Server is using an invalid address for a gateway address.

 The correct answer is “e” because the gateway address the server is using is a
broadcast address, which cannot be assigned to any node, therefore, it is invalid.

Once again, to solve this, we must first locate where the line needs to be
drawn. Remember, you have a Dotted Decimal mask of 255.255.255.240 which
is the same as CIDR /28.

The bit value that is highlighted is 16 , therefore, you must increment to the
highest IP in the network…which is x.x.x.63 .

As you can see, it does not matter what scenario you might be presented
with, the key is where you draw the line! “ No, I’m not screaming at you ” I just
want to emphasize the importance of “ the line ”.

Once you are aware that you can answer any question that may be thrown at
you by just drawing the line; (i.e.: what’s your increment, how many subnets or
hosts do you have, etc .) then you can easily figure out your subnetmask.

Later on I will show you, using the same diagram, how to come up with the
wildcard mask. As we say in the military, “ repetition breeds retention ” so
practice until it becomes second nature. I cannot stress this enough!!!

Well, we just learned the concepts of subnetting; which is really just figuring
out where to draw the line. And we found out that this, in turn, will give you all
the answers you need. Throughout the rest of this book, you might see me
referring to this line as, what I like to call, “ the magic line ”.
 We should now be very familiar with a class “C” address as in our previous
example. In which we were only working with the last octet. If you are still
somewhat confuse, just go over the section again until you become a master at it.
Subnetting a Class “B” Address

Now let’s spice it a bit and make it a bit more interesting. What happens if
you are given a class “B” address instead and would have to work with

the last two octets? Let’s dive right in and see what happens in this scenario,
shall we?

Let us try some of the same commonly asked questions but this time for a
class B.

1. You have the following Class “B” network address: 172.31.96.0/19. You
need to subnet this address into 64 separate networks. What mask would you
need?

1. /24

2. /25

3. /22

4. /21

We would attack this just like we would any other subnetting problem.
Where would you focus in drawing the magic line? Well, I already gave you

the CIDR, so you should know that your line will be 19 bits in.

Let’s work it out:

X.X.1 1 1 |0 0 0 0 0 . 0 | 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 4 8 16 32 64

Here, the original line was at 19 bits on … now you have moved the line 6
more bits to the right, which makes it 25 bits on , correct? Therefore, the answer
is /25 which equals

255.255.255. 128 .
 The reason the value on the last octet is 128, is because that is its bit value.

This is just repeating the same concept isn’t it? We just have to make sure we
work with both of the last two octets. This is where most people get confused
when working with a class “B” address.

Let’s continue working with a class “B” address to get a good handle on it.

2. You have the following IP address:

172.20.156.98/18. What subnet does the address belong to?

1. 172.20.156.0

2. 172.20.144.0

3. 172.20.128.0

4. 172.20.0.0

Now we know the drill don’t we?

The bit value highlighted to the left of the line is 64 , which is the network
increment. Therefore, your focus should be on the third octet. We would then
need to increment by 64 to get close to 156 without going over.

It should look like this: 0, 64, 128, 192 , thus, the answer is 172.20.128.0
subnet.

I know that 192 is larger than 156. But keep in mind that we are incrementing
by 64 on the third octet.

The following will give you a better visualization of this particular problem:

3. Using the same address above, what is the range and broadcast address?
 Broadcast

Address

172.20.63.255

172.20.127.255

172.20.191.255

172.20.255.255

Remember, that we can use the exact same concept used for the class “C”
address, and apply it to the class “B” address; the only difference in a class “B”
address is that you will be working with two octets instead of one.

Subnetting a Class “A” Address

The last address we will talk about, is the class “A” address. It is very rare
that you will get a question on subnetting a class “A” address. But, just to cover
all the bases in case you are that one lucky individual to get a question on a class
“A” address on the exam, I will give you one simple and quick example.

Subnetting a class “A” address is no different than the other classes, you just
need to pay attention to one (1) more octet.

Let us say you are given and address of 10.16.25.22/12 and are asked to find
the subnet, useable range and broadcast address. Again, remember to find the “
magic line ”. Once you’ve done that, you will have the mask.

Let us begin!

16 Subnets Allot

of hosts!! :-0

Broadcast

10.15.255.255

10.31.255.255

10.47.255.255

10.63.255.255
 Well, by now you should know all there is to know about subnetting and that
just about everything is easily solved by just finding that magic line ! You should
also be familiar with your network increment, which is the bit value to the left of
the line. You should also understand that the sum of the bit values to the right of
the line, becomes the broadcast calculation number. Therefore, if you add the
broadcast calculation number to the network ID, in the appropriate octets of
course , then you get your broadcast address. This is a piece of cake!

So to recap…”what is it that you need to master subnetting?” you need to

know your bit values, which do not change from octet to octet. How easy is that!

Believe me, once you have mastered this concept, you will become the Jedi
Master of IPv4 subnetting! Of course, practicing over and over again is the
ONLY way you

will master this concept. This is not something that you will get in just one
try. That is why throughout the book, I stress the importance of practicing. I
know that it may be tedious or boring at times, but in the long-run, it will pay
IPv4 Variable Length Subnet masking

Implementing VLSM All right now…let’s clear our

heads, “ you might want to shake it a little to make sure everything falls in
the correct slots and remove all the noise out of it – you may also want to step
away for a bit to reboot. I do this myself and find it very helpful. I come back
with a fresh mind and am able to continue without feeling
 overwhelmed. I know it’s a lot of information to take in, but you guys can
handle it ”.

By now, you should have mastered the concepts of subnetting in IPv4. You
should know that you need to take a network and cut it up into smaller networks
correct? Conversely, if you

noticed, they all have the same subnetmask; this is called, class-full
subnetting. Obviously, this is not very practical when we are discussing public
IP’s. We all know by now that the reason we have depleted the public IPv4
addresses, is for the simple reason that no one expected the exponential growth
of the internet and its evolution throughout the relatively few years since it’s
been around…this is truly astonishing isn’t it?

In IPv4, corporations would have been assigned public IP’s using their
default boundaries; so let’s elaborate a little bit here; If you were a “company”
who had a public presence and needed 2,000 IP’s, you would have been assigned
a class “B” public address

with its default mask of /16. This meant you had 65,534 addresses available
to use! Wow…that’s quite a bit wouldn’t you say? On the other hand, if you
were a company in need of 200,000 Public IP’s, you would have been assigned a
class “A” address with a default mask of /8. Who can tell me how many address
are available here? If you said 16,777,214 then you would be correct! You might
be looking at this and subconsciously think, “what a waste of addresses!”
Needless to say we were very wasteful at the beginning of time. But let us not
lay blame, let’s try and repair the damage or at the very least contain it.

Once it was realized that there were too many addresses being wasted, “ the
powers that be ” came up with a plan to try to fix the problem. Their solution
came in the form of VLSM or Classless subnetting. This is what came to the
rescue and fix the waste…or should I say, slow down the inevitable depletion of
IPv4 addresses and buy us more time.

As we know, almost every device needs an IP address; (i.e.: computers,

printers, plotters, phones, vehicles, TV’s, watches, refrigerators...etc). But IPv4
can only hold 4 billion addresses. If my math is correct, we have over 7 billion
people on planet Earth, and most of them have more than one (1) device that
uses an IP address. ( I myself have about 20+ devices that require IP addresses ),
some might have way more than that, but for argument purposes let’s just say
that everyone in the planet requires 1 device with an IP address. 4 billion IPv4
addresses for 7 billion+ people? There’s something wrong with that picture…
IPv4 was just not going to cut it anymore was it?

Here comes IPv6 to the rescue. This protocol can hold 340 Undecillion
addresses ( Yes! that is a real word. You can Google it ). But I digress again since
we will talk about IPv6 later in the book.

Ongoing; with the use of VLSM we were able to actually move that
preverbal line, we became so familiar with, to adjust the subnetmask to meet the
needs of the network as best as possible without having to waste too many
addresses in the process. On a side note…other mechanism or attempts to
slowdown the depletion of IPv4 addresses was the NAT protocol, specifically
NAT Overload ( or PAT as it is also known – you can use the term
interchangeably ), which allowed us to use one public address per 65,000+
internal users. I’m just throwing it out there for your own knowledge but also
because you will

need to know about NAT for your CCNA certification exam, and most
definitely in a “ real world ” scenario.

But let’s continue; this whole thing started a sort of ripple effect. Once we
started using VLSM, our routing protocols also had to be upgraded because
RIPv1 and IGRP did not understand the subnet portion of the address. These
protocols assumed they all had the same mask in the network; meaning, if you
had a class A network that was subnetted, the routing protocol would assume
that the default masks was /8 and therefore, packets would get lost. So using
masks such as; /30, /28, /25 would create a huge problem; they would not know
where to send the data. You might be asking “ Laz, how did they fix the
problem?” That’s a very good question. RIPv2 and EIGRP came to the rescue
this time. These protocols understood the subnetmask portion of the address;
although, a very important command “NO AUTO-SUMMARY” when
configuring RIPv2 or EIGRP must be used when configuring these two routing
protocols, if you don’t or just don’t want to, then you might as well run the older
protocols and forget about VLSM altogether. But, I’m digressing again…we will
discuss routing protocols in depth in another book; this one is dedicated to IP’s
only.
 So let’s get down to the nitty-gritty and see how we can implement a VLSM
network. Remember to keep in mind that I will be using private addresses and
that VLSM was meant to be used for the depletion of public IPv4 addresses.
Confused yet? Don’t worry, I got you. , I’m here to unravel the mystery of these
protocols and to make sure that at the end you will understand the method to the
madness…let the fun

begin!

Let’s say you are given the network address of 172.20.0.0/16 to work with
and you had to design a VLSM network based on the topology below, what is
your starting point?

VLSM has rules we need to follow; One (1), start with the highest number of
IP’s, two (2), always use the next available IP address and three (3), always start
from the zero network.
 As you can see, all we did is start with the highest number of host and work
our way down to the lowest number of host; always using the next available IP
address for the next Network ID and then adding the broadcast calculation
numbers to their perspective octet. Remember also that since the purpose of
VLSM is to reduce the waste of public IP addresses, I started using the “Zero
Network”, meaning I started from the number “ zero ”.

If you are going to design a network using VLSM, you must ensure you use
a routing protocol that is capable of using VLSM, such as RIPv2, EIGRP or
OSPF.

Like I said before, it is really not that difficult, but, you do need to practice,
practice and practice again!

Let’s analyze the drawings and table below. It is color coded so you can
follow along with a visual to make it easier to dissect.

BTW, just so you don’t forget what the numbers mean, I have re-draw the
diagram for you with their applicable labels as follows:
 I hope this helped you understand grasp the idea that I’m trying to convey
here.

IPv4 Summarization Its Purpose &

Configurations Well, you finally got through

subnetting and VLSM. Now comes time to Summarize or as Spock would

call it, “ Route Aggregation Captain”. ( You might notice that I’m a big fan of
the original Star Trek ). What this really means is, that we must take a bunch of
small networks and clump them together into one or maybe two networks, and
then we would need to advertise them to our core routers, hence, making their
routing tables smaller. There is no need for your core routers to know about all
your different LAN’s in order to make a routing decision. Another use of “ Route
Aggregation ” is to advertise a summary-address. This is to enable a device, at
the destination level, to be able to distribute the IP’s as it sees fit.

