Sources of accidents are generally restricted to rock falls, slope CHAPTER - 2

slides, rock blasting and the use of heavy equipment.

11. Except in extreme climates or inclement weather, environmental PROSPECTING AND EXPLORATION
conditions of working are far better in openpit mines than in
underground mines. The air is less polluted and the conditions of
Prospecting means search for mineral deposits aimed at locating
heat and humidity are generally not so oppressive. Lighting is natural
an anomaly while exploration embraces more elaborate investigations to
and much better except for night work. No artificial ventilation is
establish the nature and extent, grade and reserves of a deposit so as to
necessary in openpit mines.
evaluate its mineability. The search for minerals becomes easier if by a
12. Supervision is more effective. v systematic approach the area to be searched is progressively reduced so
13. Large monolithic stones for sculptural or architectural purposes can that detailed prospecting is confined to conveniently small areas. Fortunately
be mined from open pits only. for us today, a wealth of prospecting data have led to the development of
certain theories of ore genesis and control of ore deposition which can
DISADVANTAGES OF OPENPIT MINING
serve as valuable guides to prospecting both on regional and local scales.
1. It is possible to mine only to relatively shallow depths by openpit Nature however, has many surprises and all mineral deposits may not
methods, economic stripping ratio determining the ultimate pit depth. conform to known theories. Thus the prospector need always have an
However, modern open pits of large extent have been worked at open analytical mind so that he can derive his own clues to prospecting
fairly large depths of hundreds of metres. Bingham copper from observed habits of mineral deposits.
mine,Utah,U.S.A.extends over a length of 1 800 m, width of
GUIDES TO PROSPECTING
1 600 m and a depth of 480 m. Even a small pit like Mt. Morgan,
Australia with a pit area of only 30 hectares has been worked down
5 Guides to prospecting can be broadly classed as (a) geological
to a depth of about 250 m taking advantage of a previously existing guides, (b) geophysical guides, (c) g e o c h e m i c a l guides, and
underground transport system. (d) geobotanical guides. Geological guides can be further sub-divided into
2. Large capital outlay is necessary for modern mechanised open pits . 6
(i) physiographic guides, (ii) stratigraphic and lithologic guides, (iii) structural
guides, and (iv) mineralogical guides.
3. Work suffers in inclement weather. Night work in open pits is less
efficient than day work. Snow and rain may disrupt transport systems. Geological Guides
4. A large volume of waste has to be removed which not only adds to
Physiographic Guides: Physiographic history identifying old basins
the mining cost but also involves the problem of finding suitable
may lead to the location of syngenetic sedimentary deposits of iron ore,
dumping sites except in the case of pits with internal dumping.
limestone etc. Physiographic features can provide important clues to placer
5. Large areas of ground surface are affected by excavation which can deposits. Valuable heavy minerals are most likely to be concentrated at
be restored at additional cost, but it is rarely possible to completely places where the stream velocity suddenly reduces such as when the
restore the original ecosystem. Where internal dumping is not , stream bed expands from a gorge to a wide valley, at the inner edges of
possible, large surface areas can be covered by waste dumps. ox-bow loops, at the junctions of tributaries with main streams etc. A
6. Sometimes intervening waste rock in the mineral deposit makes rough bed rock floor, as may be common with limestone, provides a suitable
openpit faces scattered leading to increased cost of mining. Such site for concentration of heavy minerals.
scattered ore zones may be unable to sustain individual openpit
Topographic features like prominent ridges and depressions can
mines, but may render themselves amenable to development and
directly indicate the outcrop of a mineral deposit. For example, outcrops
working by underground methods. of mineralised quartz veins or gossans usually stand out as prominent
— o — ridges. On the other hand, outcrops of deposits of soft minerals such as

24 25
 associated with certain broad lithologic characteristics of rocks. For
coal, manganese dioxide ores, or sulphidic ores with carbonaceous gangue example, ores of tin, tungsten and molybdenum are associated with acid
sometimes form marked depressions. Quite often these depressions are intrusives, that of nickel, with basic and ultra basic intrusives, and mica
filled with talus, but even the talus can form a distinctive marker of the with pegmatites. Chromite deposits are invariably confined to ultrabasic
outcrop. Depression can also result from oxidisational subsidence of ore rocks.
bodies. Structural Guides: Structural guides to prospecting of mineral
Indirect topographic features such as fault scarps, hogbacks etc. deposits are by far the most significant because of the immense influence
indicate geologic structures which may control the location of ore bodies. of structural control on ore deposition. Structural guides can be mainly
Besides, certain topographic features are often closely associated with classified into (a) fractures and premineralisation faults, (b) post-
particular mineral deposits. Deposits resulting from tropical weathering mineralisation faults, (c) contacts, and (d) folds.
such as that of bauxite or lateritic iron or manganese ores are usually Premineralisation faults and fractures are the most important
associated with high table lands in the state of maturity or old age where elements in the formation of mineral deposits. They not only form channels
erosion has been slow and the topographic feature stable for a sufficiently for conducting mineral bearing solutions, but also provide the receptacle
long period. Stable physiographic conditions with slow erosion is also a for the formation of vein deposits. The rocks in a fault zone get crushed
prerequisite for substantial supergene enrichment. Sometimes certain thus making themselves more amenable to replacement. Therefore a study
topographic features may indicate some mineral deposits even though of the fault and fracture patterns along with the extent and continuation of
not connected with them genetically. Old placers like deep leads of Victoria, individual fractures becomes extremely helpful in tracing of mineral deposits
Australia are indicated by sinuous plateaus formed by the erosion of old controlled by such fractures. Fractures are of two main types; shear fractures
placer channels filled with basaltic lava flow. and tension fractures. Shear fractures are characterised by the movement
of one wall over the other with associated features such as slicken sides,
Apart from geomorphological features, the past climate also
laminated quartz etc. Shear fractures may be developed in single sets or
determines the location and extent of mineral deposition. Lateritic iron
in two complimentary sets at right angles to each other. Often several
and manganese ores and bauxite need tropical climate for their formation.
shear fractures may occur parallel to each other forming a shear zone.
Warm wet climate favouring thick vegetation is necessary for the formation
of coal. Arid and semiarid climates with deep water level is conducive to Tension fractures are formed by the walls being pulled apart in the
supergene enrichment. Placer deposits necessitate long periods of deep direction of the normal stress causing fracture. The walls of tension cracks
weathering followed by vigorous erosion. are rough-surfaced and inclusions are commonly angular and often slab-
Stratigraphic and Lithologic Guides: Ore deposition is often like with squarish ends. They are usually short, fat and gash-like. Several
confined to certain periods in geological history and hence can be broadly tension cracks may also occur in parallel.
related to certain stratigraphic horizons. Many metallic ore deposits are Many times both shear and tension cracks appear together. In
related to particular metallogenetic epochs which can serve as regional practice tension cracks are generally arranged along a shear in herring
guides. Similarly many sedimantary deposits are associated with particular bone fashion. They are quite common with normal faults, but less so with
stratigraphic formations on a regional scale. For example, bituminous coal reverse faults. Sometimes there is en echelon development of tension
deposits of India are related to the Gondwana system so that the search
cracks beyond the extremity of a shear crack. Such en echelon tension
for coal can be safely confined to the Gondwana formations only. Similarly
cracks may grade into typical horse tail structure.
the iron ore deposits of India are confined to the Iron-ore series . Many ore
4

deposits can be traced to the borders of particular batholiths. On a narrower A study of the fracture pattern generally leads to a better
scale marker horizons characterized by a particular mineral or fossil understanding of the vein pattern and hence is an important geological
assemblage can form excellent guides to mineral deposits. tool of prospecting.

Along with stratigraphic association, ore deposits are invariably

27
26
 Premineralisation folding on the other hand, controls the ore
deposition by influencing fracturing, by determining the shape of the
replaced beds as well as by guiding the flow of the mineralising solutions.
The characteristics of individual veins, particularly those controlling
localisation of mineralisation help in ore finding. Wide veins with ample Normally tensile fractures develop at the flexures though with tight
surface exposed to replacing solutions are conducive to the localisation of folding, through-going shears may develop along the limbs. In either case
mineralisation. From this point of view tensile fractures are more conducive the fractures are usually parallel to the fold axis and follow the plunge of
to mineralisation than shear fractures which are likely to be irregularly the fold. Post-fracture folding may or may not completely obliterate existing
mineralised. Intersection of two sets of fractures or fractures with rock fractures and to that extent controls their liability to mineralisation. On the
horizons conducive to mineralisation are likely loci of ore shoots. other hand, fractures developed subsequent to folding may often be guided
by the folds.
Structural conditions determine the extension or termination of a
mineralised vein at depth. Structural bottoming can be due to (a) pinching Folds control the flow of mineralizing solutions to a far lesser
out or weakening of the fracture system controlling mineral deposition, extent than fractures, but there are evidences of the flow of solutions along
(b) termination on a fault, or (c) termination by the change of host rock favourable beds towards the crests of anticlines in the case of up-going
conducive to mineralisation. solutions and towards synclines in the case of down-going solutions.
Sometimes a vein may pinch out at the bottom, but may reappear Mineralogical Guides: Presence of typical minerals as well as
after a certain depth as in the case of some mica pegmatite lenses. their relative abundance, both in the vein matter and in the wall rocks,
Bottoming on faults is well defined and so is usually the case with serve as important guides to mineral search. Mineral association in the
bottoming due to a change in the host rock. In certain cases however, the vein matter indicates the conditions of ore deposition and hence the possible
mineralisation may reccur on meeting a favourable host rock at greater nature and extent of mineralisation. Wall rocks are often altered by the
depth. mineralizing solutions and hence serve as guides to the location of mineral
deposits. Oxidized minerals at the surface may lead to rich primary
Post-mineralisation faults can substantially displace ore bodies deposits at depth.
and as such are essential guides to the location of displaced mineral
deposits. The nature of primary mineralisation often helps in predicting
possible extensions of the vein. Plotting of assay contours indicates the
Contacts are highly amenable to the location of ore deposits and
trend of mineralisation. Tracing of veins can be done through the tracing of
hence serve as important guides to prospecting both on the regional and
index minerals, which may be the valuable mineral in the ore itself or a
the local scale. Basically contacts provide a zone of weakness where the gangue mineral. At Hollinger mine, Canada productive parts of the vein
7

fractures and the nature of the intruded host rock at the contact of the were characterized by ankerite while in the nonproductive parts, calcite
intrusive control the ore deposition. The ore deposits thus may or may not was the carbonate in the gangue.
be directly related to the igneous intrusive. On a local scale contacts
provide guides to possible orientation of veins. For example, a fracture . Variation of the mineral assemblage in a vein (both valuable and
vein meeting a contact at a small angle is very likely to swing along the gangue minerals) is greatly controlled by hypogene zoning and identification
contact. Ore shoots are often found to be located at the intersections of and delineation of such zoning substantially helps in prospection. As is
fractures with contacts. well known, hypogene zoning is mainly due to the effect of temperature,
which is a function of depth. Thus in general, the following sequence of
Folds younger than the mineral deposits affect it in the same way appearance of ore minerals at depth can be expected in a vein or
as they affect the host rocks. Gentle folding usually leaves the thickness mineralized zone.
of the deposit unaffected, but in case of close isoclinal folding, there is a
tendency for the ore body to be thickened on flexures by flowage and drag
folding and thinned on the limbs. Thus thick ore shoots are likely to follow
the plunge of the folds. 29

28
 presence of carbonaceous gangue or wall rocks, it may be retained in the
Top oxidised zone as malachite, azurite and chrysocolla.

Galena and sphalerite Changes in the gangue also provide valuable indications of the
Sphalerite and tetrahedrite-tenantite nature of primary mineralisation at depth. The texture of residual quartz as
well as that of limonite formed during oxidation are the most important
Tetrahedrite-tenantite, enargite and pyrite guides. Coarse white quartz devoid of iron stain usually represents barren
Chalcopyrite and pyrite vein matter. The form and amount of limonite provides not only an indication
Pyrite, often with magnetite of the nature of primary mineralisation but may also provide a rough estimate
of the value of the mineral. The most useful form of limonite is the cellular
Bottom
boxwork which is formed by the prominent deposition of limonite along
Certain gangue minerals are also typically associated with the cleavages, fractures or grain boundaries of the replaced minerals thus
hypogene zones. For example, garnet, pyroxene, amphibole and micas assuming the characteristic form of the parent mineral. Limonite boxwork
are typical gangues of the hypothermal zone, low-iron chlorite and sericite, derived from chalcopyrites has usually an obtuse angle of 100°. Bornite
usually of the mesothermal zone and adularia and alunite of the epithermal on the other hand produces triangular or trapezoidal boxwork. Sphalerite
zone. Alteration of wall rocks of replaced veins also show such zoning of produces a coarse boxwork with diagonistic acute angles of 30° to 55°.
mineral assemblage. Limonite boxwork is less common in galena, but when present, is
characteristically cubical in form corresponding to the cleavage in galena.
The bottoming of an ore body is often controlled by the extension of
Typical forms of limonite may not always be distinctly developed to indicate
the zone of mineralisation at depth. This depth however, is not constant
the nature of the primary mineral. Presence of excessive iron pyrites may
and varies from deposit to deposit depending on the prevalent temperature-
lead to the formation of an extensive crust of limonite. Similarly an
pressure conditions controlling mineralisation. Bottoming of an ore horizon
abundance of neutralizing carbonates may result in a general precipitation
of a particular zone does not necessarily mean the absence of any other
of fluffy limonite.
valuable mineral at depth. In fact one should always look for the possible
mineralisation of the deeper zone at depth. The silver-zinc mineralisation Geophysical Guides
at Butte, Montana,U.S.A. changes to copper mineralisation at depth while
at Cornwall, England, copper mineralisation changes to tin. Geophysical guides comprise certain typical physical behaviour of
mineral deposits hidden in the earth's crust which can be measured or
Oxidation products at surface outcrops often provide valuable evaluated by physical instrumentation. The main properties of mineral
indication of primary ore at depth. The nature of oxidation products depends deposits forming geophysical guides are (a) magnetic behaviour, (b)
on the nature of the ore and gangue minerals as well as the extent of electrical properties, (c) velocity of propagation of seismic waves, (d) density,
oxidation. Gold and tin (cassiterite) are highly resistant to removal by and (e) radioactivity.
oxidation and hence tend to concentrate in the oxidised zone. It should
therefore not be taken as indicative of the presence of such high values at Mineral deposits containing ferrimagnetic minerals like magnetite
depth. Lead sulphides are first converted to sulphate (anglesite) and or ilmenite are more susceptible to magnetization by the earth's magnetic
subsequently to carbonate (cerrusite) in the presence of carbonate gangue. field than the surrounding rocks, thus giving rise to anomalies of local
Both of these are highly stable. Zinc sulphides on the other hand, are geomagnetic field which can be measured by suitable instruments.
changed to the highly soluble sulphate, which is readily removed. Thus an Nonmagnetic ore bodies of haematite or limonite often produce enough
oxidised outcrop containing lead minerals but no trace of zinc does not magnetic flux density due to the presence of magnetite in them to be
necessarily predict the absence of zinc at depth. Often the dissolved amenable to magnetic prospecting. Magnetic methods can also be used
sulphides of lead and zinc are replaced by limonite (if the gangue contains to determine structures if a magnetic marker horizon exists. Contacts of
iron), which takes the form of the replaced sulphide minerals. Copper is intrusives into country rock or floors of placer channels can be delineated
usually removed as sulphate, particularly in ores rich in pyrites, but in the
31
30
by the magnetic method if the two rock types lying in juxtaposition have a
The assymetry of the electrolyte is thus maintained. Such mineral deposits
marked difference in magnetic susceptibility (owing to the presence of
generating a self potential (usually of the order of 0.05 to 0.5 V) can be
different amounts of ferrimagnetic minerals).
traced by measuring the potential by a suitable millivolt meter.
Certain mineral deposits are highly conductive electrically as for
The elastic properties of rock which determine the velocity of
example, veins of graphite and sulphide minerals. Massive quartz veins
propagation of seismic waves through it are generally used in geophysical
on the other hand have high electrical resistivity. Thus it is possible to
prospecting of broad structures. Structural features are demarcated by
locate hidden mineral deposits in the earth's crust by measuring its
ttacing surfaces of discontinuity which cause refraction and reflection of
resistivity (or conductivity) in relation to that of the surrounding rock mass.
seismic waves. Such surfaces are provided by junctions of beds of
Electrical resistivity, though most commonly indicating the presence, dissimilar elastic properties. Seismic methods can also be used for
shape, extent and possible value of conducting mineral deposits, can determining bed rock configuration in placer channels.
also be used to determine general rock structure or configuration of bed -
rock floors. The density of rock masses or mineral bodies in the earth's crust
affects the amount and direction of the local gravitational pull. A deposit of
Conducting mineral bodies near the surface (down to a depth of
heavy mineral such as of magnetite or haematite will pull a pendulum
about 100 m) surrounded by ground water produce an electric field around
towards itself with a force depending on its mass and distance from the
them by electrolytic action. At the top part of the deposit, above the water
bob of the pendulum. Although such forces are very small, i.e. of the order
level, the water is aerated and thus rich in oxygen while at the bottom part
of 10 g.t/.(gravity unit ^m/s ),
2 they, when suitably measured, can indicate
it contains no oxygen. This assymetry in the electrolyte (ground water
heavy masses of mineral. Lighter masses can also be detected in contrast
with dissolved salts forms an electrolyte) causes an electric current to
of the surrounding. However, gravity measurements are generally suitable
flow from the bottom part of the ore body (Fig.2.1) which acts as the
for large anomalies and are substantially affected by surface topography.
anode to the top part of the ore body that forms the cathode. Hydrogen is
That is why they are less commonly used for the prospecting of ore deposits
liberated at the cathode and combines with the dissolved oxygen in the
though their use in detecting broader structures for oil exploration such as
water. Presence of oxides like haematite or limonite at this point helps in
salt domes is well established.
absorbing the hydrogen. Oxygen at the anode oxidises the sulphide thus
preventing the ground water in this zone from getting saturated with oxygen. Radioactive minerals such as of uranium, thorium etc. emit gamma
rays which can be measured by suitable physical devices such as Geiger
Mueller counters or scintillation counters. A measurement of such
emissions gives a reliable indication of radioactive mineral deposits. In too
deep-seated deposits the intervening rock has a substantial shielding effect
on the gamma rays which may not be measurable at the surface. Such
deep-seated deposits are however, commonly indicated by migration of
radioactive elements from them to the surface by transport in solutions or
by diffusion of radon.