Summarization would allow for lower processing time, when a router

analyzes its own routing table to see which path it needs to take to get to a
destination.

I think I have mentioned this before, but, in case you missed it, here I go
again. Cisco has a standard called the “ Cisco Three Layer Model ” This model,
just like the OSI model, is a theoretical model. The model simply informs you
which roles certain routers

may perform based on where it sits on the topology; let’s look at the
following:

Cisco’s Thre e Laye r Mode l

 note: Just because

there are three layers, it does not mean you must have three different devices,
remember this is a theoretical model.

With summarization there are some rules that you should follow. The first
being that, the network should start with an even number and have an even
number of networks as to not waste any IP’s in the process; thereby not
introducing any IP’s in the network that do not need to be there.

The other rule would be in summarization, which is the opposite of

subnetting. There is a contrast that can be seen here. In subnetting, we would
move the line to the right and get a larger subnet mask and fewer hosts. In
summarization however, we move the line to the left and get a smaller subnet
mask and a greater number of hosts. This would bring the networks together as
one. Keep in mind that these had been separated prior to summarization.
 So let’s reiterate; the purpose of summarization is to keep the routing tables
small so the router does not have to go through a huge list of networks to make a
routing decision.

Below is an example of what I mean:

Once we drew our line, by looking from left to right on the third octet and
stopping where the bits that go down the column are not common, we can
clearly see that they are 0’s and 1’s . We now have our new subnet mask and as
you can see, as all the bit values to the left of the line are all zeroes. This is
precisely why we have “ zero ” in the third octet of the summary address. I hope
you got it!

Nevertheless, let’s see the actual range of this summary address using our
subnetting method. What we are looking for is to see if we wasted any addresses
or added another network in our summarization calculation. Did we?.. yes, no,
maybe so?

First things first! As usual…draw your line and add your octets accordingly.

Guys! See how beautifully it worked out? There was no wasting of IP

addresses; you have exactly what you needed, and all the networks that you
originally started with are within the range of the summary address (i.e.:

under the /22 mask). So, you take that summary address of 10.1.0.0/22 and
you would advertise it out through the interface connected to your core router to
reduce the routing table. Below is an
 example of that command using EIGRP.

IP summary-address eigrp 100

10.1.0.0 255.255.252.0 Command Protocol AS

Summary-address

But let’s see a visual example of what we are talking about, using an actual
topology.

As you can see in the topology above, we only have two physical layers. The
HQ router would represent the “Core Layer” and routers 1 – 3 would be
considered

“Distribution/Access Layer” routers. You can also see that all the LAN
routers are connected directly into the core router, so if R1 wants to send a
packet to R2 or R3 it would have to go through the HQ router, which means that
the HQ router would have learned about all those networks through EIGRP,
making the HQ router ’s routing table larger than it has to be.

This is how the routing table would look like before summarization in the
HQ router:

HQ#SH IP ROUTE Codes: C - connected, S - static, I -IGRP, R - RIP, M -

mobile, B - BGP D - EIGRP, EX - EIGRP external, O -OSPF, IA - OSPF inter
area N1 - OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 -OSPF NSSA external type 2 E1 -
OSPF external type 1, E2 - OSPF external type 2, E - EGP i - IS-IS, L1 - IS-IS
level-1, L2 - IS-IS level-2, ia - IS-IS inter area * - candidate default, U - per-user
static route, o - ODR P - Periodic downloaded static route

Gateway of last resort is not set

10.0.0.0/30 is subnetted, 3 subnets C 10.1.1.4 is directly connected,

Serial0/0/0

C 10.1.1.8 is directly connected,

Serial0/1/0

C 10.1.1.12 is directly connected,

Serial0/2/0

D 192.168.0.0/24 [90/20514560] via

10.1.1.5, 00:00:11, Serial0/0/0 D 192.168.1.0/24 [90/20514560] via

10.1.1.5, 00:00:11, Serial0/0/0 D 192.168.2.0/24 [90/20514560] via

10.1.1.5, 00:00:11, Serial0/0/0 D 192.168.3.0/24 [90/20514560] via

10.1.1.5, 00:00:11, Serial0/0/0 D 192.168.4.0/24 [90/20514560] via

10.1.1.9, 00:00:11, Serial0/1/0 D 192.168.5.0/24 [90/20514560] via

10.1.1.9, 00:00:11, Serial0/1/0 D 192.168.6.0/24 [90/20514560] via

10.1.1.9, 00:00:11, Serial0/1/0 D 192.168.7.0/24 [90/20514560] via

10.1.1.9, 00:00:11, Serial0/1/0 D 192.168.8.0/24 [90/20514560] via

10.1.1.13, 00:00:11, Serial0/2/0 D 192.168.9.0/24 [90/20514560] via

10.1.1.13, 00:00:11, Serial0/2/0 D 192.168.10.0/24 [90/20514560] via

10.1.1.13, 00:00:11, Serial0/2/0 D 192.168.11.0/24 [90/20514560] via
 10.1.1.13, 00:00:11, Serial0/2/0

For the purpose of the lab above, this is a lot of networks for the HQ routers
to know about. The router would have to go through each one of these 15 entries
to see where it needs to send the destination packet. However, we are going to
help with that situation by summarizing each of the LAN’s networks and
advertising their summary address to the HQ router. This will reduce the amount
of entries to the three learned routes and in turn, its three connected routes.
Doing this will decrease the overhead and the router would only have to look at
the three learned routes instead of twelve. So, how do we do this? Let’s take a
look, shall we?

Bear in mind that the starting mask is /24. Subsequently, we count left to
right; you would start at the beginning of the third octet, which is the interesting
octet.

The summary addre ss 192.168. 8 .0/22 Now that we found our summary
address by drawing the line between the common and un-common bits, its time
to advertise to the HQ router through the interface that faces the HQ router.
Following is the command you

would use:
 IP summary-address EIGRP 100

192.168.4.0 255.255.252.0 IP summary-address EIGRP: 100

192.168.8.0 255.255.252.0

Let’s take a look at the HQ routers routing table after we advertise the
summary routes.

HQ#sh ip route

Codes: C - connected, S - static, I -IGRP, R - RIP, M - mobile, B - BGP D -

EIGRP, EX - EIGRP external, O -OSPF, IA - OSPF inter area N1 - OSPF NSSA
external type 1, N2 -OSPF NSSA external type 2 E1 - OSPF external type 1, E2 -
OSPF external type 2, E - EGP i - IS-IS, L1 - IS-IS level-1, L2 - IS-IS level-2, ia -
IS-IS inter area * - candidate default, U - per-user static route, o - ODR P -
periodic downloaded static route

Gateway of last resort is not set

10.0.0.0/30 is subnetted, 3 subnets C 10.1.1.4 is directly connected,

 Serial0/0/0

C 10.1.1.8 is directly connected,

Serial0/1/0

C 10.1.1.12 is directly connected,

Serial0/2/0

D 192.168.0.0/22 [90/20514560] via

10.1.1.5, 00:02:08, Serial0/0/0 D 192.168.4.0/22 [90/20514560] via

10.1.1.9, 00:01:05, Serial0/1/0 D 192.168.8.0/22 [90/20514560] via

10.1.1.13, 00:00:15, Serial0/2/0

HQ#

Here you can see that we have three routes instead of twelve. For that reason,
we are learning that through the routing protocol “EIGRP”, your core router
needs to only look at the 3 learned entries vs. 12! Isn’t this so much better on
your routers processor usage?

There you go! This is why and how we summarize…pretty simple right? I
believe it’s even easier than subnetting. “ really Laz?”, well, think about it? It’s
essentially the same process. All you have to do is find the “ magic ” line. In this
case you draw the line between the common and uncommon bits and
voila!...you’re done. You have to admit. It doesn’t get any easier than that.

Our next chapter is all about Wildcard Masking. I know what you’re thinking
“ Laz, are we taking a trip into the jungle?...get it? “wild = jungle” Oh well, I
tried ” Anyway, we will take a JOURNEY into the world of Wildcard Masking,
but it will be fun, easy but informative. You guys should know me by now.

However, before we do, let me show you one more example of

summarization that you may find on your exam, but if you don’t, consider

yourself lucky, at least this will reiterate what I’m trying to convey.
 As you can see, we started with a /30, but now we have a /27. This is how all
these networks come together. All you have to do is follow the same concepts
and you will be okay. Count from left to right until your reach the un-common
bit values and draw your line, that’s how you find your new mask. In return, the
summary-address would be 192.168.1. 0 /27 . I hope that by now you have
realized that this is really a piece of cake…not the complicated, theoretical
equations with physics algorithms that other books, teachers and instructors have
made it out to be. ;) Remember that my method is to teach you in a very
simplistic manner so you can grasp and comprehend the concepts to be able to
pass your CCNA certification exam, or your college exam, or whatever exam
that would include questions on IP’s. This is the sole purpose why I decided to
write this book. I felt a need to demystify the whole intimidating scheme
surrounding IP’s.

IPv4 Wildcard Masking

What is it and where do we use them?

A Wildcard Mask is used in three different ways within the CCNA. One way
is when configuring OSPF to identify which interfaces will take part in that
particular OSPF process. The other way is when configuring NAT. This is when
you are allowing a certain number of hosts to use the NAT router. The last but
not least, is when creating a standard access-list and/or

when using access-list to deny or permit access to certain destinations, port

numbers and protocols.

A wildcard mask looks something like this; 0.0.0.255 . It’s the opposite of a
subnetmask. Except, what this particular “ Wildcard Mask ” is stating

is the following; the zeros match the exact number that’s in that specific
octet, and 255 means that any range of numbers from 1-255 could fall in that
particular octet. “ Hey Laz, that’s fine and dandy, but how do we come up with a
wildcard mask?” Good question! There are two ways to come up with the
wildcard mask. Here, I will show you both; all you need to do is choose the one
that is easiest for YOU!

Remember when we were subnetting and we drew our line? Well, the sum of
those bits to the right is how we came up with a value called the “ Broadcast
Calculation Number” right? …guess what? ...that is also your “ wildcard mask”
. Below I will show you some examples just to give you a visual on how it
works:

R1(config)#router ospf 1 R1(config-router)#network 10.1.1.4

0.0.0.3 area 51

First, to deny a particular host using a standard access-list you must do the
following:

Access-list 1 deny 192.168.1.1 0.0.0.0 above since you would be using a

standard access list to permit a particular host(s) or network(s). Access-list 1
permit 192.168.1.1

0.0.0.255

Oops...I did promise that I would show you two (2) ways of how to acquire a
wildcard mask didn’t I? Well, below, is the second method.

255.255.255.255 (This is a constant number that you subtract your mask

from)

-255.255.255.224

0 . 0 . 0 . 31

There you go! Wildcard Masking, pretty straight forward isn’t it? Summary
of IPv4
 Since all good things must come to an end, this is no different. Here we have
sort-of finalized our section on IPv4; we have covered IPv4 addresses,
subnetting, VLSM, summarization and even Wildcard Masking. But it is going
to be up to you to practice these skills on a daily basis

or you will forget ( if you don’t use it – you lose it! ).

Remember that a very miniscule amount of IPv6 addresses is currently being

used worldwide. As a result, you still need to understand IPv4 until a complete
transition has taken place, so please don’t hold your breath, since this will not
take place anywhere in the near future. IP is the fundamental protocol in any
network. So you can

either master IP addressing ( both, IPv4 & IPv6 ) or prepare to be a slave to a

subnet calculator ( If this is so, then, be prepared to be kicked out of the testing
site when you decide to take the CCNA certification exam! ) It’s as simple as
that! All you’re really doing

is short changing yourself if you choose the latter. So, why go through the
agony? Unless, of course, you’re into that sort of thing. Hey, I don’t judge! To
each his own .

Now, don’t misunderstand me either, although you will be tested on IPv4 to

include subnetting an IPv4 address, you will not, however, ( for now anyway )
need to subnet an IPv6 address for the current CCNA test. Just know to identify
it. But be prepared to have another test change in the future and I have a hunch
that there will be more of IPv6 questions implemented when that change comes.
That is why here, I am giving you a head start. If and when the time comes, you
can just pull out this book from your bag of tricks, then you will have no
problem passing the newer version as it pertains to IP’s.

Remember, repetition breeds retention ( most of the time anyway – I’ve

actually witnessed some exceptions to this rule ), however, this something I
learned in the military and I believe that it holds true for about 97.6% of the
time. The more you do something, the more it’s going to become second nature
and the more you will retain the information. Unfortunately, IP seems to be the
kryptonite to every IT individual out there…do not let it be yours. So practice!

If you also have the CD, the Audio File or the DVD for this book in which I
am explaining each chapter here-in; please make sure that you listen closely to
make sure that you understand the concepts taught in this

section, because it does not stop here. Going forward, we will now move

into the book . So,

tighten your seat belts, because here we go!

IPv6

The New Frontier As I have stressed before, the

mastering of IPv4 is essential before soaring into this vast and un-chartered
“New Frontier” we call IPv6. So I hope you have already mastered IPv4 because
we are now going to get very familiar with IPv6 and its components. Although,
for the purpose of taking the CCNA certification exam all you really need is the
basics. Don’t freak out and think that you will be tested on the intricacies of IPv6
to include configuring and/or subnetting…it’s not going to happen, not yet
anyway!

So, let us continue and be somewhat exploratory shall we? IPv6 brings to us
new features such as; auto-configuration, built in IPsec, smaller headers and
obviously, the main reason

that it came to its realization; which was the quantum leap into the numbers
of IP addresses it generates within its 128 bit address. These new IPv6 addresses
are numbers that they ( and I say that sparingly since I have no idea who are…
we shall refer to as the powers that be ), had to makeup words as, “Undecillion,
Octillion, Zillion, etc.” really? …how awe-inspiring! Our dictionaries are getting

bigger by the day ever since we were introduced to the World Wide Web and
the advancement of Technology.

Did you know that a new word is created every 98 minutes? The vast
majority of these came to be when we entered the era of the Internet, Social
Media and the warp speed of the expansion of Technology ( anyway, that’s my
theory and I’m going to stick to it ), just a little trivia. But once again, I digress.
Let’s go back to focusing on IPv6. Let us not forget that now, this new format of
IP addressing is in hexadecimal format and it’s a 128 bit address…this is huge
isn’t it? To put it into perspective, and please don’t quote me on this , since I
heard it somewhere on the internet . Let’s say that IPv4 was a grain of sand and
it can fill a dump truck…in comparison, IPv6 is also a grain of sand but it can
fill up the sun! Whom ever came up with IPv6 must have thought that the issue
of running out of IP addresses was going to be fixed once and for all for

generations to come. So, this ginormous amount of IPv6 addresses are not
going to be exhausted any time soon. At least not in mine, yours, your child’s or
your child’s child life time!

But, do we really need a billion, billion addresses for every individual on the
planet? Well, if the intent was indeed to deter us from mastering IPv6, it did
NOT WORK ON ME! I actually welcome this challenge with open arms. This is
awesome!…and this

book will help you dominate and conquer this new and exciting new Internet
Protocol just as you did with IPv4.

You will learn, not only the new types of addresses, how their formatted, the
different ways of assigning these addresses, configuring the new routing
protocols that had to be updated for IPv6, but best of all, how to subnet this
enormous address. Scared yet? I can sense some of you are just scratching your
heads aren’t you? Hey…don’t fear Laz is here! I know what you are thinking “
subnetting in hex? …you must be crazy! ” I say to you now, that by the time you
finish the journey into IPv6 as explained in this book, you will come out the
other side triumphant! Not only will you fully understand IPv6, how to subnet in
IPv6 and so on, but you will also know how to apply its concepts in the real
world. So enough words on the subject and let’s start marching forward towards
glory! Do We Really Need IPv6?

Unquestionably! We desperately need IPv6. Just the fact that Cisco

announced, in one of their webinars in 2013, that it was going to be the last year
for public IPv4 addresses, is more than enough reason to transition

to IPv6. We literary have run out of public IPv4 address and we have an
obligation to keep up with the change in new and emerging technologies. With
IPv4 ( you know, the one with the 32 bit address ), it only allots for a meager 4.2
billion addresses in total worldwide. That was fine and dandy at one point, but
the world population has continued to grow and has now surpassed an
astounding 7 billion, without any ending in sight. Definitely not enough
addresses in IPv4 to appease the ever growing population of internet and
technology users, ( no one saw this coming !). For this very reason, NAT and
VLSM were created. These protocols were meant to slow down the inevitable
demise of the public IPv4 addresses. However, as they say “ all good things must
come to an end ” thus, here we are.

So, who will come to save us from this trepidation? …ta-ta-ra-da ...IPv6 to
the RESCUE!!! With its 128 bits, holding an astounding 340 Undecillion total
addresses, or to be exact;
340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456 quiet the pay check
right? You now have the possibility for each person in the world to have, as
many as 15 quintillion addresses or to be exact once more;

18,446,744,073,709,552,000 on just one network. I think we are pretty much

covered on IP’s for a long time to come don’t you?

Once we start colonizing other worlds, then we may need IPv7 or even 8
or… maybe not! Think about it? We, as individuals and for personal uses have at
least two devices that we own that need an IP address. Our tablets, our PC’s, our
cell phones (whether it’s a smart phone or not ), our home phones ( do we still
have those?...believe it or not, my mother has one, with the same phone number
since the 1970’s!) , etc. Not to mention businesses that have multiple PC’s,
printers, faxes, plotters, switches, routers, etc… so, do we need IPv6 in our
networks? MOST DEFINITELY! “ Laz, tell us the benefits of IPv6 ”. I’m glad
you asked.

What are the benefits of using IPv6?

One thing we can always guarantee in life is that “CHANGE” will always
happen. It’s just inevitable…(i.e.: our bodies change as we get older, our
relationships change as time goes by, our jobs and titles change as companies
implement new technologies, the CCNA certification

exam changed from the (640-802) to the new one you will take now, the
(200-120)…see, everything changes) However, some of us resist change. That is
what I like to call TCRS or “ The Change Resistance

Syndrome ”…here you go Wikipedia – add that to your list!

I saw this happen when we were going from NT4 to NT5 which was
WIN2K, ( if you are a millennial, then most likely you do not know what that is;
this is meant for the dinosaurs in the room ). Wow! We dreaded that change
didn’t we? We thought that nothing could improve NT4 right?... WRONG! I
remember the complaints and the resistance to change then as I still see the
resistance now; not just from employees either, but also from employers. TCRS
was entrenched back then as it is today. I know it’s difficult, but hey, you must
adapt and overcome this fear of change. After all, you can’t stop it, so you might
as well embrace it, or at least try. If you listen

to the naysayers, you know, those that will try to convince you that there are
NO new benefits to IPv6 then you will be lost, confused, aggravated and stressed
out. Why put yourself through the ringer about something that is

inevitable and ultimately simple to learn. So, to those individuals out there,
and believe me, you will encounter plenty; I want you to respond in an informed
and competent manner (…don’t worry, this book will get you

there), and let them know that YES, there are plenty of benefits to switching
to IPv6. I want you to then proceed to point out the benefits that IPv6 brings; for
example: we have IPsec built in that provides end to end security, a header that is
half the size of IPv4, and since its aligned to 64 bits, it will increase the
processing speed significantly as well. Of course we know the awe-inspiring
number of IP’s that would now allow for more efficient routing, and lets not
forget the new types of addresses such as “ Anycast ” known also as “ One to
Nearest ”, and hallelujah…no more BROADCAST! It is all now “ Multicast ”
and you could have many

different types of addresses on the same interface; Unicast , Multicast , and

Anycast . I know what you’re thinking. “ Man, this is awesome! ” YES IT IS!

I would of course like to mention the Link-local address, but, that will
always be present on your PC regardless of DHCP or not; this will be present on
your router ’s interface as well. Just wanted to throw that out there just as an
FYI.

So, mark my words, IPv6 is chalk full of benefits and enhancements that will
be most advantageous to us all.

The assignment of these addresses are different as well, let me explain; we

could assign the IP address statically, both the Network Prefix and Interface ID,
followed by its prefix-length, or we could just put the network prefix portion of
the address followed by a double colon and ending it with the prefix-length,
whatever it may be.

In order to generate the Interface ID portion of it, we would use another new
feature called auto-configuration which is typing this command: eui-64 after the
prefix length. It will generate the Interface ID portion of the address using the
MAC address of the routers interface. That will only give us a 48 bit address.
But hey!...we need 64 bits. So, to accommodate for the missing bits, it will pad
the MAC address with the following: FFFE to the middle of the address,
meaning it will insert the FFFE smack in the middle of the MAC address to
make it 64 bits.

So, most definitely IPv6 brings its benefits; this is but a nibble of all the
benefits it brings. But it’s enough for what we need to know for certification
purposes and employment needs for now.

Now, let’s start looking at these addresses and how they are made-up.
Addressing and Expressions

Remember IPv6 addresses are in hexadecimal format, and they are separated
into 8 sections of 4 hexadecimal numbers separated by colons. This creates our
128 bit address.

Example:

2001:3200:0abc:1100:0000:0000:1234:abc1/64

Do not let the size of this address deter you from your goal! We will dissect
this type of address and understand what we are looking at, to include the make-
up of this 128 bit address.

An IPv6 address is really broken into two parts, the first part is made up of
four (4) sections. This part is called the Ne twork Pre fix . The next part also has
four (4) sections and is called the Inte rface ID. The 2 nd part of the address (
Interface ID ), can be generated automatically using the eui-64 command. The
/64 is also called the prefix-length, this is NOT a subnetmask as it was in IPv4.

FYI: The word CIDR is use in IPv4 only and is therefore considered an
archaic terminology. This is used for routing purposes only and it has nothing to
do with the Interface ID of the address.

Let us breakdown the above address into its two parts and then further
breakdown each section of the Network Prefix portion of the address as follows:

0000

Interface ID 64 Bits

Once again remember that the values you are looking at are hexadecimal
values! Each one of those numbers or letters really represents 4 bits…you didn’t
forget, did you? You need to understand that, this is how each section equates to
16 bits .