Thus physical behaviour of mineral deposits form important guides

to mineral prospecting, particularly in the case of deposits which have no
visible trace on the surface. However, success depends on the proper
interpretation of observed data which calls for proper co-ordination between
the geological and geophysical observations. For example, a geophysical
method may indicate a dome structure suitable for oil accumulation, but
Fig. 2.1 - Generation of Self Potential by an Ore Body. in the absence of possible oil-bearing horizons, such a structure has no

32 33
value and the expenditure on geophysical prospecting becomes a waste.
Geochemical Guides the exploitation of the deposit. A single method may not yield the necessary
information when several or all the methods stated above may have to be
Ore deposits often produce certain chemical patterns in and around
followed systematically. A prospecting or exploration method thus forms
them comprising mainly the dispersion of certain metallic elements
a part of a broad geological programme and reveals information that need
associated with the ore bodies. The determination, by suitable micro-
proper interpretation with the help of the various guides to prospecting
chemical tests, of the nature and amount of such trace elements in the
discussed earlier. Although methods of exploration chiefly yield data
rocks surrounding the ore body, soil, oxidized matter or sediments derived
regarding reserves and grade of the deposit, they may also provide valuable
from such rocks, ground water of the region, and even the vegetation of
the region often leads to the tracing of parent ore bodies. data regarding the physical nature of the mineral that may influence the
method of mining, preparation or treatment of the mineral.
Ground water surrounding mineral deposits often contains
Geological Methods
appreciable quantities of the valuable minerals. Copper bearing springs
were one of the indications of the copper deposits of Zambia. Plants growing Geological methods comprise the preparation of suitable geological
in areas surrounding a mineral deposit often absorb metallic elements maps and sections of the prospective area. Geological maps needed for
from the deposit and concentrate them in certain parts such as the leaves prospecting are of two broad types:
and young shoots (where evaporation is the maximum) to a significant
(a) Regional Geological Maps: These show the broad geological
level that can be measured (usually by spectrographic analysis) even though
features of a large search area of 2 500 to 250 000 km marking the
2
the trace of the element in the soil may not be directly detectable. Sampling
geological formations and structure along with positions of known mines
and analysis of leaves collected from a particular variety of plant at any
or prospects, outcrops of veins and mineralized rock, location of gossans,
particular time of the year may thus lead to the location of valuable mineral
alteration zones etc. They are prepared to a small scale of the order of
deposits.
1:60 000 to 1:100 000, usually on available topographical maps. In areas
Geobotanical Guides where topographical maps of this scale are not available, they have to be
prepared by conventional methods of geodetic surveying (controlled by
The nature of the vegetation in an area may sometimes indicate the
first order triangulation or trilateration with electronic distance measuring
presence of mineral deposits. Certain varieties of plants are poisoned by
instruments) or by aerial photogrammetry. Satellite imagery can be of
certain elements in the soil while others grow well in soils rich in particular
immense help in the preparation of regional geological maps. Regional
elements. Ban Tulsi in India has been regarded as an indicator of coal maps help in eliminating non prospective areas (e.g., igneous or
beds. Polycarpaea spirostylis in Australia indicates copper and amorpha metamorphic terrain can he eliminated from the target area of search for
anescens in Missouri, U.S.A. grows near galena deposits. sedimentary minerals like coal) and localizing target areas for detailed
METHODS OF PROSPECTING prospecting.

The various methods of prospecting and exploration of mineral (b) Detailed Geological Maps: These are prepared to a much larger
deposits can be broadly classed as (a) geological methods, (b) geophysical scale over the target area of 2.5 to 125 km to show the outcrops of veins,
2

methods, (c) geochemical methods, (d) surface methods, and their trend and continuity as well as structure along with detailed geology
(e) underground methods. All the methods however, aim at providing of the surrounding rocks. They form the basis for planning detailed
evidence and data for establishing the geological nature of the deposit, exploration by surface and underground methods. The scale of such
e.g., its structure, shape, lay, extent, mineralogy, possibility of the geological maps ranges from 1:1 000 to 1:5 000 depending on the extent
occurrence of other deposits nearby etc. with an ultimate view to and regularity of the mineral deposit. In most regular deposits these scales
establishing the grade and reserves of the deposit (value of the deposit) are sufficient for the preparation of assay maps, but in highly irregular
with a certain amount of surity that can warrant investment of capital for deposits as well as for underground geological mapping a still larger scale
of 1:500 is preferred. The topographical maps required forthe purpose can
34
35
be prepared by conventional plane surveying methods (third order
triangulation with intertilling by theodolite or compass traversing, plane
table surveying and contouring by tacheometry) or aerial photogrammetry. accuracy) and the high sensitivity alkali vapour magnetometers.

Aerial surveying is much faster than conventional ground surveying, Indication of magnetic anomalies are closed isoanomalies. Magnetic
particularly in difficult terrain. Besides, it can be coupled with a programme field profiles drawn from isoanomalies are interpreted for the location and
of simultaneous aerial geophysical surveying (aerial magnetometric or size of magnetic deposits. Fig.2.2 shows typical vertical and horizontal
scintillometer surveying) thus reducing the overall cost. Today satellite magnetic field profiles over a magnetic ore body below the ground surface.
imagery is widely used for the preparation of accurate topographic maps. Modern magnetometers except for flux-gate magnetometers do not
Remote sensing techniques can be used to produce base geological maps, measure the horizontal and vertical components separately. Here only
which can be supplemented by ground check mapping. Not only field total field profiles are obtained and interpreted for the anomaly.
observations, but also extensive laboratory studies of thin sections of rocks
for both petrographic and petrofabric studies, micro-chemical tests, heavy
mineral analysis, palaeontological studies etc. should be utilized for
correlating data and preparing the detailed geological maps. As many
geological sections as necessary should be drawn for correct interpretation
of structure and stratigraphy. Assaying and mineragraphic studies of the
ore minerals or alteration products from outcrops should be done with a
view to obtaining a preliminary idea as to the nature of the deposit and its
possible genesis. All these should be incorporated in the detailed geological
map.

Geophysical Methods
Fig. 2.2 - Intensity of the Magnetic Field over an Anomaly.
Geophysical methods of prospecting are aimed at establishing
geophysical anomalies in the earth's crust referred to earlier. They are Airborne magnetometric Purveys started with antisubmarine flux-gate
classed into the following broad groups. magnetometers developed during World War II, but today they are conducted
by proton precession magnetometers from a height of 70 to 200 m, though
Magnetic Method: This is the oldest geophysical method of
low-altitude surveys at 30 - 35 m are a standard practice in some countries,
prospecting. The method comprises the measurement of the magnetic
the resolution being better for closer ranges. Traverses are run generally
flux density or field intensity at various points over the area to be prospected.
across the geological strike of formations at intervals ranging from a hundred
The observation points are usually located on a square or rectangular grid
metres to even kilometres.
at intervals varying from 1.5 to 3 m for very detailed surveys to 30 to 40 m
for reconnaissance surveys. The points of equal magnetic flux density are With aerial magnetometric surveys it is possible to cover large areas
joined to form isoanomalies. A rise in the normal flux density of the at a rapid rate. The interpretation of results is similar to that with ground
geomagnetic field (anomaly) indicates the presence of a magnetic ore surveys. However, the method is suitable only for large anomalies and
body. small ore bodies can be easily missed.

Differential total flux densities or their vertical and horizontal Gravity Methods: Methods of gravity survey aim at measuring the
components are measured by magnetometers. The older pivoted needle variation of the earth's gravitational field over the area to be prospected.
magnetometers having an accuracy not exceeding ±100 nT(nanotesla) The normal gravitational pull or acceleration due to gravity at any place on
and variometers having an accuracy of ± 5 /?7"have today been replaced the earth's surface g depends on the latitude of the place 0 and the
by more accurate flux-gate and proton precession magnetometers (± 1 nT altitude above the mean sea level h (m) according to the relation
g = g (l
o -0.00264 cos20 + 0.000007 cos 29 ) - 3.086h
2 g.u, (2.1)
36
37
 where g = the standard gravity at mean sea level at 45° N latitude
0

= 9.8062 x 10 g.u. (gravity units or/vm/s ). The above equation gives the
s 2 In gravity survey the relative gravity at a point, i.e., the difference in
value of g at any place in flat terrain, but in rough terrain, the surrounding the value of g at the point from that at a base station is measured and
hills or valleys also affect the local gravity depending on their mass and hence today gravity survey instruments measure the relative gravity rather
distance. Hence the measured gravity value has to be subjected to terrain than the absolute gravity. These instruments are called gravimeters. They
correction which can be easily obtained from charts available today. are of two main types, the stable and unstable types and work on the
Besides, the tidal pulls of the sun and the moon also affect the value of g principle of a sophisticated spring balance. They can measure g with an
to the extent of about 3 g.u. and have to be corrected for in accurate accuracy of 0.1 to 1 g.u.
surveys. Thus the normal gravity at a place is obtained after correcting for
all the above mentioned effects at the surface. The pendulum measures the absolute value of gravity (vertical
component) and is generally used for calibrating gravimeters and checking
The presence of a relatively dense or light body in the earth's crust their readings at wide intervals of the order of 40 km. Although pendulums
alters the normal gravity of the earth and produces a gravity anomaly have been designed to read the vertical component of the gravity field with
which can be measured and utilized for the location of such a hidden an accuracy of 1 g.u., they take a fairly long time (50 minutes) for each
body. Referring to Fig.2.3 the gravity field at a point 0 along a flat surface reading as compared to gravimeters of similar accuracy which take only
comprises the normal gravity field of the earth g acting vertically downwards
n about 20 minutes for each reading, g can be calculated from the time
and the gravitational pull g o f the buried body.
o period of vibration of the pendulum Tfrom the well known relation
g = G m x 10 /1
a 6 2 g.u. (2.2) g=4n t/mhT>
2 (2.3)
where G = universal gravitational constant where /'= the moment of inertia of the pendulum about its support,

= 6.67 x 10-" m /kg.s ,

3 2
h = distance from the point of support to the center of mass of the
pendulum, and
m = differential mass (volume x density contrast) of the body,
m= mass of the pendulum.
and r = distance of the centre of the mass from 0. g acts at an a
The method of gravity surveying comprises the measurement of the
angle 6 with the horizontal and has a vertical component g °= g sinG. It
v
differential gravity at various points over the area to be prospected.
is this vertical component which gives the gravity anomaly. "Gravity Interpretation of data is done from a plot of gravity contours as well as
anomalies are however, very small, of the order of 10 to 20 g.u.compared gravity profiles. Fig.2.4 illustrates the profile of the gravity anomaly (firm
to a value of 9.8x10 g.u. for g , and hence need a very accurate instrument
s n
line) over a dense mass. The dotted curve gives a plot of the gradient
capable of measuring g with an accuracy of 1 g.u. (change in the gravity anomaly per unit distance).

GRAVITY P R F I L E S

GRADIENT

Fig. 2.3 - Gravitational Forces due to an Anomaly.

Fig. 2.4 - Gravity Profile and Gradient over a Dense Mass.
38
39
 Owing to the small values of anomalies, gravity methods of prospecting where v and v are the velocities of S and P waves respectively in
s1 p1

are suitable for broad geological structures, especially salt domes (which
produce a negative gravity anomaly due to salt being lighter than the the upper rock medium 1 .
surrounding rock mass) in flat countries where the effect of terrain on the It must be noted here that for values of / less than the critical angle
gravity field is not large. i , the incident seismic wave is partly refleced and partly refracted whereas,
c

Seismic Methods: These utilize seismic waves emanating from beyond the critical angle, the wave is totally reflected. The reflected energy
artificial disturbances created by firing a charge of explosive buried in the E of the longitudinal wave for a normal incidence (i = 0°) is given by
r

ground. The seismic waves are elastic waves and their propagation in relation
rock is governed by the elastic properties of the rock. They are of two (E /E,)^
r = (p v 2 p2 - p, v /
p / (p v + p, v /
2 p2 p (2.7)
main types: longitudinal compressive waves or P waves (similar to sound
waves) and transverse shear waves or S waves (similar to electromagnetic where E j = the incident energy.
waves). The longitudinal waves, being faster and having larger amplitude,
are usually employed in seismic prospecting.
The velocity v of longitudinal waves in a rock is given by the relation
p

V p - [(K+4n/3)/ pf- (2.4)

^ P1' S1
V V

where K = bulk modulus of the rock

MEDIUM-1
• P/( A V/V) =E/[3(1 -2u)],
Y
n = modulus of rigidity or shear modulus
MEDIUM-2
= E/[2(l + v)],
Fig. 2.5 - Reflection of a Longitudinal Seismic Wave.
p = density of rock,
P = pressure,
The reflected energy varies with the angle of incidence to a lesser
V = volume, extent up to the critical angle, beyond which the increase of E with /' is r

£ =modulus of elasticity of the rock, rapid. It is evident from eqn.(2.7) that the greater the difference between
the acoustic impedances (density x velocity) of the two rock media (the
and o = Poisson's ratio of the rock. The velocity of transverse waves
lower medium being the denser one), the greater is the proportion of
v s = (nfpf- (2.5) reflected energy.
The longitudinal seismic waves undergo refraction and reflection at A part of the incident energy is refracted across the interface between
rock interfaces and from a study of these properties it is possible to trace the two media as shown in Fig.2.6. The refracted waves are again of both
these interfaces under the surface of the earth. Fig.2.5 illustrates the longitudinal and transverse character, angle of refraction for the longitudinal
reflection of a longitudinal seismic wave AO from an interface XY. The wave R is given by the relation
p

longitudinal wave, on reflection, travels as a reflected longitudinal wave

and a reflected transverse wave. While the angle of reflection of the sini/smR p = v /vpl p2 (2.8)
longitudinal wave r = /', the angle of incidence, the angle of reflection of
p When i = i , R = 90° and sin i = v / v
c p c pJ p2 (2.9)
the transverse wave is given by the Snell's law as
There are two methods of seismic surveying: the refraction method
sin t = V sin i/V
% s1 p1 (2.6) and the reflection method.