Now let’s take the Network Prefix and place each section into its category:

In IPv6 we do not have “Classes” of addresses. What we do have in IPv6 is

designation of addresses.

Let’s consider the figure above… this is an example of a Global Unicast

address. How do we know this? Well, this is simple. You should immediately
recognize this by just looking at the first section of the address. Global Unicast
addresses starts with 2001. This means that you need to be able to look at an
IPv6 address and be able to snap your fingers and know what type of address it
is without dwelling too much on it. Take my word for it, this will become second
nature to you as you practice and read this book a few times.

If the address would have started with FE80 , then you would have known
that the IPv6 address would be considered a Link-local address instead. So in
order to identify an IPv6 address we would look at the first section of the
network prefix.

We will take a look at the different types of addresses further in this book.

Isn’t this address just too big to type every time you need it? It certainly is!
We need to make things fast and simple in order to be able to spend our precious
time doing other things rather than typing these 128 bit addresses over and over
again. “Is there a shorter method to these addresses? Thank goodness there is! “
The powers that be ” must have read our minds and actually thought the same
thing. They came up with a fantastic way to shorten the expression and alleviate
our fingers in the process. However, like everything in IT, it has rules that must
be followed:

1. There can only be one (1) set of double colons- NO

EXCEPTIONS

2. You can only remove leading zeroes from the address.

3. The complete address must equate to eight sections.

4. You can only go up to F in the hex table. “This one is just common
sense”.

Using the same address let’s see how we can shorten it.

2001:3200: 0 abc:1100: 0000 : 0000 :1234:abc1/64 (Numbers highlighted in

red can

be removed.)

2001:3200:abc:1100::1234:abc1/64

We have removed all leading zeroes and the two sets of contiguous zeroes by
using one double colon, this is a valid IPv6 address.

So what would an invalid IPv6 address look like?

Here is an example:

2001::HE35::1569:BEEF

The address above is breaking all the rules isn’t it? First we have 2 sets of
double colons, you should know that only one (1) set of double colons is
permitted. So, why is that wrong? First of all, the protocol would not know
where to place the zeroes, and secondly, hex numbers don not go beyond the
letter “ F ”. In this example, we see the letter “H” in the address, and it looks like
we only have 6 sections instead of eight, but that could be due to the double
colons that represent consecutive zeroes right? None the less, the above address
is invalid one way or another and cannot be used.

Recognizing a valid & invalid address is extremely important when taking

your certification exam. I do not want you to get points taken off for something
as simple as this.

FYI: You can have upper case and lower case hex in the address (as the
examples above indicate), it does NOT make a difference as far as configuration
is concerned…it is a matter of preference. Having said that, Cisco recommends
that you keep the hex letters in lower case. In this book I do both. The upper case
is mainly to make a visual emphasis. But, again, please follow the rules and do
what Cisco recommends, why be defiant? After all, you need to get your CCNA.

If asked, how can we fix this invalid address? Well, let’s give it a try shall
we?

2001: 0 :CE35: 0 :1569:BEEF ::1

Here, I added a zero were the double colons were. From there on I had no
idea about the rest of the address. Therefore, I simply put a double colon to
represent a section of zeros, and ended the address with a 1, which in turn would
give us the Interface ID portion of the address to complete the eight sections
needed. I also took the “H” and replaced it with a “C”…which is now a true
value in the hex table to make this address

valid.

Again, I did this to show the difference between a valid IPv6 address and an
invalid IPv6 address to drive the message that, you need to recognize the
difference between the two.

Expect to be asked the difference between valid & an invalid IPv6 address in
the Cisco certification exam.

Types of Addresses in IPv6 All right, let’s take a look at some

 of the addresses you need to be familiar with and their intended purposes.

The table below will help you with this:

This is the new

and it is not routable. But it is always

present on an interface. It uses Zone ID’s, if

multiple NICs exist on the device, to send the packet out through the correct
interface.

This is a Unique Local ss . It is

comparable to the

addresses. It replaced the FC00::/10

Site

local address in Sept 2004, there is also an FD00::/8 for a /48

prefix and FC00::/8

still in the works.

 Multicast FF00::/8 This address is the same as in IPv4

multicast address

You will see these

addresses quite often between all routing

protocols when they

send their updates.

RIP: FF02::/9

EIGRP: FF02::A

OSPF: FF02::5

Anycast address This address is also called the “ one to

nearest ”, which

means; when a data

packet is sent, based on the routing protocol, it will find the closest
destination specified address and send the packet. These

addresses come out of the range of the unique local range.

Here is an example on how one would create it:

IPv6 address -

2002:0db8:6301::/128 anycast

The anycast

is the key, in order to make it work.

Special Addresses
 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0 This could also be denoted as ::

the IPv4 address

0.0.0.0

0:0:0:0:0:0:0:1 This is the Loopback address in IPv6 and it is the only

Loopback address. This is unlike IPv4 which took the

entire 127 range. You could also express it as- ::1 . Done by

removing the leading Mixed environment

using IPv6 with IPv4 Global unicast address Reserved for examples and
Documentation

Same as above

This range is used for the transition

 mechanism- 6 to 4

To reiterate and as a finishing note on these addresses; all you would need to
know is how to identify them. Are they a Link-Local Address , Multicast ,
Global Unicast , or Loopback ? Remember that you will also be asked to
identify a valid address; i.e.: no double colons, values above F and so forth.
Please try to remember these basic addresses for the test.

I know that it’s a totally different story once you get to the workplace, since
that’s where the real fun begins, but do not concern with that now since you need
to pass a certification first. Statically Assigning addresses

Assigning IPv6 addresses to a router is pretty much the same thing as in

IPv4; but instead of typing IP address:
 192.168.1.1 255.255.255.0 You would type IPv6 address:
2001:3200:0abc:1100:0000:0000:1234:abc1/64 However, try using the
shortened expression wherever possible, meaning, get rid of the leading zeroes
and all consecutive zeroes were possible. Learning this will make your life a
whole lot easier…and remember that you will learn it with practice.

When using IPv6, there is no need to type “ IPv6 enable ” on the interface
unless you want to specifically use the Link-local address only. Once you type-
in the complete address manually, it will enable IPv6.

CAUTION! Doing this command will not enable routing of the IPv6
addresses. Confused? Don’t worry, we will talk about that later on. Using the
EUI-64

Another way you could assign IPv6 addresses is by using the eui-64
command. This works by generating the Interface ID portion of the address

automatically. It uses the MAC address of the interface to perform this task. “
But wait Laz, that’s only 48 bits - we need 64 ” There’s a simple explanation to
this as well. Let me explain; what e ui-64 does in order to make it a 64 bit
address is to PAD or insert an FFFE in-between the MAC address.

The main concern here should be with your MAC address being part of the
IPv6 complete address. But if your security is in place, (…and it better be if you
care about your job ), then you should have nothing to worry about. You should
only be concerned with two things; “what does the command do? And how to
configure it.

The following is an example of using the eui-64 command:

The following output would be the result of using the e ui-64 command.
 DHCPv6

Well DHCP is pretty much DHCP; whether it’s IPv4 or IPv6. It still does
what it knows how to do best - lease addresses . Obviously we need to
understand that we are now doing it for IPv6. Nonetheless, there are still a few
limitations within the IOS of a Cisco router for DHCPv6; including DHCPv6
stateless support.

Know this, DHCP servers will be around for a bit. They are not going to
disappear just yet so you must make sure you are still up to date when it comes
to setting one up.

In my very humble opinion, I would shy away from setting up a router with
the DHCP service enabled. My reasoning behind this is simply due to
broadcasting to lease an address and also because of the continuous renewal of
that address. I believe routers have more important tasks to perform than
assigning IP addresses. But hey…that’s me!

You can always set it up as a Relay Agent, using the IP-helper command on
an interface, so it can go on behalf of the client to an actual DHCP server and
have an IP address assigned to the client.

Yet again…no one should be going across broadcast domains to have IP

address assigned to them; most specifically if it’s across a WAN. The only way I
can justify turning a router into a DHCP server is, if it’s a small company. And
even then, I have my reservations on that.

IPv6 Makeup IPv6 Header vs. IPv4 Header

 Total

Length

Not to go into too much detail, just looking at the different headers, you can
see that IPv4 is twice as big, but yet it’s only 32 bits long. Where, the IPv6
header is half the size, and its 128 bits.

What does that tell you? Well, that IPv6 is more streamlined and that all the
unwanted fields where taken out. Nonetheless, you do have optional extension
headers after these eight (8) fields which carry Layer 3 information

and they are not fixed. That’s really the basic difference

between the two protocols. Please, do not go insane trying to memorize each
field.

ICMPv6

ICMPv6 does pretty much the same tasks that its predecessor did with some
extra features built-in.

TRIVIA : You will NOT be asked this in a certification! You can just use it to
impress your friends or co-workers .

Did you know that the ICMPv6 packet is identified by the value 58 in the
next header field of the ICMP message being sent?

The following you DO ne e d to know:

When an ICMPv6 is traversing the network, it bases its MTU from its home
link. If it encounters an MTU smaller than its own, one of the routers will send
back a message “ packe t too big ” to the originating machine. That will
continue until the packets meet the MTU size criteria. At that time, all other data
will pass without any fragmentation occurring. ICMP is now being used for
various task such as the following:

Router Solicitation (RS) Router Advertisement (RA) Neighbor

Solicitation (NA) Neighbor Advertisement (NA) Duplicate Address Detection

(DAD)

One huge task is finding the neighbors’ address on the same segment.
Remember, there is no more broadcast – It is now all multicast . Therefore,
when communicating between PC’s we now have the NS and NA. If, on the
other hand,

communication is going to occur between a PC and a router, then we have

RS and RA.

We also have DAD or Duplicate Address Detecti on. Really? With the
amount of IP’s we have available with IPv6 it is highly doubtful that we will

have duplicate addresses on the network. But hey… stranger things have
happened. And just in case this anomaly occurs, they came up with

DAD. Just so you know, this is not a separate protocol. It is a function of the
NS and NA messages.

As usual, DAD goes out along with the Neighbor Discovery

Protocol/Neighbor Solicitation message asking if anyone has the same

address.

IPv6 Routing Protocols and

Configurations As you might have noticed by now,

I just can’t get away from talking about routing! I love this subject and this is
what Cisco is all about isn’t it?
 In IPv6 we still have our static and dynamic routing, and as I like to call it,
it’s also the facelift of the IPv4 protocol. Both protocols essentially do the same
thing, nonetheless, they are configured a bit differently.

This routing protocol…and I’m talking about IPv6 , is configured on an

interface-by-interface basis instead of a network statement ( or command), as in
IPv4.

So, let’s go ahead and get started with static routing first. Static Routing

The topology below is what we will be working with. This is where we need
to make PC1 ping PC2 using static routes.

The first step would be to configure our PC’s with their IPv6 addresses,
prefix numbers and default gateways.

Following would be the

configurations for each one of the PC’s.