40 41
 medium. The second wave mentioned above always reaches the detector
later than the first, but the third wave reaches the detector earlier than the
Incident first when the distance traveled by it in the faster dense medium is such
Longitudinal that its overall travel time is less than that of the wave traveling along the
Wave surface.
Medium - 1
Now if the time of travel of the earliest wave at a detector is plotted
against its distance from the source of the wave as in Fig.2.7, we get a
straight line OK up to a point C where the overall speed of the refracted
Refracted
Longitudinal W a v e
wave just exceeds that of the direct wave traveling along the surface.
Refracted Beyond the point C, the curve KL is a straight line, but flatter than OK. The
Transverse Wave equation for this curve is
Fig. 2.6 - Refraction of Seismic Waves. t = tj + dtan0 2 (2.10)
In the refraction method, a shot is fired below the ground surface at 0 With reference to Fig.2.7 it can be shown that
as shown in Flg.2.7. Seismic detectors or geophones are placed at different t = 2Zcos if/Vp]
t (2.11)
points such as A, B,C etc. along OC. These detectors pick up the seismic
where Z = vertical depth of the lighter medium.
waves (the longitudinal waves traveling faster are picked up first and are
actually utilized for interpretation) propagated through the rock media. Combining eqns. (2.9) and (2.11), we have
The waves picked up at the detector A are (a) that traveling along the
Z = , , V V / 2 ^ r ^ / ' (2.12)
surface from 0 to A, and (b) that reflected from the interface at M, both
traveling in the upper light rock medium. The wave along the surface V V a n d from the slope of the curves OK and KL
a r e o b t a i n e d

traversing a shorter path will obviously be the first to arrive at A. Other respectively. Thus it is seen that with the refraction method of surveying,
detectors placed farther from A (say at B) will receive three waves each, both the depth of a rock interface as well as the seismic velocities of the
one along the surface (OB), the second reflected from the interface at an rock media can be obtained. Table 2.1 gives the seismic velocities for
angle greater than the critical (ORB), and the third incident on the interface some common rocks.
at the critical angle. This third wave (OMNB) gets refracted into the dense
medium below the interface and travels in it parallel to the interface (since Dips of inclined interfaces can be calculated from refraction surveys
R = 90°) for a distance before it is refracted back into the upper light
D
conducted both in the down-dip and up-dip directions. Multiple interfaces
can also be surveyed. However, refraction surveys are generally limited to
depths of about 1000 m (though they have been used down to a depth of
about 2 000 m), since below this depth, the proportion of time spent by
the refracted wave in the denser medium becomes relatively small and
hence the results become less reliable. Besides, for surveying deep
anomalies by this method, the shot-detector separation has to be large
(much larger than the depth), generally ranging from 3 - 13 km for oil
prospecting. Refraction method is highly successful where the terrain is
flat and the anomaly has a large density contrast.

or

Fig. 2.7 - Refraction Method of Seismic Surveying.

43
42
 However, they are limited in their field of application to shallow depths
of 300-450 m (except for telluric and magnetotelluric methods which can
penetrate to greater depth) and hence are generally restricted to the
Table 2.1 - Seismic Velocities of Common R o c k s . 8 prospecting of ore minerals.
• Medium " Speed of propagation ot 1. Self Potential Method: As has been explained earlier, under
longjtudinaUso^ certain conditions (i.e., when oxidation occurs at the top part) certain
lOtiyiiuunK
sulphide ore bodies containing pyrites and pyrrhotite (some other minerals
Air at 0° C 326 such as magnetite and alunite also generate self potential) buried at a
/All OL V v
1410
Water at 4°
V V O l w i « ^ •
C 3450 (higher values at shallow depth below the ground surface generate a self potential. The
Alluvium 500 -
upper part of the ore body, being the negative electrode, there will be a
greater depths)
potential drop along the ground surface from all around to the point just
Sandstone 1 380 - 4 230
above the top of the ore body producing a potential gradient towards this
2250 - 4 620
Shale point.
3 300 - 6 000
I imestone
4 860 - 6 060 The drop in potential between any two points (which may range from
nnlomite
4 320 - 6 420 a few to several hundred millivolts) is measured by a potentiometer or
Rnrk salt
(Granite 3930 -- 5610 millivoltmeter connected to two non-polarizing electrodes (usually copper
Earth's Interior 7 800 electrodes dipped in a porous pot containing saturated copper sulphate
__ ^ . o r o i k i neori to Denetrate solution are used) dug into the ground at the two points. Equipotential
The reflection method of surveying is generally used to penetrate
lines can be drawn keeping one electrode stationary and moving the other
depths exceeding 6000 m and is indeed the most commonly used method
until the potentiometer or galvanometer shows no reading.
of seismic surveying today. In this method the detector picks up the
longitudinal wave reflected from a rock interface. The separation between Self potential methods however, have a limited application. They can
the shot and the detectors hardly exceeds the depth to be penetrated. By be used to detect only a few limited types of minerals down to a shallow
noting the time of arrival of successive reflected waves (stronger direct depth of only about 30 m, provided further that the top part of the ore body
waves have to be suitably screened) from progressively deeper rock is above permanent water table or permafrost and is subjected to oxidation
interfaces, it is possible to calculate the depth of all these interfaces with leading to the generation of a self potential. Self potential readings are
equal accuracy. The velocities of travel to and from different rock interfaces subject to errors due to telluric currents (which may produce potential
are calculated from the time the waves reflected from any interface take to differences of the order of 50 millivolts) as well as other stray currents
reach detectors placed at varying distances from the shot. which have to be carefully guarded against.
The reflection method of surveying gives a more accurate estimation 2. Earth Resistivity Methods: In these methods current from an
of depth and is the most successful where the reflecting beds are uniform external source ( a battery, d.c. generator or alternator) is fed into the
and have a relatively flat dip. Unlike the refraction method, it does not earth through two current electrodes inserted into the ground. Sometimes
reveal the nature of the rock (as interpreted from its wave propagation the current electrodes may be in the form of two bare conducting wires
velocity) below the reflecting surface. Hence it is generally unsuitable for laid on the ground parallel to each other and grounded at intervals by
prospecting of ore bodies. suitable grounding electrodes. Two potential electrodes are used to measure
Electrical Methods: Electrical methods have a large number of the potential difference between any two points in the vicinity of the current
variants and can be broadly classified as follows: electrodes. Both direct and low - frequency alternating current(up to 60Hz)
1. Self potential method is used. Measurements as well as interpretation of results are easier with
2 . Earth resistivity method direct current, but d.c. causes polarisation of the electrodes due to the
3. Induced polarisation method
4. Electromagnetic induction method 45
5. Telluric and magnetotelluric methods.

44
 across the potential electrodes, r and r sre the distances from one of the
1 2

electrolytic action of the ground. That is why the electrodes used with d.c. potential electrodes to the current electrodes and R and R , the distances 1 2

measurement are of nonpolarising type, though ordinary metal electrodes from the other potential electrode to the same current electrodes.
may be used for a.c. measurements. For the same reason the d.c. is For the most commonly used electrode arrangement (Wenner
commutated at the rate of a few times per minute to 100 times per second. arrangement), where the potential electrodes are so placed in between
The use of rapidly commutating d.c. or a.c. eliminates the effect of self the current electrodes that the spacing between any two consecutive
potential in resistivity measurement. Another advantage of the use of a.c. electrodes is the same, eqn.(2.13) reduces to
is the ease of amplification of signals. A qualitative indication of anomalies
at shallow depths not exceeding 15 m is given by the equipotential method p = 2%aV/l (2.14)
where the current electrodes having a voltage of about 200 Vacross them where a = spacing between consecutive electrodes.
are fixed about 600 m apart. With one of the potential electrodes fixed at
a point, the other one is moved about tracing equipotential lines on the In nonhomogenous ground however, the resistivity varies. Let us
ground surface. In homogenous ground the current paths and the consider the case in Fig.2.8 where an upper layer of thickness h has a
equipotential lines are evenly spaced, but when there is a body of a higher higher resistivity p and an infinitely thick lower layer has a lower resistivity
1

or lower electrical conductivity near the ground surface, the equipotential p . Here the resistivity calculated from eqn.(2.14) is a complex function of
2

lines get respectively closer together or wider apart, thus indicating the both p and p as well as h and hence is called the apparent resistivity, p .
1 2 a

anomaly. p is given by the relation

a

The resistivity methods vary depending on the electrode arrangement,

P a = P [l+4{K/(l+4h /a )
t 2 2 1/2 - K/(4+4h /a )' 2 2 2

but they all measure the apparent resistivity of the ground at the point of
measurement down to a depth determined by the electrode spacing. Fig.2.8 +K /(l + 16h /a )'
2 2 2 2 - K /(4+16h /a )
2 2 2 12

gives the current paths in two layers of rock below the ground surface
+K /(l+36h /a )'
3 2 2 /2 - K /(4+36h /a )'
3 2 2 2 + ...}] (2.15)
where A and B are the current electrodes and C and D are the potential
electrodes. where K = resistivity contrast = (p - p )/(p 2 l 2 + pX
By varying the electrode spacing a, several values of p can be obtained a

to solve the unknowns p p and h from eqn.(2.15). For a small electrode

v 2

spacing, the lines of current are mainly confined to the upper layer and p a

approaches p while for a wide electrode spacing, a majority of the current

1

lines pass through the lower layer so that p approaches p . a 2

Thus by varying the electrode spacing at any point the variation in

the apparent resistivity with depth can be obtained. For horizontal scanning,
the set of electrodes has to be moved horizontally along suitable traverse
lines. Anomalies are indicated by marked changes in the apparent resistivity
of the ground. Table 2.2 gives the resistivity of some common types of
rocks and minerals.
Fig. 2.8 - Current Paths in Layered Ground.

In homogenous ground the resistivity p is given by the relation

p-2xft{I (Vrr 1/r - 1/R, + 1/RJ]

2 (2.13)

w h e r e /=current flowing through the current electrodes and V - voltage

47
46
 residual voltage V after time* after current cut-off to the steady voltage V
l

Table 2.2 9 - Electrical Resistivity of Common Rocks and Minerals is taken as a measure of ground impedance. Frequency domain
Rock or mineral Resistivity, Qm measurements and magnetic induced polarisation measurements are the
Pyrite 2.9 x 10"° -1.5 other methods of measurement of anomalies.
Galena 3 x 1 0 " - 3 x 10 5 2
4. Electromagnetic Induction Methods: These methods utilize
Magnetite 5 x 1 0 " - 5 . 7 x 105 3 electromagnetic waves induced in the earth by alternating current passing
Graphite 10" -5x10-4 3 through bare or insulated conductors placed at the surface generally in
Rock salt 30-10 1 3 the form of a loop. The induced electromagnetic waves have the same
Granite 3x10 -10 2 6 frequency as the inducing a.c. and penetrate into the ground down to
Gabbro 10 - 1 0
3 s
depths governed by the resistivity of the ground and the frequency of the
Mica & calc. schist 20-10 4
waves. The optimum frequency giving the greatest penetration of the waves
Slate 6 x 1 0 - 4 x 10 2 7
is given by the relation.
Shale 20-2x10 3
ftp 100 (p tf)% (2.16)
Sandstone 1 -6.4 x10 8

Limestone 5 0 - 10 7
where

3. Induced Polarisation Method: This method developed out of the h = depth of penetration in m,
resistivity method, but today measurement of resistivity is done only as f-frequency of electromagnetic wave in Hz,
an adjunct to induced polarisation measurements. When an electric current
and p- resistivity of the ground in Qm.
in the ground is interrupted, the voltage across the potential electrodes
does not immediately drop to zero, but relaxes slowly over several seconds The common frequencies used in frequency domain ground
(even minutes) as shown in Fig. 2.9. This phenomenon is known as transmitters range from 100 to 5 000 Hz while for airborne electromagnetic
induced polarisation which depends on the ground impedance or apparent instruments they are 900 to 35 000 Hz.
resistivity. The induced electromagnetic waves get progressively attenuated in
the ground, but if they meet a buried conductor like an ore body, they
Measurements are made in the time domain where the ratio of the
induce a current in it which, in turn, generates new electromagnetic waves.
These secondary waves are picked up by search coils at the surface.
Anomalies are indicated by the relative intensity of the signals from the
search coils.
Another type of electromagnetic measurement in time domain is by
the use of a transient primary electromagnetic field. When the primary
current is cutoff the secondary field decays, the rate of decay depending
on the resistivity of the ground.
5. Telluric and Magnetotelluric Methods: In the telluric current
method natural earth currents or telluric currents which are induced by
ionospheric electromagnetic fields are used to locate anomalies by mapping
v, the potential gradient between a pair of electrodes. Greater depths can be
penetrated with the telluric current method than with resistivity methods
T where the spacing of the current electrodes limits the depth of probe. That
Fig. 2.9 - Voltage Decay in Induced Polarisation Method.
49
48
is why telluric current method is the only electrical method which has
been successfully used for oil prospecting, particularly in the detection of
salt domes. Geiger counters are only 1 % efficient in catching the y - radiations and are
not very sensitive to weak radiations.
Telluric currents however, vary widely geographically, diurnally, and
seasonally and a great deal of sophistication is needed in their Scintillation counters on the other hand, are 100% efficient for
measurement and interpretation of results. y - radiations and are more sensitive and powerful detectors. They operate
on the principle that certain crystals like that of sodium iodide when
The magnetotelluric method involves measurement of the intensity of
subjected to y- radiations emit light flashes. These flashes are amplified
the electromagnetic field inducing the telluric currents where the
by photomultiplier tubes and recorded in scintillation counters.
measurement is more complex using several induction coils.
Radioactive Method: Disintegration of radioactive minerals such as Geophysical Logging of Oil Wells and Bore Holes: Well logging is
uranium, thorium etc. produces a (helium), p (electron), and y (X-ray essential during drilling of oil wells. Exploratory bore holes are logged
like) radiations, all of which ionize gases. Though a and p radiations have where necessary for physical informations about rock formations
higher ionising power, they have poor penetration capacity ( a radiations penetrated. There are various methods of well logging, chief of which are
can not pass through a sheet of paper, p radiations can be stopped by a self-potential and resistivity logging as well as y - ray logging.
sheet of glass while y radiations can penetrate 0.6 m of rock). That is why In self -potential logging, an electrode (usually a piece of lead) is
it is the weakly ionising y radiations which are generally used for the
lowered into the well
detection of radioactive minerals. Since even the y radiations can penetrate
a rock cover of only 0.6 m, detection of radioactive minerals buried in the filled with mud acting as . 11 ——,
ground is theoretically not possible. However, most radioactive minerals the electrolyte. The self •To Potentiometer

are easily soluble and are transported to the surface above the parent ore potential generated by g
body in solution. Besides, gaseous products like radon can diffuse to the the electrode is
surface thus giving an indication of the parent ore body. measured at various
points in the hole with
Radioactive prospecting is carried out by y - ray measuring instruments. respect to a fixed point
which are carried by hand or mounted in a jeep moving over the ground to at the surface. Self
be prospected while the intensity of y radiations is being recorded. Large potential logging gives a
tracts can be surveyed by airborne measurements carried out by measure of
scintillation counters mounted in a traversing aircraft. permeability, highly
permeable rocks giving
The common / - ray measuring instruments are (a) the Geiger counter
a strongly negative
and (b) the scintillation counter. The Geiger counter comprises a discharge
potential.
tube filled with argon and having a central wire anode surrounded by a
metallic sheath cathode. A potential difference just short of causing Resistivity logging
electrical discharge through the gas (usually in the vicinity of 1 000 V) is and induction logging
applied to the electrodes. When the discharge tube is subjected to both measure the F i g 2 .10 - Electrical Logging of Bore Holes.
y -radiation, the gas in it is ionised which starts an electric discharge
through the tube. This discharge is suitably amplified and recorded or can resistivity of different rocks penetrated by the well. In the resistivity log a
be heard as a series of clicks, the rapidity of which indicates the intensity set of three electrodes A,B and C are inserted into the bore hole so as to
of the / - radiation. There is usually a background count due to cosmic make contact with the wall at fixed intervals (see Fig.2.10). A and B are
radiations, which must be taken into account in interpreting the anomaly. potential electrodes connected at the surface to a potentiometer. C is one
of the current electrodes the other D being grounded at the surface.
50
51
. 1
 The resistivity p of the formation surveyed is given by the relation
p = 4 7tVrf /l(r -r )
2 2 t (2.17)
The size, shape (degree of rounding) and abundance of float can give an
where V= voltage recorded, indication regarding their distance of travel from the source.
and / = current passing. In prospecting by tracing float, the float is followed uphill or up stream
y -ray logging measures the ^radiation from different horizons in the channels, its location and abundance being plotted on a map. Complete
well and is mainly used for geological correlation. disappearance of float uphill gives the possible location of outcrop.

Other geophysical logs for oil wells are neutron logs for the detection Tracing by Panning: This is similar to tracing float, except that in
of hydrocarbons, density logs using y rays, sonic logs and electromagnetic this method, the finer fraction of the disintegrated ore mineral which has
propagation travel-time logs for porosity of rocks. traveled downhill is taken as a guide to the location of the parent ore body.
Generally ores containing small particles of heavy and resistant minerals
Geochemical Methods
or metal which get released on weathering and disintegration of the ore
It has been said earlier that chemical dispersion pattern in an area yield to prospecting by this method. Ores of gold, cassiterite, ilmenite
can be a useful guide to ere search. The geochemical method of prospecting etc. release the valuable mineral in the form of fine particles which travel
aims at plotting on suitable maps such dispersion patterns of trace metals downhill from the source. Systematic sampling of surface soil in an uphill
in samples of soil, ground water or vegetation (usually leaves) collected at direction and its panning to estimate the concentration of the valuable
suitable intervals from the area to be prospected. Anomalies are indicated mineral can lead to the discovery of outcrops of parent ore bodies.
by a marked change in the concentration of a trace metal from the
Trenching: Trenching is usually done in surface soil or soft ground
background value.
to check the extension of float or traces of valuable mineral below the
Surface Methods ground surface. But where bed rock or the outcrop of a hidden ore body
occurs at a shallow depth, it can be suitably exposed by trenching. In
Surface methods of prospecting aim at both locating mineral deposits such cases it is advantageous to cut the trenches at right angles to the
from surface indications as well as establishing their shape, extent and strike of the ore body where they can yield the maximum information.
character near the ground surface. Surface methods can be classified as
Trenches are usually shallow, 1 to 2 m in depth, so that material can be
follows:
easily shoveled out of them. Sometimes trenches are dug to a depth of
(a) Tracing of float 5 m, but the walls in such cases are cut into benches for safety as well as
for facilitating shoveling in stages. Manual trenching is slow, the rate of
(b) Tracing by panning shoveling being 1 - 4 m per man-shift with single-stage shoveling. With
3

(c) Trenching mechanical excavators like backhoe shovels or other ditch diggers, deep
trenches can be cut fairly fast.
(d) Test pitting
The width of trenches at the bottom depends on the required working
(e) Hydraulic prospecting
space and ranges from 0.5 to 1 m while that at the top is kept wider
(f) Exploratory drilling depending on the depth of the trench and the nature of the ground so as to
ensure stability of the walls.
Tracing of Float: Pieces of ore getting dislodged from the outcrop
and transported downhill by the process of erosion can provide valuable Test Pitting: Test pits have to be used when the thickness of the soil
clue to the location of hidden outcrops of ore bodies. Usually the more or alluvium to be penetrated is too large for trenching. Like trenching, test
resistant type of ores such as gold quartz ore, pyritic ores with siliceous pitting is the most suitable in soft ground free from large boulders and
gangue, iron ores, manganese ores etc. yield floats in sufficient quantities. water. At the same time the walls should be strong enough to be self-
supporting needing as little timbering or other forms of support as possible.
52 In dry ground test pits have been dug down to depths of 30 m though in

53
wet ground drilling is preferable to test pitting beyond a depth of 15 m.
Test pits may be circular, elliptical, square or rectangular in cross- have been drilled down to great depths (of the order of 3 000 m for diamond
section. Circular pits of about 1 m diameter are common since they are drill holes to even 6 000 to 7 000 m for oil wells). Most of the exploratory
cheaper and faster to drive than rectangular or square pits which are usually drilling is generally done from the surface, though underground exploratory
1.2 x 1.5 m in cross-section, Besides, the walls of circular pits are stabler drilling is quite frequently used for exploring the lateral extent of ore bodies
than that of square or rectangular pits. But circular pits provide limited and the presence of parallel ore bodies from suitable underground
working space and need trained workers. The walls of square or rectangular excavations. Underground drill holes can also be used to explore the
pits are usually supported with timber sets with close timber lagging where vertical extent (depth) of ore bodies to a limited extent if suitable crosscuts
necessary. Timber support is difficult in circular pits, which can be well from which they can be drilled are available. They substantially reduce the
supported by 50 x 12 mm cross-section steel hoops lagged with corrugated cost of exploration as compared to surface drill holes by cutting down the
iron sheets. Usually two men work a test pit, one digging and loading the length of holes required.
material into buckets at the bottom of the pit, and the other operating a
Exploratory drilling is used for (a) locating deposits hidden under soil,
windlass at the surface for hoisting up the material. Progress of test pitting
rock or water cover, (b) proving the extent of ore bodies both in depth and
varies widely from 3 to 9 m per shift depending on the nature of the ground
laterally, (c) searching for the existence of other ore bodies nearby,
and the depth of the pit, and can be even lower than 1 m per shift in very
difficult ground. Progress improves with the use of mechanical hoisting, (d) locating faults and other structural features, and (e) collecting samples
particularly in deep pits. Presence of boulders or hard rock needing blasting for the estimation of grade and reserves.
can slow down progress substantially. The location and orientation of bore holes depends on the extent, lay,
and regularity of mineralisation of the deposits as well as the amount of
Test pits expose a very small area a't the bottom and hence are
information sought. In uniform bedded deposits like that of coal or iron ore,
unsuitable for tracing outcrops of steep vein deposits. They are most
it is sufficient to locate the bore holes randomly at intervals of 300 to
suitable for exploring flat deposits, particularly alluvial deposits. They are
1 000 m for preliminary exploration. A proper knowledge of the geology of
preferable to drill holes for prospecting as they yield a better representative
the area helps in suitably locating such preliminary holes so that they
sample and are open for visual inspection.
yield the maximum information at the least cost. For more detailed
Hydraulic Prospecting: This generally consists of guiding a stream, exploration however, closer spacing of bore holes in rows or on square,
if available nearby, to strip top soil and expose the bed rock as in ground rectangular or triangular grids is generally adopted. While for regular deposits
sluicing. Exploratory trenches can also be cut by using the cutting power like that of coal, iron ore etc. the spacing may vary from 50 to 150 m, for
of the stream aided by picking. Where water is not available in plenty, irregular deposits it may be as low as 15 to 30 m. Deep diamond drilling in
surface soil can be stripped by booming or hushing. The water in such a hard rock is very expensive and hole spacing has to be judiciously selected
case is impounded in a reservoir. When the reservoir gets filled to a certain for economy using statistical and geostatistical methods for achieving a
level a sluice gate is opened (this can be automated, being actuated by desirable degree of confidence in the estimated grade and reserves.
the level of water in the reservoir) thus letting the water rush out with
Vertical drill holes are generally used for exploring flat deposits with
enough force to cut the top soil.
dips up to 30° with the horizontal. For veins or beds with steeper dips,
Exploratory stripping of surface soil can also be done by a hydraulic both vertical and inclined holes may be drilled in rows parallel to the strike
monitor fed with pressure water from a dam or pump. of the ore body as shown in Fig. 2.11. Staggering of holes on successive
EXPLORATORY DRILLING rows yields better geological information and is hence preferable. Vertical
holes are normally shorter for proving down to a given depth and should be
Drill holes or bore holes used for exploration are usually narrow preferred where thick hard rock covers or surface drift have to be penetrated,
(generally not exceeding 200 mm in diameter for diamond drill holes though but otherwise inclined holes are generally preferred for exploring steep
deep oil wells can have initial diameters up to 600 - 700 mm) though they lodes as they yield a more correct record along the true thickness of
formations. Any soft or undesirable formation that gives trouble in drilling
54
55
 pits are sometimes cheaper than bore holes, particularly if the formation
penetrated is dry, soft and free from boulders. In wet and hard formations
however, boring becomes faster and cheaper. Test pits requiring support
of walls invariably cost more than bore holes. Test pitting in soft formations
requiring no support can yield as fast a progress as boring down to a
depth of 10 m, beyond which boring becomes faster. In harder formations
and at greater depths boring can be 3 to 10 times faster than sinking test
pits, or shafts, and indeed, beyond a depth of 30 m, boring becomes the
only feasible surface exploration method. However, boring as a means of
exploration has certain limitations. Small deposits as well as irregularly
Fig. 2.11 - Orientation of Exploratory Bore Holes. mineralised ore bodies can often be missed by bore holes or may need a
costly boring programme involving unusually close spacing of bore holes.
and sampling is quickly penetrated through by inclined holes drilled at The data obtained from bore holes may not always yield characteristic
right angles to the formation. Besides, holes drilled close to the direction information about the deposits because of the small size of the holes.
of dip have a stronger tendency to wander than those drilled at right angles The problem is particularly aggravated in soft and broken ground where
to the direction of dip. In fact the tendency of bore holes in inclined stratiform core recovery is very poor. In such cases much more valuable information
formations to deviate in a direction perpendicular to that of the dip of the can be obtained from underground exploratory developments. While bore
formations has been successfully used to economise on the length of drill holes give the information of the deposit only in one direction, i.e., along
holes required to prove ore bodies at depth by suitably controlling the the bore hole, drifts, tunnels, shafts or even trenches and test pits yield
orientation of the hole at the collar. Referring to Fig.2.12, a bore hole enough geological information in three directions in order to be of greater
drilled at A at right angles to the dip of the formations reaches the bed X at value in the establishment of geological structure.
B without deviation, but as the angle of inclination of the hole at the collar
Methods of Exploratory Drilling
increases, the deviation of the hole also increases. For example, a vertical
hole drilled from A meets X at C instead of C. Similarly the hole AD Methods of exploratory drilling can be broadly classified into two major
deviates to meet the bed at D insteadof at D'. The alternative way of proving groups: (a) percussive drilling and (b) rotary drilling. On the basis of power
the bed at depth D would be to drill a longer hole A'D. used, they can be manual or mechanical. The selection of a suitable
method of exploratory drilling depends chiefly on the nature of geological
For shallow exploration, other surface methods like trenching or test information required as well as the speed and cost of drilling. Other factors
pitting are generally to be preferred to boring as the former yield more influencing the selection are the physico-mechanical characteristics of
accurate information at fairly low cost. In fact down to a depth of 15 m test the rocks to be penetrated, depth, diameter and direction of the hole,
availability of capital, transport facilities, as well as availability of labour
and power.
Manual Drilling
Manual drilling is slow and laborious, but manual drilling rigs can be
easily fabricated and transported so that in remote virgin areas with poor
transport facilities and nonavailability of power, manual or hand drilling is
an easier choice. However, for economic reasons, hand drilling rarely
exceeds 15 - 30 m in depth depending on the stiffness of the ground.
Hand drilling is suitable for the prospecting of soft and shallow deposits
Fig. 2.12 - Tendency of Drill Holes to Deviate in Inclined Formations. such as of china clay, placer deposits etc.

56 57
 M R O P E F O R C H U R N I N G AND

Hand boring methods include (a) probing by drive pipes, (b) wash
boring with drive pipes, (c) hand percussive boring, and (d) hand auger
drilling.
Probing by Drive Pipes : A drive pipe is usually 25 to 50 mm in
diameter and 1.8 to 2.4 m long with a 6 - mm wide and 1.2 - m long slot
on the side. The slot helps in gripping the soil core inside the pipe when it
is driven into the ground as well as in cleaning it after withdrawal. The
bottom end of the pipe is usually filed or ground to a cutting edge, though
in tougher ground it is preferable to fit a special cutting shoe at the bottom
of the pipe. The pipe is driven into the ground by hammering it at the top
by a maul or a weight suspended from a tripod and churned by hand. The
top of the pipe is protected by a suitable cap. The pipe is withdrawn at
intervals of 0.3 to 0.6 m and the core removed for examination. It is possible
to probe down to a depth of 5 - 6 m by adding flush-jointed extensions to
the pipe, but beyond this depth it becomes difficult to withdraw the pipe
manually.

Wash Boring with Drive Pipes: The method is principally used in

soft ground for sampling, ascertaining the depth of bed rock below the
ground surface and for sinking stand pipes for diamond drilling.
The rig, illustrated in Fig. 2.13, consists of a light portable tripod
derrick made of 6 - m long and 100 x100 - mm cross-section timber logs
and fitted with a windlass and sheave for a 30 - mm diameter manila rope. Fig. 2 . 1 3 - W a s h Boring Rig (Diagrammatic).
Drive pipes or casings of 65 mm diameter and 1.5 m length flush jointed
bailed out by a bailer if sufficiently small in size, otherwise they have to be
with each other are sunk into the ground. The core inside the pipe is
broken up by a cross chopping bit before bailing. Boulders are drilled
broken up by a jet of water from a string of wash pipes running inside the
through ahead of the drive pipe and blasted by a cartridge of explosive
casing. In soft sandy material, 20 - mm diameter gas pipes can be used
before the casing is sunk through the broken rock. In hard ground the
as wash pipe, but in hard ground, 28 - mm diameter, 3 - m long flush casing is fitted with a drive head at the top and a drive shoe at the bottom
jointed hollow drill rods are preferred. Water is fed into the string of wash and is sunk by applying successive blows to the drive head by a drive
pipes through a swivel joint from a hand operated force pump connected block, which is churned up and down.
to it by a rubber hose. Usually a pump with a cylinder diameter of 100 mm
and a stroke of 115 mm is adequate for the purpose. The jet of water is The drive pipes are pulled out after the hole has been completed and
normally worked ahead of the casing in soft ground and the casing sinks samples collected, by attaching the rope from the windlass to the top of
by its own weight or can be made to sink by rotating it with the help of a the pipe through a swivel head. The pipe is twisted with the help of tongs
cross bar or brace head which is suitably weighted. while being pulled by the rope so as to loosen it. If necessary clamps may
be fitted on the pipe, which is then lifted up by jacks or levers.
If harder material is encountered during wash boring, a chisel bit can
be attached to the bottom of the string of wash pipes which is then churned Wash boring is rarely used for depths exceeding 30 m. The speed of
up and down by hand. The cuttings are removed by the flushing water drilling is 3.5 to 5.5 m per hour in soft soil down to a depth of 15 m while in
jetting out through holes on the sides of the bit. In coarse gravel, pebbles
are often left in the hole while the sand is washed out. The pebbles can be 59
58
 B R A C E HEAD

stiff clay it reduces to only about 1.5 m per hour. For depths over 30 m the
speed is only 3.5 to 4.5 ma day on the average in sand. The drilling crew
usually comprises 3 to 4 men with a foreman.
Wash boring is successful in fine ground where the material can be
carried up easily by the flushing water. Too many pebbles needing frequent
bailing or chopping down for removal slow down the progress and increase
cost. The size of pebbles, when present, should be fairly small as compared
to the diameter of the drive pipe for easy progress. Wash boring is not
suitable in ground liable to cave easily (e.g., unconsolidated material like
placer gravel below the water table) since the samples collected become
extremely unreliable in such cases. However, if such ground is encountered
during wash boring, the jet should never be played ahead of the drive pipe.