PC1

IPv6 address:

2001:3200:abc:4800::1/55 Default Gateway:

2001:3200:abc:4800::F/55

PC2
 IPv6 address:

2001:3200:abc:4c00::1/55 Default Gateway:

2001:3200:abc:4c00::F/55

The second step would be to configure the routers interfaces to first have
connectivity with each other.

The following would be an example on how to assign the IPv6 addresses

statically to the routers interfaces with their appropriate prefix-length and
consequently turning on their interface.

>enable

#config t

(config)#hostname R1 R1(config)#int f0/0

R1(config-if)#ipv6 address 2001:3200:abc:4800::F/55

R1(config-if)#no shut R1(config-if)#int f0/1 R1(config-if)#ipv6 address

2001:3200:abc:4a00::1/55 R1(config-if)#no shut R1(config-if)#do wr

>enable

#config t

(config)#hostname R2 R2(config)#int f0/0

R2(config-if)#ipv6 address 2001:3200:abc:4a00::2/55

R2(config-if)#no shut R2(config-if)#int f0/1 R2(config-if)#ipv6 address

2001:3200:abc:4c00::F/55 R2(config-if)#no shut R2(config-if)#do wr

Now that you have the routers configured, you need to make sure you can
ping from router to router and that your PC’s can reach their gateways. This will
rule out any miss-configurations.
 Once you have verified that indeed you can ping, it is time to start
configuring the static route – there’s only two (2) here, so let’s thank the heavens
for that!

You should already know that you need to turn on IPv6 unicast-routing ( it
is turned off by default- this is essential for routing to occur in IPv6) … now,
let’s get started.

Here, all you need to do is ping and VOILA ! You have connectivity within
your enterprise!

Can you see the picture here? Static routing creates less overhead on your
router. On the other hand, that does not hold true for the

administrator. Especially if you are doing IPv6. It was quite easy to do static
routing in our example since it had only one static route. But just imagine 10, 30
or in certain companies 100’s if not 1,000’s of static routes. If that’s the case,
then copy & paste will become your next best friend.

But let’s continue. Too many static routes can lend to user error. You can
very easily forget to enter a static route or configure it incorrectly. I myself have
experienced this personally . It’s just part of being human…but try to minimize
that trait .

When you get to that time in your life to do routing protocols such as; RIPng,
EIGRPv6 and OSPFv3 instead of static routing, you could have a combination
of any of these on your routers.

However, on the stub routers ( these are the edge routers that have only one
way in and one way out of the network), you would use “ De fault Static Route
s ” also … but that’s another book I’ll be writing. Dynamic Routing
 In dynamic routing the protocols algorithm still remains the same; meaning,
the way it calculates the best path to a destination does not change. What does
change however, is how you configure it.

We will use the same topology as before, the only difference is that you will
configure RIPng.

The first thing we have to get rid of, are the static routes. Keep in mind that
static routes have a lower administrative distance (AD) than any

routing protocol. (If you do not get rid of the static routes, they will always
get preference to populate the routing table ). Unless you want to keep them as a
back-up. At that point you would have to increase the AD to a number higher
than the routing protocol you are using; in this case higher than RIP. This then
added at the end of the “ IPv6 Static Route Statement ”.

Below is an example:

If you do not take out the static routes, RIPng will never make it to the
routing table.

The following is the command you would type to remove the static routes’
entries:

Looking at the commands above, you can see that by just adding the word “
no ” in front of your static route, it removes it. Just in case you were
wondering…yes, you must type the whole statement for it to work. Always
cross-check your work to make sure that it indeed worked by typing show run or
show start . Remember to “trust but verify!”

Now, let’s configure RIPng on both routers. This time though, instead of
advertising the networks that you are attached to, you actually go into the
interfaces that you want to participate in the RIP process and enable it. You still
have enable RIPng Globally but the network entries are gone and so is the
command no auto-summary.

Let us see how this is done:

That’s all there is to it…you’re done! I know it looks funny, especially the
number one (1). All that really does is identifies the process for the particular
instance of RIP ( this can be different for every router ), however, it is locally
significant. Just make sure that whatever number you enable RIP with is in
global configuration; you have to use the same number on the interfaces ( these
number must ALWAYS match ).

Next we have OSPF; the topology still remains the same. But this time we do
not need to remove RIP; because the AD of RIP is 120, and the AD of OSPF is
110. Since OSPF has a lower AD, it will have preference over RIP to populate
the routing table. Once again, you could change the AD of any routing protocol
by going into router configuration mode of that specific routing protocol.

So let’s see how you would configure OSPF:

 See how simple it is…you are now done! I always like to use addresses like
the ones you see in the example as my Router ID. Usually, this would be my
Loopback address on the router. The loopback address normally matches
according to the number of the router as well. Please don’t forget that all routers
must be in the same area; that is a key factor in the CCNA. Also, always verify
by pinging and using the command show ipv6 route to look at your routing
table.

Okay, we made it to the last routing protocol required for the CCNA…
EIGRPv6! And once again, we do not need to remove any of the routing
protocols we configured because EIGRP’s AD is 90, which is lower than RIP
and OSPF. That means it will take over the routing table. With this routing
protocol, we need to use an

autonomous system which has to be the same across all routers. Nonetheless,
we have to give it a Router-ID which defines a “ Protocol Instance ”. We would
also need to turn the protocol “ on ” by doing the no shut command within the
router configuration mode. Once that’s done, we can go to the interfaces and
enable it on the ones we want to participate in the EIGRP process.
 Do not wait for the routing protocol to converge. Run your command show
ipv6 route and you should see your D’s in the routing table.

IPv6 routing is really not that much different than in IPv4. The concepts stay
the same and to be honest it makes more sense now.

Now that we are familiar with IPv6, we come to the biggest topic yet, of
course I’m talking about subne tting . I hope you are ready and excited as I am,
because our journey continues.

IPv6 Subnetting In the world of IPv4 subnetting, ( as

you saw here, it was not as difficult as you thought right?), we had to pay
attention to a lot of things that we do not need to concern ourselves with now
with IPv6. One of these being the number of hosts we needed. In IPv4
subnetting, we had to make sure that we used the correct subnetmask to segment
our network properly and provide enough host for that segment for future
growth. Therefore, subnetting in IPv4 sometimes made the network somewhat
complex and even more difficult to manage. At least that has been my personal
experience.

Now with IPv6 we do not have those concerns, do we? We only pay attention
to the Network Prefix of the address, this is the first 64 bits of the address. The
/64 is NOT a subnetmask anymore. In IPv6 it’s now called a Prefix-length and it
deals with the routing process. No longer do we have to worry if we have
enough host addresses. This is awesome! If you remember earlier in this book, I
stated that one IPv6 address has 15 quintillion addresses. I think that speaks for
itself don’t you think? What I’m trying to convey here is that we no longer have
to worry about the Interface ID side of the address.

What throws most people aback with IPv6 addresses and subnetting is the
128 bit address and that it is in hexadecimal format. I know it looks insane, but,
“do not fear – Laz is here!” And just like in IPv4 you will use the same method
to subnett in IPv6.

You also need to remember that the 4 th section of the Network Prefix of an
IPv6 address is what has been allotted for you to subnet. This will be the section
you will be working with.

Example 1:

2001:3200:1600: 2000 ::/51 This is the address you have been

given and you must subnet it, into 8 subnets.

How do we attack this problem? Take the 4 th section, which is

highlighted in red, and separated into binary format.

Above is how the 2000 would look in its binary format; remember each one
of those numbers is comprised of 4 bits that represent a section of 16 bits, which
in turn gives us 65,536 networks to work with. By the third section, you

have a prefix length of /48 . But wait! You were given a prefix

length of /51 as a starting point right? This means, you cannot use anything
smaller than /51 . This is the starting point for you to subnet in IPv6. Here is

where our handy dandy “ magic line ” comes into play; once you have that
taken care of, you then start counting from 49 until you reach 51. Once this

is done, you can then begin counting for your eight subnets as shown below:
 What you are trying to find is the increment number. In this scenario, it is the
bit highlighted in red, which has a value of 4 in the 2 nd Position. Therefore, we
had to turn on 3 more bits to be able to have 8 subnets which in turn gave us the
new Prefix-length of /54 .

Let us take a look at how our new subnets would look like:

See…it is the same exact concept as in IPv4. You count for your subnets
from left to right and draw your line. The bit value to the left of the line is your
network increment, the only

difference now is that we increment in Hex.

As you can see in this problem our increment is 4 in the 2 nd Position. For
that reason, just keep adding 4 to the second number from left to right and that is
how you get your values.

The tricky part is that now, you are dealing with letters. Let’s not forget your
hex table as previously mentioned, but just in case you did, I have included it
here again:

He x Table
 Let’s take a look at another example, just to drill it in:

In the following example, your starting address will be the following:

2001:4800:2201: 1000 ::/48 . In this example you were given a

prefix-length of /48 and a starting value of 1000 . We would like to subnet

this address into 6 subnets.

I am using small numbers throughout this book just so you can become
familiar with the concepts of subnetting in IPv6. Ultimately, practicing over and
over will make you a master at it, at that point you will be able to subnet with
more complex addresses. By that time you will be doing subnetting in your sleep.

(The first line is

the /48 starting point)

Let’s practice one more time! Once again…below, we are

looking for the increment number. Which is the bit value to the left of the line
. In this case, that number is 2 in the 1 st Position.
 Well, there you have it! You needed 6 subnets; so you turned on 3 more bits
which now gave you a prefix length of

51. As you can see in the 4 th Section you are incrementing by two in the 1 st
Position.

This is just the tip of the iceberg ladies & gentlemen, there is a lot more to it
than this. However, this is the basic fundamentals that you need to know, not
only for the CCNA certification exam, but also for hiring purposes. Notice that
you can now do it without having to use those weird classical mechanics
computations.

“Laz, will I be asked to subnet in IPv6 for the CCNA exam?” For now, I
highly doubt it. But if they do…this book will be your guide to take any IP test
with confidence. It is the only IP book you will ever need! Hex conversions for
fun

Let’s finish off the book with some easy and fun conversions; especially now
that we are using IPv6. Wouldn’t it would be fun to learn how to convert hex
numbers just for the hell of it? I want you to be an expert in IP’s; but would also
like you to be familiar with conversions as well. I’m here to tell

you that you can count on me for support .

Okay now…remember that we have different bases of numbers we use; base

16 which is he x , base 10 which is de cimal , and base 2 which is binary . I will
show you how you can

easily go back and forth from one to the other without complicated formulas.

Below again, are a couple of things you need to know or should already
know:
 You would add the bit values that are “ on” for each section:

The Hex number would be 94 ! You would write it in the following format:
0x94 .

The “ 0x ” is an identifier to let you know that what you’re looking at is a

HEX number.

Pretty easy right? It just doesn’t get any easier than this! Let’s do a different
example. This time, let’s convert a hex number to a decimal: E5

Now you would add the bit values that are “ on ” and bring them together as

If you add all the bit values that are on …you get a grand total of 229 .
 That’s all there is to it! Just remember to convert first to binary, then to hex
or decimal.

You must commit the Hex table, bit values and bit to decimal table to
memory. There is no getting around it, if you want to make your life easy -JUST
DO IT!