Hand Percussive Drilling or Churn Drilling: Hand churn drilling is

confined to shallow holes. Usually a 2.5 - m long, 15 - mm diameter
hexagonal steel with a chisel bit is used for drilling shallow holes down to
1.5 to 1.8 m depth by a single man. For deeper holes, a string of hollow Fig. 2.14-Spring Pole Drilling Rig (Diagrammatic)
pipes with a chisel bit is used. There is a ball valve provided on the top of
and facilitates better working of the chisel as cuttings are immediately
the bit so that the string itself acts as a pump on churning and sucks up
removed by the circulating water thus keeping the hole face always clean.
the cuttings into the pipe discharging them at the top. Water is poured
Dispensing with the use of a sand pump enhances the speed of drilling
into the hole for sludging the cuttings. Two to three men can drill down to
considerably. The bit is kept cool thereby increasing its life. Samples of
a depth of 20 m by hand churn drilling.
cuttings constantly indicate the nature of strata penetrated. Casing can
For still deeper holes, hand churning becomes difficult and the drill be extended right down to the bottom of the hole as it is always kept clean
string is churned by a rocking lever which may be a simple round pole as of the debris. A partial core can be obtained by using a compound chisel
in spring pole drilling (see Fig. 2.14) or a sawn timber beam provided with bit and the method can be easily converted to rotary drilling if core is
a cross bar at the end for facilitating rocking. required by substituting the chisel bit with a diamond crown and attaching
a bevel gear drive to the top of the drill string.
The rig consists of a tripod derrick with a winch and a crown sheave.
A string of screw-jointed square (30 x 30 mm), round or hexagonal drill However, in porous and fractured strata the loss of flushing water into
rods with a chisel bit at the end is churned up and down by the rocking the ground may be so high (water consumption may sometimes rise up to
lever which is 6 - 9 m long and is supported on a fulcrum to give a lever 500 //min) that it may be uneconomical to use water flushing, particularly
ratio of 1:3 to 1 :5, sometimes even more. The rocking lever is rocked by where there is water scarcity.
one or more men. The rods are turned by a brace head in a direction that
would tighten the screw joints. Water is poured into the hole to keep the 25 to 60 m deep holes (sometimes even up to 90 m) can be drilled
with the rig described above.The speed of drilling in shales and soft
cuttings sludged and a sand pump with a ball or flap valve at the bottom is
sandstones varies from 2.5 - 3 m /shift down to a depth of 30 m and from
used to bail out the cuttings. Drive pipes or casings are driven into the
1- 2.5 m /shift for the next 30 m for 30 - 50 mm diameter holes. The
hole to support the hole walls if necessary.
corresponding figures for 75 mm holes are 2 - 2.5 m /shift and 1 - 1 . 5
Sometimes hollow drill rods are used when the hole can be flushed m/shift.
with water circulated through the drill string as in wash boring. Water
flushing of the hole lightens the drill string, reduces friction of the drill rods
61
60
 it. As drilling progresses, further pipe lengths of 1.5 m are added. In loose
material, the casing string sinks easily under the weight of the men on the
platform, who churn a sand pump attached to the bottom of a string of drill
„ In unconsolidated alluvial deposits casing pipes have to be sunk into
rods inside the casing to remove the core. 8 to 10 jumps usually fill the
the ground to prevent caving of hole walls.A drill very suitable for alluvial
pump, which is then lifted, and the material discharged at the surface.
prospecting is the empire drill (Fig.2.15), which consists of a string of
Pumping is continued until a 7 5 - 1 0 0 mm plug is left at the bottom of the
flush jointed seamless high carbon steel pipes of 65 to 600 mm internal casing so as to obtain an uncontaminated sample.
diameter with a toothed cutting shoe at the bottom. A circular steel platform
is attached to the top of the casing string, which is rotated by a sweep In stiffer ground, the core is broken by churning a chisel bit at the end
fitted below the platform and operated by four men or a horse. The casing ^.of the drill string before being pumped out. Additional blows from a
is fed by the weight of four men standing on the platform. 100 - kg ram operated by the men on the platform may be needed in such
cases to facilitate penetration of the casing.
Initially an auger hole is drilled to a depth of about 1 m and a short
casing string with the cutting shoe attached to the bottom is inserted Into The casing is pulled out of the hole on completion by removing the
platform and screwing on a pulling cap with a swivel eye to the top of the
HANDLE FOR
CHURNING casing string. A lever passing through the eye and resting on a pulling
stand as a fulcrum is jerked up as the casing is rotated by the sweep.
In average placer ground, 6 to 8 men can drill a 10 - rn deep hole in a
day. The drill, for a 100 - mm diameter hole down to a depth of 15 m,
weighs about 1.0 tonne while for a 100 - mm hole down to a depth of 30 m
or a 150 mm hole down to a depth of 1 5 / d , it weighs about 1.51. The parts
*are such that no single piece weighs more than 35 kg for easy transportation.
Hand Auger Drilling: Hand auger drilling is commonly used for
shallow holes in soft rocks like sand, clay, earth etc. Single - flight augers
are suitable for drilling down to a depth of 3 - 4 m only in soft ground. For
deeper holes, they need too many number of passes thus reducing the
speed of drilling. Double - flight or high - spiral posthole augers are used
for deeper holes. Fig. 2.16 illustrates various types of auger tools. Type A
is a single - flight auger comprising two cutting wings with either cutting
lips orteeth depending on the nature of ground to be penetrated. Sometimes
one wing may have a cutting lip with the other carrying teeth
(Fig.2.16 B). Fig. 2.16 C shows a single - flight auger head suitable for
1 nround containing boulders. Fig.2.16 D,E and F show high - spiral cutter
heads suitable respectively for clay, sand and soft rocks. 20 - mm diameter
round extension rods, 25 - mm diameter pipes or 25 - mm square-section
rods are attached to the cutter head to form the drill string which is rotated
by a tee piece with pipe handles attached at the top.

For deep holes, even double - flight or high - spiral augers slow down
the progress when continuous - flight augers may be used. Continuous -
CUTTING SHOE

Fig. 2 15 - Empire Drill (Diagrammatic).

63

62
 flight augers are formed by
joining several rods each 1-1.5 (costing almost half of hand percussive drilling), though it is generally
suitable for soft ground and limited in depth to 6 -15 m.
(A)
m long and carrying a scroll or
screw conveyor on it. Fish tail Power Boring
or finger type cutter heads (see Power boring methods can be broadly classified as
Fig.2.16 G and H) are generally
1. Percussive Drilling
used with continuous-flight
augers. (a) Percussive Drilling with Rigid Rods
(B)
Auger holes vary in (b) Cable Tool Drilling or Churn Drilling
diameter from 60 to 600 mm and (c) Percussive Drilling with Pneumatic Drills
have been drilled down to a
record depth of 200 m. However, 2. Rotary Drilling
(C) for relatively deep holes, a 4.5 (a) Power Auger Drilling
- 7.5 m derrick and rig with
(b) Diamond Drilling
windlass and rope for lifting the
(D) auger string is necessary. (c) Rotary Drilling with Toothed Cutters and Drag Bits
Horses or mechanical power is (d) Chilled Shot Drilling
used in such cases to turn the
(e) Oil Well Drilling with Drag and Roller Bits
(E) auger. T h e drilling speed
depends on the diameter of the Power Percussive Boring w i t h Rigid Rods: The rig is similar to
hole, nature of material drilled the churn drill described later except that the rope attached to the drill
through, nature of the tools and string for churning is shorter and the drill string going down the hole is
(F)
the experience of the crew. longer comprising a set of rigid hollow drill rods screwed to each other.
With two men working the auger This facilitates water flushing of the hole during drilling. The method is
manually, an average speed of however, limited in depth as for deep holes, the drill string becomes
1 - 2 m /h can be obtained for a extremely heavy leading to failure of drill rods and bits. Also the speed of
(G) 50 - mm diameter hole in clay drilling falls with depth owing to the long time needed for bit changing.
and earth down to a depth of Besides, the efficiency of the flushing water in carrying up the cuttings
1 2 - 1 8 m. decreases with depth. That is why these drills have been invariably replaced
by portable churn drills even though they cause less hole deviation than
Auger drilling is suitable churn drills and are more flexible in that they can be converted to rotary
(H) for dry ground when the hole drills for coring without much difficulty.
walls do not cave in. In loose
ground, particularly below the Cable Tool Drilling or Churn Drilling: Cable tool drilling was once
used for drilling oil wells down to a depth of 2 000 m but today it has been
water table, caving of hole walls
Fig. 2.16 - Various Types of Auger Heads. completely replaced by faster rotary drilling. Cable tool drill rigs
prevents the use of auger
(Fig. 2.17) consist of diesel engines or electric motors driving the hoist
drilling. Sometimes a casing or drive pipe may be driven 0.3 to 0.4 m
drum (bull wheel), the sand reel and a band wheel for churning the drilling
ahead of the auger in loose ground. A core sample of the ground penetrated
rope or cable through a rocking lever or pitman. The drilling rope passes
can be obtained by using hollow-stem augers.
over the hoist sheave or crown pulley mounted on a derrick and carries a
Of all the hand drilling methods, auger drilling is, by far, the cheapest tool string comprising the bit, jars and sinker bars for raising the weight of

64
65
the tool string. Chisel or cross bits are used for cutting the rock inside the
P e r c u s s i v e Drilling with P n e u m a t i c Drills: Compressed-air
hole. The bit along with the tool string is churned up and down inside the
hammer drilling is most suited for hard rocks and hammer drills can be
hole for cutting the rock. The cuttings are bailed out by a sand pump
used for prospecting hard rocks down to relatively shallow depths not
operated by the sand line. Portable churn drills capable of drilling shallow
exceeding 25 m. Wagon drills with bit diameters up to 75 mm are the
holes of 300 - 1 000 m were also used, but are rarely found today.
most suitable ior prospecting. Although large-diameter (exceeding
150 mm) down-the-hole drills operated at high air pressures around
2.5 MN/m have been used for oil well drilling down to fair depths in hard
2

rocks, they become expensive for prospecting of ore deposits. Besides,

pneumatic hammer drills can not recover a core of the rocks penetrated.

Rotary Drilling : For obtaining adequate geological information and

reliable samples, coring has become an essential requirement in exploratory
drilling today. That is why rotary drilling with provision for core recovery is
the commonest method used for exploration, particularly for deep boring.
Diamond drills are predominantly used for coring though in some types of
rocks calyx drills with saw-tooth cutters or chilled shot bits are also used.
Rotary drills with drag or roller bits which are commonly used for oil well
drilling are generally noncoring though a limited core can be obtained by
using special coring bits.

Power Auger Drilling : Here the auger stem and the bit are rotated
by power. The simplest powered auger is the post - hole digger often
provided as an accessory to the agricultural tractor and run from a power
take off. Power auger drills for prospecting are usually rotated by
compressed-air or electric motors in small sizes while in larger drills,
electric or hydraulic motors are commonly used. They are usually truck
mounted for easy transport except in very small units which may be hand
held. A powered hoist is usually provided for lifting the auger rods in the
truck mounted drills.

Like hand auger drilling, power auger drilling is restricted to non-caving

ground, particularly below the water table.
Diamond Drilling
Diamond drilling rigs vary in size from portable hand - operated
machines for depths of 1 0 0 - 2 0 0 m to heavy engine- or motor-driven units
for greater depths. Fairly large depths down to 3 000 m have been reached
by diamond drilling, though the hole diameter rarely exceeds 200 mm.
The rig comprises a derrick, the driving motor or engine, and the boring
column. For depths down to 200 m tripod derricks made of 7 - m long
Fig. 2.17- (a) Cable Tool Drilling Rig,
wooden legs 150x100 mm in cross-section giving a 6 m clearance for the
(b) Temper Screw, (c) Tool String (d) Bits.
rods are sufficient 150 x 150 mm by 9 m wooden legs are necessary for
66 67
derricks capable of drilling down to a depth of 300 m while for still deeper
holes, steel derricks up to 40 m in height are used. It must be noted that
rods up to 12 m in length can be stood up on the derrick floor without •
bending, but longer rods have to be suspended from crabs on the derrick. Table 2.3 - Specifications of some Longyear Exploratory
Diamond Drills.
Diamond drills can be driven by petrol, diesel, compressed-air or
electric power. Surface drills are mostly powered by internal combustion LF230 LF90-PQHead LF70-HQ LM-30
engines or electric motors while underground drills are usually compressed- Diamond Core Diamond Core Diamond Core Diamond Core
Drill System Drill Drill System Drill
air or electric powered. The power units range from 3 kW upwards. In
(Truck-Mounted, (Hydraulic (Hydraulic (Electric Motor)
smaller drills, a single engine or motor drives both the bevel gear that Hydraulic Motor Motor, Folding Motor, Folding skid/modular
imparts the rotary motion as well as the hoisting drum. Power transmission Folding Telescopic Mast, Truck Mast, Frame- rig
Mast) Mounted)
is through belt or chain drives in smaller units, but gear transmission is Mounted)

preferred in larger units. Separate engines or motors are provided for the Maximum
Drilling Depth, m 4390 1755
hoist, the rotary gear, and the circulating pump in large units. The hoist 1320 280 170 horizontal

drum may be directly driven by the engine or motor in small units, but in Maximum power.kW 194 (Diesel) 149 (Diesel) 79 (Diesel) 30(E)/45(D)*
larger ones used for deep holes, reduction gears become necessary. In Rated R.P.M. 2200 2200 2500 1450(E),
very small belt - driven units, the hoist drum may be dispensed with and 2000(D)
the drill rods raised by coiling the hoist rope around a cathead. Small Maximum 5322 - 3826 5322 - 3254 2305 240
diamond drills are generally mounted on skids of structural steel. Larger Torque, Nm (at 144 - 199 rpm) (at 122-199 rpm) (at 190 rpm.) (at 1200 rpm)
units are mounted on pneumatic-tyred trucks or crawler track for better Minimum Torque, Nm 849 - 610 849 - 519 340 -
mobility. Underground drills are more compact than surface drills and are (at 900 - 1250 rpm) (at 769 - 1250 rpm) (at 1250 rpm)
mounted on vertical adjustable screw columns which can be firmly secured Maximum Primary
between the roof and the floor of the mine opening. Table2.3 gives the Pump Capacity, l/min 318 165 163 60
salient features of some exploratory diamond drills. Maximum Primary
Pump Pressure, MPa 31 31 24.1 28.5
The general features of a diamond-drilling rig are illustrated in
Length of Feed Stroke, m 3.35 1.83 1.83 1.1/1.7
Fig. 2.18. The boring column is rotated through the bevel gear and the
Feed Thrust, N 117 877 51 857 4 231 -»
chuck while it is suspended from the hoist rope through the water swivel. 40 000
Fig. 2.18 (A) shows a simple gravity feed arrangement where the feed is Feed Pull,« 223 300 78 604 6 414 >

adjusted by taking off or adding weights to the balancing weight column, Drilling Angle with 45 • 90 45-90 • Horizontal /
but this method of feed is subject to inaccurate control and is rarely used Horizontal, degrees Vertical

today. More commonly, either positive differential screw feed (generally Hoisting Speed, m/min 42-72 53 59-80 30
restricted to smaller rigs) or hydraulic feed is used for controlling the feed Weight (bare, no truck), kg 13 607 5 656 3 220
of drill rods. The screw feed device (see Fig. 5.34) has normally three or
four sets of gears giving positive feeds of 1 mm per 8 - 3 0 revolutions, * E • Electric. D • Diesel

though other gears giving 2 - 5 5 revolutions per mm can be fitted. The

screw feed offers a fixed rate of advance and the gears have to be changed
to adjust the rate of advance when the hardness of the rock being drilled
changes. There is always danger to the bit when the rock changes from
soft to hard. With hydraulic feed on the other hand, the rate of advance
automatically adjusts itself when there is a change in the hardness of the

68

69
 water swivel connected to the circulation water hose are attached to the
-TRIPOD DEARICK top of the rods. Table 2.4 gives the American standard size of drill bits and
-CROWN PULLEY
CIRCULATING
rods which also gives the European standard sizes within brackets. The
^ W A T E R HOSE rods or pipes are available in lengths of 0.3, 0.6. 1.5, 3.0 or 6.0 m or even
longer and are usually joined by coupling pieces with tapered screw thread.
The wall thickness of the pipes varies from 5 to 7 mm.
The core barrel (Fig.2.19) which is one of the most important
components of the drill string for exploratory drilling, can be of the following

SCREW
COLUMN

/ AIR MOTOR

STRUCTUR
S T E E L SKID

Fig. 2.18 - Diamond Drilling Rig (a) Surface Rig (Diagrammatic), (b) Skid
Mounted Diesel -driven Surface Rig, (c) Column - mounted underground Rig.

rock. Feed can be controlled by increasing or decreasing the opening of

the valve 7 (see Fig.5.35) thus giving a larger range of feed control as
compared to the few fixed rates of feed obtained with the screw feed device.
The boring column consists of the diamond bit or crown, the core
shell or reamer shell with the core lifter in it, the core barrel, and flush
jointed hollow drill rods rotating inside the hole. The drill rods are rotated
by the splined shaft 2 (Fig.5 35) through the chuck. A lifting bail and a
Fig. 2 . 1 9 - C o r e Barrels : (a) Single Tube, (b) Double Tube, (c) Double Tube
70 Swivel, (d) Wire - line Core Barrel, (e) Overshot Assembly for (d).