Just in case you don’t remember reading earlier about the bit to decimal, here
it is again:

Summary of IP’s There you have it, IPv4 & IPv6 in a

nut shell! We’ve gone through the addressing part of both protocols and their
features. I’ve also shown you how to configure with step-by-step instructions for
all three routing protocols: RIPng, OSPv3 and EIGRPv6. But the best part of all
is that we made it through the subnetting portion of it fairly easy-for both IPv4 &
IPv6. We then finished off with a little fun with Hex conversions as well.

Please remember that even though we were having fun with converting hex,
decimals and binary numbers, it is crucial that you become very familiar with
this more than ever before since the IP’s of the future will be all in HEX!

Making the move to the IPv6 protocol will definitely make our networks
more robust in their routing and will bring a new era of subnetting.

T he Start of a New Beginning!

Although IPv4 may be phasing out as IPv6 is being implemented, we should

note that it’s an opportunity for all of us in the IT field to feel good that there
will now be enough IP’s for everyone in the globe to be connected! The end of
an era is the start of a new beginning!

I have put together some review questions for you to practice and remember
to read this book over and over until you know that you have mastered the world
of IP’s.
 IP is the core to networking!

I wish to thank everyone that have made this book possible and that includes
you! May your quest for the CCNA certification come to fruition! For those that
may be apprehensive about taking the certification exam… just think about this “
many before you have traveled that path and made it, so why shouldn’t you ? No
one is born a CCNA. Do you need to work hard at it? Most definitely! But
anyone that focuses their minds to the task, are disciplined about their studies
and have the passion to move forward, will always succeed. Just ask yourself
this question – “ how bad do you want it?”

Review Questions

1. What is the last valid host on the subnetwork

172.18.31.96 255.255.255.240?

1. 172.18.31.112

2. 172.18.31.110

3. 172.18.32.0

4. 172.18.32.113

2. Which subnet does the host

172.17.44.142/28 belong to?

1. 172.17.44.140

2. 172.17.44.130

3. 172.17.44.120

4. 172.17.44.128

3. What valid host range is the IP address 172.17.101.106/23 a part of?

1. 172.17.101.1 through to
172.17.101.255

2. 172.17.10.1 through to

172.17.11.254

3. 172.17.100.1 through to

172.17.101.254

4. 172.17.100.0 through to

172.17.101.255

4. What is the first valid host on the subnetwork that the node

172.18.96.246 255.255.254.0 belongs to?

1. 172.18.96.1

2. 172.18.96.221

3. 172.18.96.11

4. 172.18.96.245

5. What is the last valid host on the subnetwork 192.168.226.128/26?

1. 192.168.226.190

2. 192.168.226.191

3. 192.168.226.189

4. 192.168.226.129

6. Which subnet does the host

10.87.179.200 255.255.240.0 belong to?

1. 10.87.144.0
 2. 10.87.176.0

3. 10.87.178.0

4. 10.87.160.0

7. What is the broadcast address of the network

172.22.1.64 255.255.255.192?

1. 172.22.1.128

2. 172.22.1.126

3. 172.22.1.127

4. 172.22.1.255

8. What valid host range is the IP address

172.22.48.115 255.255.255.128 a part of?

1. 172.22.48.1 through to

172.22.48.126

2. 172.22.48.0 through to

172.22.48.127

3. 172.22.48.110 through to

172.22.48.128

4. Invalid mask

9. You are designing a subnet mask for the 172.30.0.0 network. You want
600 subnets with up to 40 hosts on each subnet. What subnet mask should you
use?

1. 255.255.255.192
 2. 255.255.192.0

3. 255.255.0.0

4. 255.255.255.252

10. What is the broadcast address of the network 192.168.185.104/30?

1. 192.168.185.105

2. 192.168.185.106

3. 192.168.185.107

4. 192.168.185.108

11. Refer to the exhibit. The networks connected to router R2 have been
summarized as a 192.168.176.0/21 route and sent to R1. Which two packet
destination addresses will R1 forward to R2? (Choose two.)

1. 192.168.194.160

2. 192.168.183.41

3. 192.168.159.2

4. 192.168.183.255

5. 192.168.179.4
 6. 192.168.184.45

12. Refer to the exhibit. Which three statements correctly describe Network
Device A?

1. With a network wide mask of

255.255.255.128, each interface does not require an IP address.

2. With a network wide mask of

255.255.255.128, each interface does require an IP address on a unique IP

subnet.

3. With a network wide mask of

255.255.255.0, must be a Layer 2 device for the PCs to communicate with

each other.

4. With a network wide mask of

255.255.255.0, must be a Layer 3 device for the PCs to communicate with

each other.

5. With a network wide mask of

255.255.254.0, each interface does not require an IP address.

13. Which two statements describe characteristics of IPv6 unicast

addressing? (Choose two.)
 1. Global addresses start with 2000::/3

2. Link-local addresses start with FE00:/12

3. Link-local addresses start with FF00::/10

4. There is only one loopback address and it is ::1

5. If a global address is assigned to an interface, then that is the only

allowable address for the interface.

14. Which two of these statements are true of IPv6 address representation?
(Choose two.)

1. There are four types of IPv6 addresses: unicast, multicast, anycast, and
broadcast.

2. A single interface may be assigned multiple IPv6 addresses of any type.

3. Every IPv6 interface contains at least one loopback address.

4. The first 64 bits represent the dynamically created interface ID.

5. Leading zeros in an IPv6 16 bit hexadecimal field are mandatory.

15. What is known as "one-to-nearest" addressing in IPv6?

1. global unicast

2. anycast

3. multicast

4. unspecified address

16. Which option is a valid IPv6 address?

1. 2001:0000:130F::099a::12a

2. 2002:7654:A1AD:61:81AF:CCC1
 3. FEC0:ABCD:WXYZ:0067::2A4

4. 2004:1:25A4:886F::1

17. How many bits are contained in each field of an IPv6 address?

1. 24

2. 4

3. 8

4. 16

18. Which IP address can be assigned to an Internet interface?

1. 10.180.48.224

2. 9.255.255.10

3. 192.168.20.223

4. 172.16.200.18

19. What will happen if a private IP address is assigned to a public interface

connected to an ISP?

1. Addresses in a private range will be not routed on the Internet backbone.

2. Only the ISP router will have the capability to access the public network.

3. The NAT process will be used to translate this address in a valid IP

address.

4. Several automated methods will be necessary on the private network.

5. A conflict of IP addresses happens, because other public routers can use

the same range.

20. Which term describes the process of encapsulating IPv6 packets inside
IPv4 packets?
 1. Tunneling

2. Hashing

3. Routing

4. NAT

21. Which statement about IPv6 is true?

1. Addresses are not hierarchical and are assigned at random.

2. Only one IPv6 address can exist on a given interface.

3. There are 2.7 billion addresses available.

4. Broadcasts have been eliminated and replaced with multicasts.

22. Refer to the exhibit. Which VLSM mask will allow for the appropriate
number of host addresses for Network A?

1. /25

2. /26

3. /27

4. /28

23. Refer to the exhibit. Which subnet mask will place all hosts on Network
B in the same subnet with the least amount of wasted addresses?
 1. 255.255.255.0

2. 255.255.254.0

3. 255.255.252.0

4. 255.255.248.0

24. Refer to the exhibit. Which mask is correct to use for the WAN link
between the routers that will provide connectivity while wasting the least
amount of addresses?

1. /23

2. /24

3. /25

4. /30

25. Refer to the exhibit. What is the most appropriate summarization for
these routes?
 1. 10.0.0.0 /21

2. 10.0.0.0 /22

3. 10.0.0.0 /23

4. 10.0.0.0 /24

26. On the network 131.1.123.0/27, what is the last IP address that can be
assigned to a host?

1. 131.1.123.30

2. 131.1.123.31

3. 131.1.123.32

4. 131.1.123.33

27. The ip subnet zero command is not configured on a router. What would
be the IP address of Ethernet0/0 using the first available address from the sixth
subnet of the network

192.168.8.0/29?

1. 192.168.8.25

2. 192.168.8.41

3. 192.168.8.49

4. 192.168.8.113

28. Which command would correctly configure a serial port on a router with
the last usable host address in the 192.216.32.32/29 subnet?

1. Router(config-if)# ip address

192.216.32.38 255.255.255.240

2. Router(config-if)# ip address
 192.216.32.39 255.255.255.224

3. Router(config-if)# ip address

192.216.32.39 255.255.255.224

4. Router(config-if)# ip address

192.216.32.39 255.255.255.248

5. Router(config-if)# ip address

192.216.32.63 255.255.255.248

6. Router(config-if)# ip address

192.216.32.38 255.255.255.248

29. The network default gateway applying to a host by DHCP is

192.168.5.33/28. Which option is the valid IP address of this host?

1. 192.168.5.55

2. 192.168.5.47

3. 192.168.5.40

4. 192.168.5.32

5. 192.168.5.14

30. The network administrator has asked you to check the status of the
workstation's IP stack by pinging the loopback address. Which address would
you ping to perform this task?

1. 10.1.1.1

2. 127.0.0.1

3. 192.168.0.1
 4. 239.1.1.1

31. Workstation A has been assigned an IP address of 192.0.2.24/28.

Workstation B has been assigned an IP address of 192.0.2.100/28. The two
workstations are connected with a straight-through cable. Attempts to ping
between the hosts are unsuccessful. What two things can be done to allow
communications between the hosts? (Choose two.)

1. Replace the straight-through cable with a crossover cable.

2. Change the subnet mask of the hosts to /25.

3. Change the subnet mask of the hosts to /26.

4. Change the address of Workstation A to 192.0.2.15.

5. Change the address of Workstation B to 192.0.2.111.

32. Your ISP has given you the address

223.5.14.6/29 to assign to your router's interface. They have also given you
the default gateway address of 223.5.14.7. After you have configured the
address, the router is unable to ping any remote devices. What is preventing the
router from pinging remote devices?

1. The default gateway is not an address on this subnet.

2. The default gateway is the broadcast address for this subnet.

3. The IP address is the broadcast address for this subnet.

4. The IP address is an invalid class D multicast address.

33. Refer to the exhibit. The user at Workstation B reports that Server A
cannot be reached. What is preventing Workstation B from reaching Server A?

1. The IP address for Server A is a broadcast address.

2. The IP address for Workstation B is a subnet address.

3. The gateway for Workstation B is not on the same subnet.

 4. The gateway for Server A is not on the same subnet.

34. A national retail chain needs to design an IP addressing scheme to

support a nationwide network. The company needs a minimum of 300 sub-
networks and a maximum of 50 host addresses per subnet. Working with only
one Class B address, which of the following subnet masks will support an
appropriate addressing scheme? (Choose two.)

1. 255.255.255.0

2. 255.255.255.128

3. 255.255.252.0

4. 255.255.255.224

5. 255.255.255.192

6. 255.255.248.0

35. Refer to the diagram. All hosts have connectivity with one another.
Which statements describe the addressing scheme that is in use in the network?
(Choose three.)

1. The subnet mask in use is

255.255.255.192.

2. The subnet mask in use is

 255.255.255.128.

3. The IP address 172.16.1.25 can be assigned to hosts in VLAN1

4. The IP address 172.16.1.205 can be assigned to hosts in VLAN1

5. The LAN interface of the router is configured with one IP address.

6. The LAN interface of the router is configured with multiple IP addresses.

36. Refer to the exhibit. The network shown in the diagram is experiencing
connectivity problems. Which of the following will correct the problems?
(Choose two.)

1. Configure the gateway on Host A as 10.1.1.1.

2. Configure the gateway on Host B as 10.1.2.254

3. Configure the IP address of Host A as 10.1.2.2.

4. Configure the IP address of Host B as 10.1.2.2.

5. Configure the masks on both hosts to be 255.255.255.224.

6. Configure the masks on both hosts to be 255.255.255.240.

37. Which three IP addresses can be assigned to hosts if the subnet mask is
/27 and subnet zero is usable? (Choose three.)

1. 10.15.32.17

2. 17.15.66.128

3. 66.55.128.1

4. 135.1.64.34

5. 129.33.192.192

6. 192.168.5.63
 38. Running both IPv4 and IPv6 on a router simultaneously is known as
what?

1. 4to6 routing

2. 6to4 routing

3. binary routing

4. dual-stack routing

5. NextGen routing

39. What are three IPv6 transition mechanisms? (Choose three.)

1. 6to4 tunneling

2. VPN tunneling

3. GRE tunneling

4. ISATAP tunneling

5. PPP tunneling

6. Teredo tunneling

40. Identify the valid IPv6 addresses. (Choose all apply.)

1. ::

2. ::192:168:0:1

3. 2000::

4. 2001:3452:4952:2837::

5. 2002:c0a8:101::42

6. 2003:dead:beef:4dad:23:46:bb:101
 41. Which of the following IP addresses can be assigned to the host devices?
(Choose two.)

1. 205.7.8.32/27

2. 191.168.10.2/23

3. 127.0.0.1

4. 224.0.0.10

5. 203.123.45.47/28

6. 10.10.0.0/13

42. Refer to the exhibit. In this VLSM addressing scheme, what summary
address would be sent from router

1. 172.16.0.0 /16

2. 172.16.0.0 /20

3. 172.16.0.0 /24

4. 172.32.0.0 /16

5. 172.32.0.0 /17
 6. 172.64.0.0 /16

43. Which statement is true?

1. An IPv6 address is 64 b long and is represented as hexadecimal characters.

2. An IPv6 address is 32 b long and is represented as decimal digits.

3. An IPv6 address is 128 b long and is represented as decimal digits. An

IPv6 address is 128 b long and is represented as decimal digits.

4. An IPv6 address is 128 b long and is represented as hexadecimal

characters.

44. You are working in a data center environment and are assigned the
address range 10.188.31.0/23.You are asked to develop an IP addressing plan to
allow the maximum number of subnets with as many as 30 hosts each.Which IP
address range meets these requirements?

1. 10.188.31.0/27

2. 10.188.31.0/26

3. 10.188.31.0/29

4. 10.188.31.0/28

5. 10.188.31.0/25

45. Given an IP address 172.16.28.252 with a subnet mask of

255.255.240.0, what is the correct network addres?

1. 172.16.16.0

2. 172.16.24.0

3. 172.16.0.0

4. 172.16.28.0
 46. Which IPv6 address is valid?

1. 2031:0:130F::9C0:876A:130B

2. 2001:0DB8:0000:130F:0000:0000:08GC:140B

3. 2001:0DB8:0:130H::87C:140B

4. 2031::130F::9C0:876A:130B

47. Which command enables IPv6 forwarding on a cisco router?

1. ipv6 host

2. ipv6 unicast-routing

3. ipv6 local

4. ipv6 neighbor

48. What is the alternative notation for the IPV6 address

B514:82C3:0000:0000:0029:EC7A:0000:EC72?

1. B514:82C3:0029::EC7A:0000:EC72

2. B514:82C3:0029:EC7A:EC72

3. B514:82C3::0029:EC7A:0:EC72

4. B514:82C3::0029:EC7A:EC72

49. Which IPV6 routing protocol uses multicast group FFO2::8 to send
updates?

1. RIPng

2. OSPFv3

3. IS-IS for IPv6

 4. Static

50. Wich command can you use to manually assign a static IPV6 address to a
router interface?

1. ipv6 address PREFIX_1::1/64

2. ipv6 autoconfig

2001:db8:2222:7272::72/64

3. ipv6 autoconfig
 4. ipv6 address

2001:db8:2222:7272::72/64

51. Which IPv6 routing protocol uses multicast group FF02::9 to send
updates?

1. RIPng

2. OSPFv3

3. Static

4. IS-IS for IPv6

52. Which of these represents an IPv6 link-local address?

1. FE08::280e:611:a:f14f:3d69

2. FE81::280f:512b:e14f:3d69

3. FE80::380e:611a:e14f:3d69

4. FEFE:0345:5f1b::e14d:3d69

53. What are two features of the IPv6 protocol? (choose two)

1. complicated header

2. no broadcasts

3. checksums

4. IPsec Built in

5. Autoconfiguration

54. Which two are types of IPv6 addresses? (choose two)

1. Multicast
 2. Broadcast

3. Allcast

4. Podcast

5. Anycast

55. The network administrator has been asked to give reasons for moving
from IPv4 to IPv6. What are two valid reasons for adopting IPv6 over IPv4?
(choose two)

1. telnet access does not require a password

2. nat

3. no broadcast

4. change of destination address in the IPv6 header

5. change of source address in the IPv6 header

6. autoconfiguration

56. Which address is a muticast group address that is used by RIPng as the
destination address?

1. FF02::A

2. FF05::101

3. FF02::9

4. FF02::6

57. Which address is a muticast group address that is used by EIGRPv6 as

the destination address?

1. FF02::9

2. FF02::10
3. FF05::101

4. FF02::A

5. FF02::6

58. How many bits long is an IPv6 address?

1. 32bits

2. 64bits

3. 128bits

4. 255 bits

59. An IPv6 is broken up into two parts, what are those called?

1. Network Prefix/Interface ID

2. Subnet ID/Host ID

3. OUI/ICU

4. Left Side/Right Side

60. What is the purpose of using the EUI-64 command on a router?

1. Enable routing

2. Enable the RIPng and EIGRP protocol

3. To auto configure the Interface ID using the MAC of the routers Interface

4. To Statically assign an IP address on a routers interface

Workout Sheet

Answers to Review Questions

1. What is the last valid host on the subnetwork

172.18.31.96 255.255.255.240?

1. 172.18.31.112

3. 172.18.32.0

4. 172.18.32.113

2. Which subnet does the host

172.17.44.142/28 belong to?

1. 172.17.44.140

2. 172.17.44.130

3. 172.17.44.120

3. What valid host range is the IP address 172.17.101.106/23 a part of?

1. 172.17.101.1 through to

172.17.101.255

2. 172.17.10.1 through to

172.17.11.254

4. 172.17.100.0 through to

172.17.101.255

4. What is the first valid host on the subnetwork that the node

172.18.96.246 255.255.254.0 belongs to?

2. 172.18.96.221

3. 172.18.96.11

4. 172.18.96.245

5. What is the last valid host on the subnetwork 192.168.226.128/26?

2. 192.168.226.191

3. 192.168.226.189

4. 192.168.226.129

6. Which subnet does the host

10.87.179.200 255.255.240.0 belong to?

1. 10.87.144.0

3. 10.87.178.0

4. 10.87.160.0

7. What is the broadcast address of the network

172.22.1.64 255.255.255.192?

1. 172.22.1.128

2. 172.22.1.126

4. 172.22.1.255
 8. What valid host range is the IP address

172.22.48.115 255.255.255.128 a part of?

2. 172.22.48.0 through

to 172.22.48.127

3. 172.22.48.110

through to 172.22.48.128

4. Invalid mask

9. You are designing a subnet mask for the 172.30.0.0 network. You want
600 subnets with up to 40 hosts on each subnet. What subnet mask should you
use?

2. 255.255.192.0

3. 255.255.0.0

4. 255.255.255.252

10. What is the broadcast address of the network 192.168.185.104/30?

1. 192.168.185.105

2. 192.168.185.106

4. 192.168.185.108

11. Refer to the exhibit. The networks connected to router R2 have been
summarized as a 192.168.176.0/21 route and sent to R1. Which two packet
destination addresses will R1 forward to R2? (Choose two.)
 1. 192.168.194.160

6. 192.168.184.45

12. Refer to the exhibit. Which three statements correctly describe Network
Device A?

1. With a network wide

mask of 255.255.255.128, each interface does not require an IP address.

3. With a network wide

mask of 255.255.255.0, must be a Layer 2 device for the PCs to

communicate with each other.

1. Which two statements describe characteristics of IPv6 unicast addressing?

(Choose two.)

2. Link-local addresses

start with FE00:/12

3. Link-local addresses

start with FF00::/10

5. If a global address is

assigned to an interface, then that is the only allowable address for the
interface.

14. Which two of these statements are true of IPv6 address representation?
(Choose two.)

1. There are four types

of IPv6 addresses: unicast, multicast, anycast, and broadcast.

4. The first 64 bits

represent the dynamically created interface ID.

5. Leading zeros in an

IPv6 16 bit hexadecimal field are mandatory.

15. What is known as "one-to-nearest" addressing in IPv6?

1. global unicast

3. multicast

4. unspecified address

16. Which option is a valid IPv6 address?

1.

2001:0000:130F::099a::12a

2.

2002:7654:A1AD:61:81AF:CCC1

3.

FEC0:ABCD:WXYZ:0067::2A4
 17. How many bits are contained in each field of an IPv6 address?

1. 24

18. Which IP address can be assigned to an Internet interface?

1. 10.180.48.224

3. 192.168.20.223

4. 172.16.200.18

19. What will happen if a private IP address is assigned to a public interface

connected to an ISP?

2. Only the ISP router

will have the capability to access the public network.

3. The NAT process

will be used to translate this address in a valid IP address.

4. Several automated

methods will be necessary on the private network.

5. A conflict of IP

addresses happens, because other public routers can use the same range.

20. Which term describes the process of encapsulating IPv6 packets inside
IPv4 packets?

2. Hashing

3. Routing

4. NAT

21. Which statement about IPv6 is true?

1. Addresses are not

hierarchical and are assigned at random.

2. Only one IPv6

address can exist on a given interface.

3. There are 2.7 billion

addresses available.

22. Refer to the exhibit. Which VLSM mask will allow for the appropriate
number of host addresses for Network A?

2. /26
 3. /27

4. /28

23. Refer to the exhibit. Which subnet mask will place all hosts on Network
B in the same subnet with the least amount of wasted addresses?

1. 255.255.255.0

3. 255.255.252.0

4. 255.255.248.0

24. Refer to the exhibit. Which mask is correct to use for the WAN link
between the routers that will provide connectivity while wasting the least
amount of addresses?

1. /23

2. /24

3. /25

25. Refer to the exhibit. What is the most appropriate summarization for
these routes?

1. 10.0.0.0 /21

4. 10.0.0.0 /24

26. On the network 131.1.123.0/27, what is the last IP address that can be
assigned to a host?

2. 131.1.123.31

3. 131.1.123.32

4. 131.1.123.33

27. The ip subnet zero command is not configured on a router. What would
be the IP address of Ethernet0/0 using the first available address from the sixth
subnet of the network

192.168.8.0/29?