71
types: (a) singie-tube core barrel ( b ) double-tube rigid-type core barrel, Table 2.4 - A m e r i c a n ( D C D M A ) S t a n d a r d S i z e s of D i a m o n d
(c) double-tube swivel-type core barrel, and(d) wire - line core barrel. The Drill R o d s , C a s i n g s a n d B i t s .
last two are used in holes larger than EX. The single-tube core barrel is Casing
Standard Coring bit dia., mm Rod Approx. Approx
commonly used for hard rocks where good solid core is recovered. This size outer outer inner outer hole core
has the advantage of consuming less time in removing the core and designation dia, mm dia, mm dia, mm dia, mm

reconnecting the barrel. When the core is soft and is likely to be washed EX 36.5 (36) - 34.9 37.3 22.2(22)
away by the circulating water, a double-tube core barrel is preferred. Here AX 46.8 (46) 46.0 (44) 38.1(37) 44.5 47.6 28.6(32)
the circulating water passes through the annulus between the inner and BX 58.7 (56) 57.2(54) 48.4(47) 54.0 59.5 41.3 (42)
(66) (64) (57) (52)
the outer core barrels without wetting the core. The double-tube swivel-
NX 74.6 (76) 73.0(74) 60.3(67) 66.7 75.4 54.0(62)
type core barrel is used in soft and broken ground where core recovery is 90.5 (86) 88.9(84) 76.9(77) 91.3 (72)
poor. It is commonly used in exploratory drilling for coal. In this type of N o t e : Figures within brackets indicate corresponding European standards
core barrel, the inner barrel is suspended by ball bearings from the outer
barrel and hence does not rotate along with it. In the rigid type on the other Diamond bits or crowns (Fig.2.20) usually consist of small diamonds
hand, the inner barrel is rigidly fixed to the outer barrel and rotates along set in a suitable matrix. The bit carries grooves on the shoulder and the
with it so that all the vibrations of drilling are transmitted to the inner core sides for the passage of circulating water.
barrel and the core. Fig.2.19 (c') shows the lower part of a double-tube Coarse crystalline industrial diamonds (unsuitable for gems owing
swivel-type core barrel where the core lifter is held in a case attached to to defective colour, presence of spots, cracks etc.), though very hard, are
the inner tube so that the circulating water comes in contact with the core unsuitable for drilling as they are very brittle and cleavable. Crypto-crystalline
only near the bit. Such a core barrel is advantageous in very soft ground porous carbons are, on the other hand, too soft so that the most commonly
where the core disintegrates easily in presence of water.
used diamond for setting in bits is bortz which is a cheap, finely crystalline
Core barrels are made in lengths of 0.25, 0.6, 1.5, 3, 6, or sometimes variety. It is hard, brittle and cleavable and chips off in minute fragments,
even 10 m. The longer ones facilitate larger drilling time before the core thus always exposing a fresh cutting edge (as compared to the normal
barrel along with the entire drill string is taken out of the hole thus increasing tendency of carbons to polish) so that a fast rate of drilling is obtained in
the overall rate of drilling. The wire-line core barrel can be used to avoid hard rocks.
the time consuming process of lifting out the entire drill string for changing The size and number of diamonds in a bit control the rate of drilling
the core barrel and is hence preferred for deep holes. Here the rotating drill to a large extent and have to be properly chosen. Large stones are preferred
string carries the outer tube and the bit while inside it there is an inner in soft rocks as they allow larger cuttings to be produced consequently
core barrel with a core lifter at the lower end and a locking head at the resulting in a faster penetration. In harder rocks on the other hand, a large
upper end. The core collects in the inner core barrel and when it is full it is number of smaller stones gives better performance by attacking the rock
lifted up by the overshot assembly which is lowered inside the drill rods by simultaneously at several points as well as by distributing the thrust over
a 5 to 6 - mm diameter wire - line. The lifting dog in the overshot a large number of cutting points. Besides, bits using smaller stones are
assembly(Fig.2.19e) catches hold of the spear-head of the inner core barrel cheaper. An EX bit using 1 0 - 1 5 stones-per-carat diamonds has a total
and draws it out (the latches get released as soon as the spear-head is diamond content of 10 -11 carats while with 60 - 80 stones-per-carat
lifted) to the surface where the entire inner core barrel is detached and a diamonds, its diamond content is only 4 - 5 carats (see Table 2.5). But
spare barrel dropped inside the drill string. The wire - line core barrel is small diamonds can not stand much abuse and are not suitable for drilling
however, limited to large-diameter holes of AX, BX, and NX sizes and the through broken ground. For the same reason, it is better to use high r.p.m.
diameter of the core obtained is less than that obtained with standard with low thrust with bits set with small stones forgetting good penetration.
single-tube core barrels. For example, the Longyearwire- line core barrels Although speeds up to 3 600 r.p.m. have been used, too high speeds
produce cores of 24, 33, and 44 mm diameter from AX, BX. and NX holes
respectively.

72 73
 Drilling operation starts with sinking of stand pipes or casings through
the soft ground at the surface after the derrick and the rig have been set
cause excessive bit wear so that in
up. In loose material the stand pipe may be driven by wash boring. It is
general, speeds ranging from 450 to 1
necessary to drive the stand pipe a little into the bed rock in order to
500 r.p.m. are common. For average
ensure return of circulating water and prevent loose material from getting
rocks 1 8 - 4 0 stones-per-carat bits give
into the hole.In harder rocks, a hole may be drilled by a casing bit and the
the least drilling cost while for harder
casing inserted in it. A single string of casing can be inserted easily down
rocks like quartzite, hard haematite
etc., 60 - 90 stones-per-carat bits to a depth of 20 - 30 m, beyond which it is better to drive a second string
are preferable, For soft rocks like clay, of casing about 25 mm less in diameter. A third casing string of still smaller
shale etc. as well as for broken ground diameter becomes necessary beyond a depth of 80 - 90 m.
8 - 1 8 stones-per-carat bits are ideal.
Drilling starts after the installation of the casing and continues till the
With a given stone size, a larger
length of the drill string entering the hole indicates if the core barrel is full
number of stones gives faster progress,
but it also increases the cost of the bit or the labouring of the pump or the engine indicates a jam in the core
so that such bits are used for hard barrel by broken core when the drill string is lifted up. It is necessary to
thoroughly clean the hole of the cuttings by circulating water before lifting
rocks only. o "O ^
the drill string out of the hole. The swivel is detached while the rods are
Diamonds set in a powder metal 0 m

held by a safety clamp. The top rod is then unscrewed and removed, the
matrix are most common. These bits 1 ° swivel attached to the next rod and the drill string further lifted up for
are formed by setting the diamonds in o c detaching the next rod and so on, until the core barrel comes out. The drill
a mould into which is poured a mixture
string is reinserted in the hole with an empty core barrel by a reversal of
of suitable metal powders. The mould
the same process and an extra rod is added to the string.
is then heated to a temperature of If
650 - 1 100°C when a low-melting Table 2.5 - Bit Selection Chart.
8E
component melts and binds the rest of SI. No.Nature of formation Stone size, Amount of diamonds
the powder as well as the diamonds to No. of stones in core bits, carats
•o
form the bit. The common matrices for a
per carat
powder metal bits are bronze, tungsten c NX BX AX EX
<D
alloys, stellite etc. While bronze is 1 -Soft s h a l e s a n d s a n d s t o n e s 4 - 7 30 - 3 5 20 - 2 3 16 - 18 11 - 12
ordinarily used, tungsten alloys and C
o 2.Medium hard shales,sandstones, 10 - 15 23 - 2 7 17 - 1 9 14 - 1 6 10 - 11
stellite give a highly tough abrasion E coarse - grained rocks

resistant matrix and are therefore 3.Medium hard variable 15 - 2 5 13 - 2 3 14 - 17 11 - 14 8 - - 10

preferred for hard and broken rocks. The formations (solid and broken)

powder metal bits have a rounded 4,Hard formations (solid and b r o k e n ) 25 - 4 0 15 - 1 8 12 - 14 9 - 11 6 - 8

shoulder, which not only S 5.Hard solid formations 40 - 6 0 13 - 1 5
iZ 10 - 1 2 7 - 9 5 - 6
accommodates a larger number of
6.Very hard solid formations 60 - 80 11 - 1 3 8 - 10 6 -
diamonds, but also holds them better 7 4 - 5

at the edges . N o t e : F o r m a t i o n s 1 to 4 r e q u i r e a h a r d m a t r i x for n o n - a b r a s i v e a n d extra h a r d

Impregnated bits are made by embedding fine diamond particles (above m a t r i x for a b r a s i v e r o c k s w h i l e f o r m a t i o n s 5 a n d 6 r e q u i r e r e g u l a r m a t r i x f o r n o n -
a b r a s i v e a n d h a r d m a t r i x for a b r a s i v e r o c k s
200 per carat) in a matrix, usually of tungsten carbide bonded with cobalt.
These bits are suitable for gravel and medium hard rocks.For best
penetration,they should be operated at high speeds exceeding 1 500 r.p.m.
with low thrust. 75
74
 Drilling through fissured or broken ground poses the problem of the
loss of circulating watertoo, when bran, sawdust, cementetc. are pumped
into the hole along with the circulating water to close the crevices. Holes
Water circulation is essential in diamond drilling for preventing through such ground may need casing or cement grouting to prevent caving.
diamonds from burning or polishing, for removing cuttings, and for preventing Casing such portions of the hole requires slight enlargement of the hole
the core from getting stuck in the core barrel. A circulation velocity of diameter by reaming if the hole has to be continued with the same diameter
300 - 400 mm/s in the hole is usually sufficient for carrying up ordinary beyond the broken zone. Normally a little turning helps in easy insertion
cuttings except for heavy minerals and the water requirement at this rate of the casing in the hole, but sometimes due to the tortuous nature of the
is about 210 - 300 l/h for EX holes, 350 - 500 l/h for AX holes, 700 - 1 000 hole there may be difficulty in inserting the casing when a casing bit with
l/h for BX holes, and 1 300 - 2 000 l/h for NX holes. Only 25% of this a few diamonds may have to be used. Cement grouting is cheaper than
quantity can be recovered after settling of the cuttings. Water supply to casing and is more commonly used. The grout is pumped through the
the hole is provided by reciprocating pumps. A single-cylinder pump suffices rods so that it gets into the crevices and forms a plug in the broken zone.
for small rigs, but with larger rigs, duplex double-acting pumps are A quick setting cement is used for the purpose. The plug is drilled through
commonly used. Fig.2.21 gives the water pressure required for different to proceed further.
depths of diamond drilling. Broken or disconnected drill rods or casings are a source of trouble in
Good core recovery is an important aim of exploratory diamond drilling. diamond drilling. The rods may get disconnected by unscrewing when it is
While in massive rocks core recovery may be from 90 - 1 0 0 % , in broken, easy to screw them back again, but when the threads get stripped or the
loose or soft rock it is difficult to obtain a good core and core recovery can rods get broken, they are fished out by using tapered taps with inside or
be as low as 10% in which case sludge samples have to be collected. For outside case hardened screw threads to suit the nature of the broken part.
Broken bits are hard to extract as they usually rotate with the fishing tool
5 r and thus can not be gripped properly. They can be picked inside a large
core barrel by widening the hole. Alternatively the hole may be sealed and
deviated. Jamming of rods in the hole is caused by the caving of the hole
walls, mud rush from the strata, working with a worn bit, or too little
clearance between the casing and the rods. In such cases the rods have
to be lifted by jacks although sometimes this harms them by elongating
them or stripping the screw threads.

A driller and a helper usually operate a diamond drill. The speed of

drilling depends on the nature of rock, depth, direction and lay of the hole,
quantity of water in the hole, type of drill and fittings, core requirement,
labour, climate, continuity of operation etc. The rate of drilling varies greatly,
being faster in uniform rocks than in rocks of varying hardness. Broken
Hole Depth, m ground liable to caving is the worst for progress. Deeper and larger-diameter
holes are usually slower. Upward holes are slower than downward holes.
Fig. 2.21 — Required Water Pressure with Depth in
Usually underground drills have been found to drill faster than surface
Diamond Drilling.
drills because of less time required for dismantling, shifting, and
better core recovery, the quantity of circulating water should be as low as
reassembling underground drills. The use of longer core barrels in surface
possible and the vibration of drill rods should be minimized. A double-tube
drills greatly enhances the speed of drilling. The speed of drilling in
swivel-type core barrel is preferable for broken ground. In hard rocks, better
sandstone with a 3 - m core barrel is 12 - 13.5 m/shift as compared to a
core recovery results from low drilling speed with high pressure on the bit
whereas the conditions for softer rocks are the opposite. For better core
recovery in soft rocks such as coal, it is better to have a large-diameter 77
core (of NX size) while an AX core might suffice for hard rocks.

76
 The special advantage of
speed of 30 m/shift with a 6-m core barrel. The rate of drilling falls to the calyx drill is its ability to drill
3 - 4 . 5 m/shiftIn harder rocks like banded hematite quartzite as compared large-diameter holes. Common
to a rate of 12 - 14 m/shift In sandstone under similar conditions of drilling. rigs can drill holes varying
Rotary Drilling with Toothed Cutters and Drag Bits from 67 mm (41 mm core) to
520 mm (470 mm core) in
This method of drilling is applicable to soft rocks like shale, sandstone diameter. However, cqlyx drills
etc. Drag bits are commonly used to penetrate the soft alluvium or have been usee to t 1.8-m
weathered rocks at the surface in order to insert stand pipes for deeper diameter shafts for ventilation
diamond drilling. A purposes. Deeper and larger-
simple fishtail bit is diameter shafts can be drilled
used in such cases by mounting the drill in a cage
(see chapter 5 for which is lowered down the
rotary drilling with shaft. This gives better drilling
drag bits in greater efficiency at depth.
detail). Where it is
necessary to obtain
ffJWVA Chilled Shot Boring
a core of the ground This is done by a calyx drill
penetrated, a with a ^chilled shot bit
(a) (b)
toothed cutter (Fig.2.22b). The thrust required
(Fig.2.22a) is used here is somewhat larger than
instead of a drag Fig. 2.22 - (a) Toothed Cutter (b) Chilled-shot bit
with diamond drilling. The bit
bit. resembles a blank diamond bit
with diagonal slots on the sides
The toothed bit is usually of large diameter (even exceeding 150 mm)
for the passage of circulating
and has teeth alternately pointing inward and outward as in a saw. It is
water. Chilled steel shots of
used with a calyx drill where there is a calyx or mud bucket (Fig.2.23)
1.5-3 mm diameter (prepared
provided for collecting the coarse cuttings produced by these bits. The 0
by heating steel shots to a high
calyx may be up to 30 m in length. The bit is attached to a core barrel
temperature and suddenly
placed below the calyx. The bit diameter is usually much larger than the
cooling in ice-cold water so as
diameter of the drill rods. Because of this the velocity of circulating water
to make them hard enough to
is low and the water can not carry up the cuttings to the surface
scratch glass) are fed in the
necessitating the provision of the settling bucket or calyx above the core
circulating water. They
barrel The core is jammed inside the core barrel by sending down broken
accumulate under the shoulder
pieces of porcelain or quartz with the circulating water, and breaks on of the bit and are turned along
lifting. with it grinding the rock in the
The derrick and rig of a calyx drill are similar to that of a diamond drill. process.
The bit is rotated by hollow drill rods driven by bevel gears, but the speed
of rotation is lower at 50-100 r.p.m. The feed is adequately imparted by Chilled shot drilling is
the weight of the rods in small drills, but in larger machines, positive feed suitable for hard and brittle
given by a hand operated rack may be necessary. Fig. 2.23 - Calyx Drill (Diagrammatic). rocks. In soft rocks, the shots

79
78
get embedded in the rock thus hampering progress The method is cheaper with improved core barrels, good core recovery (even up to 95%) can be
than diamond drilling and hence is particularly suitable for cemented gravels obtained in difficult ground.
and broken rock where the loss of diamonds becomes high leading to a Avery important advantage of diamond drilling over churn drilling is its
high cost of diamond drilling. The speed of drilling is less compared to ability to drill inclined holes and the possibility of hole deviation so that the
diamond drilling and varies from 0.3 - 0.4 m/h for granite and andesite to deposit can be proved at more than one point from the same hole. In hard
0.3 - 1.5 m / h for sandstone and 1.0 m/h in marble. rocks churn drilling becomes extremely slow and diamond drilling is the
only choice.
The chilled shot drill has poorer core recovery than the diamond drill
because of the disintegrating action of the shots on the core. Besides, it Drilling of Oil Wells
cannot drill inclined holes exceeding 35° with the vertical since at larger
Rotary drilling of oil wells first started in 1901 and since then the
angles the shots tend to accumulate at the lower end of the bit resulting in
technique has undergone substantial improvements so that it is the only
a non-uniform cutting. Shot drill holes have a greater tendency to deviate method of drilling oil wells today. The older method of cable tool drilling is
and the hole walls are not very uniform. The wobbling of the drill rods obsolete. Since oil wells are generally deep and of large diameter, the
causes attrition of the hole walls which may contaminate samples, thus drilling rigs are heavy and certain infrastructure has to be provided before
necessitating casing of the upper part of the hole. The maximum length of commencement of drilling. These include building of roads to the site of
core recovered at a time is about 3 m which makes the progress slow, drilling for transporting heavy machinery, construction of field office and
particularly for deep holes and hence chilled shot drilling is limited to laboratory, erection of power plant or extension of power lines and provision
relatively shallow holes. of temporary housing for workers in remote areas. The derrick and driving
Choice of Exploratory Drilling Methods gear have to be erected and drilling mud prepared and mud pump installed
before starting of actual drilling. The power plant supplies power to the
Diamond drilling is by far the most prevalent method of exploratory
hoist drum for raising and lowering of the drill pipes, rotary table for rotating
drilling, chilled shot drilling being sometimes used in difficult ground where
the drill string and the pump for circulating mud in the hole. The derrick or
the cost of diamond drilling becomes very high. Churn drilling is cheaper
mast is provided for hoisting the drill pipes.
than diamond drilling in soft rocks down to a depth of 300 to 400 m and
hence is sometimes used for proving thick uniform deposits in such rocks. Power Plant: The main sources of power used in drilling oil wells
It yields a larger volume of sample, though the sample, being in the form of are (a) steam generated by gas. oil or occasionally coal, (b) diesel engines,
sludge, gives few other geological information apart from the assay value. (c) direct current generated by diesel engines, and (d) alternating current
Accurate sampling at close intervals necessary in irregular deposits is from mains.
not possible with churn drilling where a certain degree of intermixing of Steam plants are simple to operate and are capable of taking overloads.
sludge from adjacent sample runs is unavoidable, even though The latter quality is very important for deep wells in difficult ground. Steam
contamination from caving walls can be avoided by casing the hole. Heavy plants can be quite economical in spite of their low efficiency, if a suitable
minerals in the sludge have a tendency to settle at the bottom of the hole cheap fuel such as sweet (sulphur free) gas and soft water are available in
thus affecting the samples. This can be remedied to a certain extent by sufficient quantity.
having a thicker sludge and using a piston-type suction bailer where the
sludge line operates a piston inside the bailer thus sucking up the sludge. Where available gas is corrosive and water is hard, diesel engines
However, it becomes difficult to maintain a thick sludge below the water are widely used. They have a lower operating and maintenance cost than
table in porous rocks where a large number of bailings may be necessary steam plants (the fuel oil consumption in a steam plant is ten times higher
to pump all the sludge out of the hole. In broken ground as well as in than that in a diesel plant of similar power) and consume one-twentieth of
unconsolidated and semi - consolidated formations where core recovery water needed for an equivalent steam plant. However, diesel engines do
with diamond drilling is poor, churn drilling has some advantage, but today not possess good torque -speed characteristics for drilling unlike steam
or d.c. electric plants. That is why they are confined to small and medium