1. 192.168.8.25

2. 192.168.8.41

4. 192.168.8.113

28. Which command would correctly configure a serial port on a router with
the last usable host address in the 192.216.32.32/29 subnet?
1. Router(config-if)# ip

address 192.216.32.38

255.255.255.240

2. Router(config-if)# ip

address 192.216.32.39

255.255.255.224

3. Router(config-if)# ip

address 192.216.32.39

255.255.255.224

4. Router(config-if)# ip

address 192.216.32.39

255.255.255.248

5. Router(config-if)# ip

address 192.216.32.63

255.255.255.248

29. The network default gateway applying to a host by DHCP is

192.168.5.33/28. Which option is the valid IP address of this host?

1. 192.168.5.55

2. 192.168.5.47
 4. 192.168.5.32

5. 192.168.5.14

30. The network administrator has asked you to check the status of the
workstation's IP stack by pinging the loopback address. Which address would
you ping to perform this task?

1. 10.1.1.1

3. 192.168.0.1

4. 239.1.1.1

31. Workstation A has been assigned an IP address of 192.0.2.24/28.

Workstation B has been assigned an IP address of 192.0.2.100/28. The two
workstations are connected with a straight-through cable. Attempts to ping
between the hosts are unsuccessful. What two things can be done to allow
communications between the hosts? (Choose two.)

3. Change the subnet

mask of the hosts to /26.

4. Change the address

of Workstation A to 192.0.2.15.

5. Change the address

 of Workstation B to 192.0.2.111.

32. Your ISP has given you the address

223.5.14.6/29 to assign to your router's interface. They have also given you
the default gateway address of 223.5.14.7. After you have configured the
address, the router is unable to ping any remote devices. What is preventing the
router from pinging remote devices?

1. The default gateway

is not an address on this subnet.

3. The IP address is the

broadcast address for this subnet.

4. The IP address is an

invalid class D multicast address.

33. Refer to the exhibit. The user at Workstation B reports that Server A
cannot be reached. What is preventing Workstation B from reaching Server A?

1. The IP address for

Server A is a broadcast address.

2. The IP address for

Workstation B is a subnet address.

3. The gateway for

Workstation B is not on the same subnet.

 34. A national retail chain needs to design an IP addressing scheme to
support a nationwide network. The company needs a minimum of 300 sub-
networks and a maximum of 50 host addresses per subnet. Working with only
one Class B address, which of the following subnet masks will support an
appropriate addressing scheme? (Choose two.)

1. 255.255.255.0

6. 255.255.248.0

35. Refer to the diagram. All hosts have connectivity with one another.
Which statements describe the addressing scheme that is in use in the network?
(Choose three.)

1. The subnet mask in

use is 255.255.255.192.

4. The IP address

172.16.1.205 can be assigned to hosts in VLAN1

5. The LAN interface of

 the router is configured with one IP address.

36. Refer to the exhibit. The network shown in the diagram is experiencing
connectivity problems. Which of the following will correct the problems?
(Choose two.)

1. Configure the

gateway on Host A as 10.1.1.1.

3. Configure the IP

address of Host A as 10.1.2.2.

5. Configure the masks

on both hosts to be

255.255.255.224.

6. Configure the masks

on both hosts to be

255.255.255.240.

37. Which three IP addresses can be assigned to hosts if the subnet mask is
/27 and subnet zero is usable? (Choose three.)

1. 10.15.32.17

2. 17.15.66.128

3. 66.55.128.1
 4. 135.1.64.34

5. 129.33.192.192

6. 192.168.5.63

38. Running both IPv4 and IPv6 on a router simultaneously is known as

what?

1. 4to6 routing

2. 6to4 routing

3. binary routing

5. NextGen routing

39. What are three IPv6 transition mechanisms? (Choose three.)

2. VPN tunneling

3. GRE tunneling

5. PPP tunneling

40. Identify the valid IPv6 addresses. (Choose all apply.)

4.

2001:3452:4952:2837::
2003:dead:beef:4dad:23:46:bb:101

41. Which of the following IP addresses can be assigned to the host devices?
(Choose two.)

1. 205.7.8.32/27

3. 127.0.0.1

4. 224.0.0.10

5. 203.123.45.47/28

42. Refer to the exhibit. In this VLSM addressing scheme, what summary
address would be sent from router

2. 172.16.0.0 /20

3. 172.16.0.0 /24

4. 172.32.0.0 /16
 5. 172.32.0.0 /17

6. 172.64.0.0 /16

1. Which statement is true?

1. An IPv6 address is

64 b long and is represented as hexadecimal characters.

2. An IPv6 address is

32 b long and is represented as decimal digits.

3. An IPv6 address is

128 b long and is represented as decimal digits. An IPv6 address is 128 b

long and is represented as decimal digits.

44. You are working in a data center environment and are assigned the
address range 10.188.31.0/23.You are asked to develop an IP addressing plan to
allow the maximum number of subnets with as many as 30 hosts each.Which IP
address range meets these requirements?

4. 10.188.31.0/28

5. 10.188.31.0/25

45. Given an IP address 172.16.28.252 with a subnet mask of

255.255.240.0, what is the correct network addres?

2. 172.16.24.0

3. 172.16.0.0
4. 172.16.28.0

46. Which IPv6 address is valid?

2.

2001:0DB8:0000:130F:0000:0000:08GC:140B

3.

2001:0DB8:0:130H::87C:140B

4.

2031::130F::9C0:876A:130B

47. Which command enables IPv6 forwarding on a cisco router?

1. ipv6 host

3. ipv6 local

4. ipv6 neighbor

48. What is the alternative notation for the IPV6 address

B514:82C3:0000:0000:0029:EC7A:0000:EC72?

1.

B514:82C3:0029::EC7A:0000:EC72

2.

B514:82C3:0029:EC7A:EC72
 4.

B514:82C3::0029:EC7A:EC72

49. Which IPV6 routing protocol uses multicast group FFO2::8 to send
updates?

4. Static

50. Wich command can you use to manually assign a static IPV6 address to a
router interface?

1. ipv6 address

PREFIX_1::1/64

2. ipv6 autoconfig

2001:db8:2222:7272::72/64

3. ipv6 autoconfig

51. Which IPv6 routing protocol uses multicast group FF02::9 to send
updates?

2. OSPFv3

3. Static

4. IS-IS for IPv6

52. Which of these represents an IPv6 link-local address?

 1.

FE08::280e:611:a:f14f:3d69

2.

FE81::280f:512b:e14f:3d69

4.

FEFE:0345:5f1b::e14d:3d69

53. What are two features of the IPv6 protocol? (choose two)

1. complicated header

2. no broadcasts

3. checksums

2. Broadcast

3. Allcast

4. Podcast

55. The network administrator has been asked to give reasons for moving
from IPv4 to IPv6. What are two valid reasons for adopting IPv6 over IPv4?
(choose two)

1. telnet access does not

require a password
 2. nat

4. change of destination

address in the IPv6 header

5. change of source

address in the IPv6 header

56. Which address is a muticast group address that is used by RIPng as the
destination address?

1. FF02::A

2. FF05::101

4. FF02::6

57. Which address is a muticast group address that is used by EIGRPv6 as

the destination address?

1. FF02::9

2. FF02::10

3. FF05::101

5. FF02::6

58. How many bits long is an IPv6 address?

1. 32bits

2. 64bits
 4. 255 bits

59. An IPv6 is broken up into two parts, what are those called?

2. Subnet ID/Host ID

3. OUI/ICU

4. Left Side/Right Side

60. What is the purpose of using the EUI-64 command on a router?

1. Enable routing

2. Enable the RIPng and

EIGRP protocol

4. To Statically assign

an IP address on a routers interface

Special T hanks

I would also like to thank the following people for their collaboration in
helping me with putting this book together. Without their creativity in the design,
formatting & editing, I would not be able to provide you with such a wonderful
finished product and one that I am very proud of. – Not bad for being my first
Book!

(1) Natalia from Croatia & her company “ Book Design Team” in the editing
and formatting of this book to get it ready for publishing. “ Thanks for your
professional and timely work!”
 (2) The awesome book cover was created by a person that would like to
remain anonymous. “ Thank you for an awesome job! It’s exactly how I imagined
it”.

(3) Mary Wiekel, from the US & her company “ Pinkblooddesigns ” in

formatting the book cover to comply with the publisher ’s standards. “ Great
work!”

About the Author Lazaro J Diaz, better known as

“Laz”, was born in Cuba and fled the communist country with his family to
the United States in 1973, when he was only 6 years old. He graduated from
Miami High in 1985 and continued on to join the military in 1986.

He has a daughter, Cynthia from his first marriage and met his current wife
in 1999. At that time he was forced to go to school and start his career as a
Network Engineer. His previous jobs where in warehousing & construction.
Please note that before starting his career in IT, Laz had never touched a
computer and thought that YAHOO was a word used by cowboys.

Laz graduated from Florida Career College with honors and was the speaker
at his graduation ceremony. This same school later hired him to teach and he
held on to this position for over 8 years before resigning. He received “Faculty
of the Year” awards for 3 consecutive years and other recognitions from this
institution.

Before his graduation and after his resignation at FCC, he also taught at
various educational institutions (i.e.: Palm Beach Community College, New
Horizons & The Academy of South Florida), teaching both Cisco, Microsoft and
other IT certification preparation courses in Miami, Florida – USA.

Laz has over 13 years in the teaching industry and in the field working with
telecommunications and cellular companies. He is best known for his unique
style of teaching and his

very own, but unconventional, method of conveying the information. This is

his trademark and is what has made him popular amongst those that are looking
for a different type of instructor that can convey the information in a simplistic
manner.
 He has his own training center where students go to get hands on practice
and receive their CCNA certification preparation from Laz himself.

Laz has published several online video tutorial courses for the CCNA
certification exam and is well known to his students as a person that cares

and is passionate about teaching. He has reached and taught thousands of

students worldwide with his tutorials, onsite and online training center to include
corporate clients and IT professionals.

Laz believes that the only way anyone can break-free of oppression and be
able to provide a better future for themselves and their family is through
education. That is why he has made it his mission to be able to provide education
that is affordable, and to some, even free.

His YouTube channel started as a prank with his now infamous “IP
addressing and Subnetting” video. This was filmed at his home by his wife
Digna, with a hand-held, non-HD camera, no lighting and no professional audio.
This was the beginning of an

online teaching career that has now transpired into other mediums to include
this book.

Laz plans on writing other books in the near future that will be geared
towards other areas within Cisco. This one, however, is the very first book he
has authored!

Laz lives in Miami, Florida, with his wife, Digna, and is now producing his
very own internet TV channel called “ Live with Laz – Cisco Training ” to give
everyone an opportunity to receive an affordable education.

LINKS

www.udemy.com/u/infothenetworkingdoctorscom
www.youtube.com/TheNetworkingDoctors
www.linkedin/in/thenetworkingdoctors

U.S. Copyright ©

2014
ISBN-13: 978-1499373929

ISBN-10: 14993739