80 81
size rigs. With heavy duty rigs for deep wells, there is excessive strain on
the clutch and transmission with direct diesel drive when it is preferable to The time and cost incurred in erecting and dismantling standard
have a diesel-electric plant. These plants comprise diesel engines driving derricks are quite high. A 40 - m derrick may take up to 10 days to erect
direct current generators. Direct current motors with variable voltage control with another two weeks needed for installing the engine and the hoist.
have similar characteristics as steam engines such as high torque at low That is why portable derricks are preferred where a large number of holes
speed, smooth acceleration and stall characteristics, which are so important are to be drilled down to a moderate depth. The erection of a 25 — m
both for the drill string and the mud pump. portable derrick or mast in three equal sections with a load capacity of
High-tension electric power can be used where mains supply is if 146.5 t takes only 5.5 hours, and the dismantling, even less time.
available. The commonest type of rig consists of a motor-generator set A 30 - m high jackknife type guyed mast mounted on wheels for easy
with wapd-leonard control and direct current motors for running the pump transportation in a folded back position capable of drilling to a depth of
and the rotary table. This gives the desired power characteristics and 1 500 m takes only about 8 hours for transportation from one site to another
speed control although the initial cost of the motor-generator set is high. and reerection.
Alternating current motors with a suitable control system giving the required Standard derricks can be mounted on concrete foundations in
power characteristics can also be used, but such motors and control the ground or on steel substructures 2.2 - 4.2 m above the ground, which
systems are quite expensive too. One disadvantage with the use of power carry the rig, the rotary table and space suitable for stacking drill pipes.
from the mains is the chance of failure of power supply while the drill string There is usually a 1.6 - 6 -m deep concrete lined cellar under the
is in the hole. This may cause serious trouble and involve heavy expenses substructure through which pass the drill pipes. A gin pole on the top of
by the drill string getting stuck in the hole. Hence it is always advisable to the derrick helps in changing the crown block. A derrick man's platform is
have a standby power plant of sufficient capacity for lifting the drill string provided at a height of about 18 m from the derrick floor for handling pipes.
out of the hole or maintaining the rotation even at a low speed till the
normal power supply is resumed. Rotary motion to the drill string is imparted by a heavy rotary
table (see Fig.2.24 a) supported on enclosed roller bearings and rotated
Steam plants have the lowest initial cost, which rises progressively at 350 - 500 r.p.m. by a bevel-type ring gear. There is a central hole in the
with electric, diesel and diesel-electric plants, but the operating cost is rotary table large enough for the passage of the bit, which is fitted with a
the least for electric and diesel-electric plants and the highest for steam bushing for the insertion of the kelly that transmits the rotation from the
plants. rotary table to the drill string.
As a rough rule, the required engine power is 75 kWfor every 300 m The hoist line consisting of a 25 - 38 - mm diameter wire rope is
depth. In small rigs, a single engine or motor may drive the pump, the wrapped over the hoist drum 1 5 - 1 6 turns and attached to it at one end.
rotary table and the hoist, but for deep wells separate motors have to be It then passes over the crown block of pulleys and supports at the lower
provided for each of them, the hoist needing the largest motor. Since all end a traveling block of pulleys, the other end of it being finally anchored
the units do not work at the same time the power plant need have sufficient to a corner of the derrick opposite the hoist. A spring hook attached to the
capacity for operating either the hoist or the pump and the rotary table at traveling block carries a swivel bail during drilling or links for lifting pipes
the same time. during hoisting.
Derricks used for oil wells generally range from 20 to 40 m in height, The mud hose is attached at the upper end of the swivel while the
but taller derricks of 50 - 55 rn height have been used for deep wells in kelly is screwed at the lower end. Elevators (quick latching clamps)
difficult ground. The advantage of tall derricks lies in accommodating taller suspended from links are used to get a hold on the pipe below the collar
pipe lengths so that less time is spent on attaching or detaching pipe when lifting it. Slip elevators are preferred as they grip the pipe better and
lengths to the drill string thus increasing the overall rate of drilling However do not rely chiefly on support of the wider collar. Slips are used to hold the
tall derricks have to be stronger to withstand higher wind load and are drill pipe tight in the rotary table when unscrewing the joint. Two-, three-or
hence heavier and costlier than standard derricks. four-piece slips can be used, the last two being preferred because of their
superior grip. The slips have knurled dies for better hold on the pipe. They
82
83
 are often handset though mechanically operated slips are safer. Screwing
and unscrewing of pipes is done mechanically by tongs, which are operated
by tightening a line attached to them on the cathead.
The drilling shaft consists of the kelly or grief stem at the upper end of
the drill string, to which are attached hollow seamless drill pipes made of
strong alloy steel. The kelly is a hollow shaft usually of square outer cross-
section though hexagonal or grooved round sections are sometimes used.
It passes through a matching hole in a bushing in the rotary table and is
free to move in a vertical direction while being rotated by the rotary table.
American Petroleum Institute (A.P.I.) standard square kellys are 11-12 m
long though lengths up to 16.5 mare available. They vary in cross-section
from 38 to 200 mm square
Drill pipes are made in three ranges of length,5.5-6.7m, 8 . 2 - 9 . 1 m,
and greater than 11.6 m. Normally they have an outer diameter of
114 mm for deep holes, though under special conditions diameters of 89,
140 or 168 mm are also used. The drill pipes are screwed or preferably
welded to hardened alloy steel tool joints at both ends and are upset
either internally or externally for strength (see Fig. 2.24 b). The tool joints
are screwed to each other to connect the pipes by tapered screws with
standard V thread (see Fig.2.24 c for the A.P.I, standard V thread).
Heavier drill collars are added to the drill string at the lower end for
increasing weight on the bit. They are hollow pipes of thicker cross-section
usually of 9 - m length though smaller lengths of 2 - 2 . 5 mare also used.
As many as 20 or even more drill collars may be used in a drill string
suitably joined by tapered screw joints in hard rocks like chert and dolomite.
Drill collars help in concentrating the weight on the bit required for
good penetration while keeping the rest of the drill string suspended in the
hole, which is essential for drilling a straight vertical hole. This also prevents
wobbling of the drill shaft in the hole thus reducing stall shock and fatigue
failure in the drill shaft as well as preventing attrition of the hole walls. Stall
shock is produced by the cutting teeth in the bit encountering hard rock
and can be transmitted even to the rotary table and the prime mover,
particularly with drag bits. Adequate weight on the bit after suitably
compensating for the buoyancy of the mud, and high rotational speed
impart the bit sufficient momentum for attenuating stall shock, but it is
always desirable to add a shock sub on the top of the bit as well as 2 to 3
stabilizers spaced at about 10 m interval for smooth drilling. A drilling jar
provided at the top of the drill collars helps in releasing stuck bits.

84
85
 Drill Bits: Bits commonly used in o i l - w e l l drilling are of non-coring
type, coring bits being used only when passing through important formations
where core examination becomes essential. The cuttings usually obtained
with non-coring bits are of sufficient size to yield enough geological
information. Non-coring bits are of three types: drag bits, disc bits and
roller bits, though the roller bits are the most common in oil well drilling
today.
The commonest type of drag bit is the two-winged fish tail bit, three-
or four-winged bits being used under special conditions. The fish tail bit
has two short blades and mud jets suitably directed so as to clean the
blades as well as help in cutting by the force of the jet. Usually there is a
central jet for cutting and two jets directed to the two blades for cleaning.
Fish tail bits are suitable for soft formations, particularly for gumbo and
sticky shale. With harder rocks, the two blades of the fishtail bit produce
stall shock, particularly in large - diameter holes, when three- or four-
winged bits may be used. Depending on the number of blades, a larger
number of mud jets are provided in the three- and four-winged bits. The
total area of opening of the mud holes should be at least
1 300 - 1 600 mm in order to maintain the large volume of flow required in
2

oil well drilling. All the cutting blades in three- or four-winged bits are not of
the same width as this unduly increases the area of contact of the cutting
edges with the bottom of the hole leading to reduced speed and efficiency
of drilling. That is why the wings have either different widths or are forked
so that the entire hole surface is covered without much overlap. In four-
winged bits, two diametrically opposite blades may cover the entire
diameter of the hole while the other two wings cover only the outer portion.
Sometimes two opposite blades may be made 6 mm shorter than the
gauge of the hole to prevent binding. Drag bits are usually faced with
tungsten carbide inserts for better wear resistance.
Disc bits consist of two or four discs with plane or serrated edges
faced with hard alloy mounted on a spindle. These are quite fast drillers in
medium hard rock, but owing to their large bearing surface, they have a
tendency to cause stall shock with improper feed. The Zublin differential
bit (see Fig.2.25 e) is a type of multi-disc bit comprising an eccentrically
mounted roller of individually rotating discs.
The cone roller bits can be with two, three or four cones, the tricone
roller bit being the commonest in use. These bits consist of conical rollers
with hard alloy teeth or tungsten carbide inserts supported on spindles by
ball or roller bearings. Two-cone bits have two rollers mounted on

86
diametrically opposite spindles. These bits are suitable for broken and Drilling Fluid or Mud: Drilling mud is an indispensable requirement
sticky formations where the greater clearance between cones prevents in oil - wel! drilling. Unlike water which is circulated to carry the cuttings
clogging. Where drilling with low thrust is necessary as when drilling straight up and cool the bit in diamond drilling, the most essential function of the
holes in inclined formations, two-cone bits are preferred because they drilling fluid in oil wells is to support the hole walls temporarily to prevent
have less bearing surface and hence drill more satisfactorily under light caving. Oil wells, being of large diameter, their walls are more liable to
weight. caving than the walls of narrower diamond drill holes. The drilling mud
forms an impervious layer of gel over the hole wall which prevents water
Tricone bits (see Fig.5.26) have three conical rollers placed at 120° from the mud getting into the formations, but at the same time transfers
intervals, each roller having a few rows of milled teeth. The rows on adjacent the hydrostatic pressure of the mud to counteract formation pressure. The
rollers are interspaced so that there is no grooving at the bottom of the mud also carries up the cuttings and cools the bit. With a larger viscosity
hole and at the same time the space between the rows gets automatically than water, the mud is capable of carrying up larger cuttings at a lower
cleaned. Tricone roller bits vary from 95 to 660 mm in diameter with their velocity. The drilling mud also lubricates the drill pipe, bit and mud pump.
strength varying as the square of the diameter The rate of drilling with
tricone bits varies a great deal from 30 m/h or more in very soft rocks with Drilling mud is prepared by adding colloidal substances like fine clay
a bit life of 900 m to only 0.3 m/h with a bit life of 1.5 m or less in very hard in the size range of 0.005 - 0.5/J m, bentonite etc. to water. Colloids get
rocks. The design of teeth varies with the nature of rock. In soft formations hydrated and substantially increase in volume when added to water
the teeth are wide apart to prevent clogging and are deep cut for cutting increasing its viscosity, thixotropy or gel strength and filtration property.
large fragments for a fast rate of penetration. Such bits can give drilling Thixotropy is the property of the mud setting into a gel or semiplastic solid
rates of 15 - 3 0 m/h in soft shales with a bit life of 600 - 900 m and have on standing. While viscosity helps in carrying up the cuttings, thixotropy
largely replaced fish tail bits. For harder formations the number of teeth helps in countering the formation pressure and consolidating loose
per roller is larger while the teeth are shorter and stronger. Tungsten carbide formations around the hole. It also prevents the cuttings from settling down
button bits are now-a-days commonly used for drilling in hard rocks. during temporary interruption of drilling. The mud should form a gel within
1 0 - 3 0 minutes of standing. Filtration property of the mud is important for
Cross roller bits have four rollers, two diametrically opposite rollers controlling the thickness of the impervious layer formed along the hole
cutting a channel along the periphery of the hole while the other two rollers wall, a thin filter cake being always desirable.
mounted at right angles (see Fig.5.25) cut the centre of the hole. These
are suitable for drilling hard rocks, but today tricone button bits have virtually Bentonite is the most common colloid used for drilling mud. It has
replaced them. 1 0 0 % colloid content as compared to 5% in common clay. Because of
this, bentonite muds have a high viscosity with a small solid content,
Zublin bits which have heavy pronged teeth projecting at various angles which leads to the formation of a thin filter cake on the hole wall. However,
are claimed to be self sharpening and capable of drilling a straighter hole the density of bentonite mud is only slightly higher than that of water.
faster. The cutter head rotates eccentrically so that the teeth have a rotary Besides, bentonite flocculates in salt water so that mud to be used in
as well as up and down motion. A special type of bit is the Carter collapsible formations containing saline water is made of a salt water dispersing colloid
bit where the cutters can be replaced by a wireline operating inside the like Fuller's earth.
drill pipes without the need for taking the drill string out of the hole. Another
advancement in bit design is the incorporation of mud jets directed at the The drilling mud should have adequate density to exert enough
bottom of the hole in tricone roller bits for disintegrating the rock. hydrostatic pressure on the hole wall. Common muds have a density of
1.3 t/m though much heavier muds with densities up to 2.5 f/m may be
3 3

Coring bits of both drag and roller type can be used when core is required for deep holes. The density of bentonite mud is generally increased
required. Drag-type coring bits are used in soft formations while roller-type by adding weighting agents like powdered barytes and magnetite .
coring bits are required for harder formations. Diamond core bits for large-
diameter oil wells are costly and are used only in very hard and cemented Drilling mud should be free from grit, should be non-corrosive, should
formations. have good lubricating quality and should be amenable to treatment. The

89
 circulating type of overshots and sockets are therefore preferred in oil
wells, the former being more common. The overshot comprises a bowl
lubricating quality of drilling mud can be substantially increased by adding with several catches inside, which open out and engage the drill pipe
some emulsified diesel oil to it. oelow the collar on lifting when the overshot is lowered in the hole over the
oroken end of the drill pipe Suitable overshots and sockets can be used
Circulating pumps of sufficient size should be provided to handle the
for fishing out broken casings, which may also be recovered by casing
required quantity of drilling mud. A single pump is more efficient than two
spears that engage the casing from inside.
smaller pumps in parallel. The volume of the mud circulated should be
sufficient to form a jet at the bit powerful enough to clean the bottom of the Junk baskets are used for fishing broken parts of a bit or small tools
hole of the cuttings as well as to provide a velocity of flow in the annular fallen into the hole. They consist of a large hollow barrel with hard alloy
space between the drill pipes and the hole wall large enough to carry up teeth at the bottom. Finger like core catchers are hinged inside the lower
the cuttings. The required annular velocity increases with the rate of drilling end of the barrel and get pushed back when the junk basket is lowered
and generally ranges between 30 and 90 m/min. Mud requirement usually on the fish. The junk basket is rotated until the teeth cut a core. It is then
varies f r o m 1 350 - 2 700 l/min for small-diameter holes to lifted when the fingers dig into the core and break it so that the fish along
3 600 - 5 400 / /min for large-diameter holes. Duplex ram pumps are with the core can be lifted out.
commonly used for mud pumps.
Casing and Cementing of Oil Wells: Casing of oil wells is necessary
Rate of Drilling: The rate of drilling oil wells depends on various to prevent caving of the hole walls, shut off water from strata entering oil
factors like the nature of equipment, particularly the bit, skill and efficiency horizons, prevent oil or gas migrating from their traps and seal off
of the driller, nature of formation, depth of hole, weight on the bit, speed of intermediate oil or gas horizons for drilling deeper. Casing pipes vary in
rotation and the rate of mud circulation. The rate of drilling is greatly affected diameter from 115 to 620 mm and are made of high tensile alloy steel
at depth since the proportion of time taken in removing and reinserting the usually with seamless construction. The required tensile strength of casings
drill string in the hole for changing the worn bit substantially increases increases with depth and ranges between 200 and 600 MN/m . They may
2

with depth. In deep holes the drilling rate of the order of 5 0 m/h near the be joined by V-threads, but are preferably welded at the joints as they are
surface may fall to as low as 1 m/h. Both the weight on the bit or the thrust run down the well. There may be several concentric ranges of casing
and the rotational speed affect the rate of penetration. Higher thrust and depending on the depth of the well. However, with the use of better quality
speed of rotation lead to faster penetration, but they also increase bit drilling mud it may be possible to drill open wells down to depths exceeding
wear and put undue strain on the drill string. With increase in rock hardness 3 000 m before casing.
it is desirable to increase the weight on the bit and reduce the speed of
Normally casings are inserted down to the top of the productive
rotation.The weight on the bit which is controlled by the tension in the
oil horizon, the rest of the well through the oil horizon being open (bare
hoist line varies from 0 to 6 kg /mm of bit width in soft rocks to 6 - 8 0
foot hole) in consolidated formations. In loose formations like sand, the
kg/mm in hard rocks.Rotational speed ranges from 150 - 400 r.p.m. in
hole in the production horizon is usually protected by a string of perforated
soft rocks to 40 - 80 r.p.m. in hard rocks.
pipes. Where there are many oil horizons interspaced with water horizons,
Fishing: The most common fishing job in oil - well drilling is the the well is cased and cemented continuously through all the production
retrieval of broken drill pipes or drill collars in the hole. Fishing becomes zones. The individual oil horizons are then tapped by gun perforating the
more difficult if a broken string of pipes gets stuck in the hole because of casing at these horizons.
insufficient quantity or improper quality of mud. A less common but more
It is necessary to cement the casing to the hole walls, particularly
difficult fishing job which may cause abandonment of the well is the recovery
in the lower part of the casing in order to prevent leakage of water into the
of detached bits resulting from failure of welded joints. Other fish include
production zone or escape of oil or gas from the trap through the annulus
instruments, tools, pipe lengths etc. accidentally dropped in the hole.
between the casing and the hole wall. The cement also protects the casing
The simplest fishing tools are taper taps and rotary die collars similar from corrosive water from the strata. Casings are provided with a heavy
to those used in diamond drill holes, but they can not release the fish in
case it is not possible to pull the fish out of the hole. Releasing and 91
90
 Straightening of crooked holes is much easier in soft formations
where a shoulder for the straightened hole can be easily started. A sharp
casing shoe at the bottom containing a rounded plug of cement, plastic or bend or dog leg in the hole is the ideal location for starting the shoulder. A
any other drillable material fitted with a non-return ball valve opening new bit with sharp teeth should always be used when starting a shoulder.
downwards. This helps in floating the casing in the mud thus reducing its The diameter of the drill collar should be decreased so that it has no
weight. guiding effect. The bit should be rotated at the maximum possible speed
commensurate with safety with very little weight on it until a new shoulder
A survey of the cross-section of the hole at various depths is is developed and drilled for some distance. Sometimes in hard formations
made by a hole caliper before inserting the casing so that the volume of , it may be necessary to plug the hole with cement up to the point where
cement necessary to fill the annulus between the hole and the casing can the shoulder is to be started or ream the hole to a larger diameter down to
be estimated. The casing is then inserted in the hole with the mud this point. If these methods fail, a whipstock may be set in the hole for
circulation maintained. Heavy spring steel centralisers are provided outside directing it in the required direction.
the casing for properly centralising it in the hole. Once the casing is in
position, a flexible plug is inserted in the casing and the required quantity Directional drilling becomes necessary to return crooked holes to the
of cement slurry of 1.65- 1.78 specific gravity pumped in. A rubber plug vertical or the desired direction, sidetrack lost tools and other obstructions
is put inside the casing after the cement slurry and mud pumped in again. in the hole which can not be fished out, and to reach undersurface locations
When the rubber plug reaches the nonreturn valve indicating that the cement which are not vertically accessible from the surface. Single deflections
has been pushed into the annulus, the pump stalls as mud circulation should not exceed 2 - 3 ° (rarely 5°). Where larger deflections are desired,
stops. The pump is then switched off and the cement allowed to set for they should be attained gradually at the rate of 3° for every 30 m depth.
24 - 72 hours depending on the nature of the cement. Deflection of Oil Wells : The common types of deflecting tools used
Deviation of Bore Holes and Directional Drilling ^ for oil wells are whipstocks, knuckle joints and spudding bits (Fig.2.26).
The whipstock consists of a cylindrical steel casting 2.5 -3.5m long and
Deviation of bore holes is undesirable as it may miss the target.
of the same diameter as the hole provided with a 1.75 - 2.25° tapered
Besides, crooked holes cause undue stress in the drill shaft and attrition groove to guide the bit. The lower end is chisel shaped so that it bites into
of the hole wall. It is possible to drill a straight hole with a maximum the formation and prevents the whipstock from rotating in the hole. There
deviation of 1 ° from the vertical, but this may involve substantial time and is a collar at the upper end with an internal diameter that allows the drill
cost. For economy therefore holes are not normally allowed to deviate pipe to pass through, but not the bit. The whipstock is attached to the
more than 4° from the vertical at a stretch in hard and steep formations, bottom of the drill string by a shear pin and is inserted in the hole and
though a larger allowance can be made in soft and horizontal formations properly oriented. Any suitable method of orienting drill pipes described
where it is easier to straighten holes later may be adopted, but the single shot magnetic method is both rapid
The main cause of deviation of bore holes is the lack of weight and accurate. Here a magnetic sub is attached above the whipstock followed
concentration on the bit which causes the drill shaft to run in compression by a nonmagnetic drill collar. The single shot instrument is lowered by a
and bend. The drill collars should therefore be short and of large diameter wireline and two readings, one in the magnetic sub giving the orientation
so that their centre of gravity lies as close to the bit as possible. They of the whipstock and the other in the nonmagnetic collar giving the
may be specially weighted with lead, if necessary, for giving adequate orientation of the hole are taken.
weight on the bit. Unsuitable or dull bits, formations of varying hardness
A weight of about 9 000 kg, sufficient to drive the chisel into the
and dip, irregular feed, insufficient mud circulation, and inadequate speed
formation and break the shear pin is then applied to the drill pipes. This
of rotation also lead to hole deviation. While beds with less than 45° dip
releases the drill string with the bit, which is then rotated at 3 0 - 5 0 r.p.m.
tend to deviate the hole at right angles to the dip, steeper beds deviate it
with a small weight of 900 to 1 400 kg until it reaches the bottom of the
along the dip High rotational speeds and large rates of mud circulation
whipstock. The weight is then increased to 3 600 kg and the hole drilled at
minimize hole deviation.
93
92
 Spudding bits may be used for deflecting bore holes in soft
formations.The bit is first oriented in the hole and then spudded up and
down with considerable weight of 4 500 - 9 000 kg on it, and a jet
of mud forced at a high pressure through it until a
0.3 m deep rat hole is formed. This is then enlarged with a pilot bit. Both
-pudding bits and knuckle joints produce a sharp bend though the
•-.harpness is somewhat less with the latter.
0)
Deflection of Diamond Drill Holes: Diamond drill holes can be
a
deflected by a deflecting wedge similar to a whipstock which can be gripped
5 In the hole as shown in Fig. 2.27. A dry wooden plug with grooves for the
T5
in ai
passage of water is pushed down the hole to the point where deflection is
o c
to be started, and is allowed
x l 3RIV.L PIPE
to swell by absorbing water.
£ a
o <n Then a clinometer containing
CO —
o
en -— a glass tube partly filled with
hydrofluoric acid, and with the
COPPER
> SHEARING O drive wedge fixed at the lower
a
PIN X
end by shear pins is attached
0
3 to the bottom of the drill string.
DEFLECTING
c WEDGE
The drill string is then lowered
c
o into the hole within a short
E
2 distance of the wooden plug,
5
D) and dropped freely so that the
shear pins break and the drive
COPPER 5
SHEARING?
wedge is forced into the
wooden plug. The clinometer
is removed from the hole after
>
30 minutes when it indicates
a the inclination of the hole and
this pressure and speed for 5 - 6 m. The whipstock is now removed from
the orientation of the drive
the hole, the rat hole surveyed and enlarged by a pilot reaming bit before
wedge which is left in the hole.
normal drilling is resumed.
A deflecting w e d g e
The knuckle joint is basically a pilot reamer connected to the drill WOODEN which is similar to a whipstock
pipes by a universal joint which in one design, consists of a ball and
in having a collar and tapered
socket joint with a flexible key connection so that the joint can transmit
groove is attached to the
rotation from the drill pipes to the tool set usually at an angle of 4.5°. The bottom of the drill string by a
tool is attached to the bottom of the pipe string, introduced into the hole, shear pin. A pilot wedge is
and oriented in the same way as with the whipstock. The tool is set properiy screwed to the deflecting
by applying a weight of 3 600 - 4 500 kg, spudded up and down to form a wedge at its lower end and so
recess for the bit, and then rotated at a speed of 2 0 - 4 0 r.p.m. under the
same weight until a 5 - 6 m rat hole is formed which is then surveyed and
enlarged as in the previous case.
95

94
turned as to properly orient the deflecting wedge when snugly sitting on
the drive wedge in the hole. It is then fixed to the deflecting wedge by a container is lowered into the hole
rivet. The deflecting wedge is inserted in the hole and turned by the drill to the desired depth and allowed to
string until it sits properly on the drive wedge, weight is applied to shear stay there for three-fourth of an hour
the pin and free the drill pipe which is then removed leaving the deflecting or so till the gelatine sets thus
wedge in the hole. The hole is drilled in the deflected direction by a small freezing t h e readings of the
-diameter bit and later enlarged by a pilot diamond reaming bit. It usually compass and the plummet. This
takes five shifts to complete one wedging operation with an average method is not very accurate since
deflection of 1.5° per wedging. the viscosity of the gelatine does
not p e r m i t completely free
Bore Hole Surveying movement of the compass needle
Bore hole surveying is necessary for checking and controlling the and the plummet. Besides, the
deviation of bore holes as well as for finding the exact location of samples gelatine may not completely set at
collected from different depths in the hole. There are several methods of high temperatures thus losing the
bore hole surveying some of which are described below. ability to accurately freeze the
readings.
The Hydrofluoric Acid Method: This is the simplest method used
in narrow diamond drill holes for determining the deviation of the hole from The Maas Compass: This
the vertical. In this method, a uniform-diameter glass tube (8 - mm thick combines the above two methods.
and 29 - mm outer diameter tubes are used in EX holes with the diameter It has a container with two parts,
increasing with larger-diameter holes) fitted with a rubber stopper and one holding an etch tube with
containing 4% hydrofluoric acid is snugly fitted inside a steel, brass or hydrofluoric acid for recording
bronze container which is attached at the lower end of the drill string and inclination from the vertical, and the
lowered into the hole. A more dilute acid is used in deep holes in order to other having a compass floating in
allow longer time for the traveling of the clinometers in the hole before the gelatine.
glass is etched to any appreciable extent. The clinometer is left in the
hole at the depth where measurement is to be taken for over half an hour Kiruna Method: This is
and then removed. The etching on the glass is read by a suitable goniometer similar to the hydrofluoric acid
to get the inclination of the hole. method except that instead of
etching by the acid, a mark is made
Usually the etching which corresponds to the meniscus of the inside a cylinder by the electrolytic
hydrofluoric acid in the glass tube does not give the true inclination of the deposition of copper from a solution.
hole since the meniscus travels up on the upper side of the tube due to
capillary action. This error depends on the viscosity and hence the dilution Photo - magnetic
of the acid, temperature, diameter of the glass tube, nature of the glass Instruments: These are commonly
and the inclination of the hole, the error being the maximum at 45° used in oil wells and can be used in
large-diameter diamond drill holes,
inclination However, correction charts can be made for any tube diameter
but have not been designed for
and acid strength and the correct inclination obtained by referring to such
narrow holes. There are two types
charts.
Of photo-magnetic instruments, the
Gelatine Method: This method utilises a magnetic compass and •h«> ' ' F 9 " 9 ' " shot
2 - 2 8 S i f 1 e
single-shot instrument and the
a plummet suspended inside a container filled with liquid gelatine. The •c torn agnatic Borehole S u r V e y i n a
multi-shot instrument.
ln..,umen, ( i n s e t - s e n s i t i s e ^ , , " ^

96
97
 The single - shot instrument (Fig.2.28) consists of a magnetic
compass and a delicate plumb bob suspended inside a suitable container.
A photographic camera records the position of the plumb bob and the
compass inside the hole at any desired point on a sensitized disc where
the image of the cross hairs of the plumb bob with respect to that of the COMPASS

compass card indicates the deviation. The bearing is obtained by joining PIVOT
B R A S S RING

the center of the cross hairs with the center of the disc and the drift angle
from the vertical is indicated by the concentric circles, which are graduated
in degrees and minutes. There are two types of discs, one recording up to
5° with a least count of 5' and the other recording up to 24° with a least
count of 20'. Discs of higher angles can be used, but are less accurate. CLINOMETER

The objects are lighted by battery-operated electric lamps when taking C L O C K WORK

the photograph. There is a clockwork which can be set at the surface so

as to switch on the light and a buzzer after a predetermined time which is
required for lowering the instrument to the desired point in the hole. The
buzzer vibrates the whole instrument and makes the compass and the
plumb bob free. The instrument is however, unsuitable for use at very high
temperatures. The camera has to be cooled at 115° C while at temperatures Fig. 2.29 - Mechanical Clamping Borehole Surveying
of 120 - 150° C which are sometimes met with in deep holes, the photo Instrument.
film can not be used. Mechanical means of recording the bearing and drift
have to be adopted in such cases. In one design, the plumb bob with a preferably with one or two pipe lengths of nonmagnetic material like brass,
sharp point is allowed to drop on a soft disc making an indentation. monel metal or aluminum alloy on either side. That is why in the presence
of magnetic rocks and for obtaining a high degree of accuracy in cased
The multi - shot instrument is similar to the single - shot instrument holes, it is preferable to use a nonmagnetic instrument like the gyroscopic
in operation, but it has a camera loaded with a roll of film which can take i.linograph.
several shots at regular intervals thus recording the deviation at different
depths of the hole as the instrument is lowered in it. Gyroscopic Clinograph: This instrument uses a gyroscope to
l lintain a reference direction. The gyroscope is essentially a suspended
A mechanical clamping device (Fig. 2.29) commonly used in wheel free to move about three different axes. When rotated at a high
diamond drill holes consists of a spherical shell suspended on pivots in •peed of 10 0 0 0 - 14 000 r.p.m. about any of these axes it maintains the
gimbals so that it hangs plumb all the time. It carries a compass for plane of rotation irrespective of the orientation of the supports. The
reading the bearing and a clock work which can be set to clamp the (jyroscope is set to rotate in a certain direction at the surface and lowered
spherical shell as well as the compass needle after a predetermined time. into the hole where several readings are taken at desired intervals by an
It is mounted in a cylindrical brass frame with rubber washers at both electrically operated photographic camera which records the bearing of
ends to avoid shock. The brass frame which carries a clinometer scale to the rotating wheel with respect to the axis of the instrument and the position
show the inclination is attached at the end of the drill string and inserted in Of the bubble in a level tube indicating the drift angle.
the hole to the desired point where it is left until the clock work clamps the
Surface Orientation of Drill Pipe: A simple but fairly accurate
readings.
method of determining the horizontal deviation at any point in a bore hole
Instruments using a magnetic compass are unsuitable for use where It to mark the orientation of the bottom of the drill pipe at the surface and
there is a strong local magnetic field near the hole. They also give inaccurate mwasure the rotation it undergoes as it is lowered to different depths in the
readings in cased holes where they have to be mounted in brass containers hole. A telescope clamped to the top of a drill pipe is sighted on a distant
target The pipe is then lowered into the hole till the telescope approaches
98 the rotary table when the target is again sighted. If the target has shifted

99
from the centre of the telescope cross hair, the telescope is rotated in the
horizontal plane until the target lies on the cross hair. The angle of rotation
read on a suitable circular scale in the telescope mounting gives the
horizontal deviation of the hole at the bottom end of the drill pipe. The
telescope is then clamped at the top of a second length of pipe attached TELEPHONE Besides, developments in ore
TRANSMITTERS
to the end of the pipe that has gone down the hole and the process lead to easy spotting of
repeated. The individual deviations are added to get the deviation at any discontinuities like faults, barren
point in the hole. The method is slow and is therefore used only in areas zones etc. , though s u c h
with strong local magnetic field. A hydrofluoric acid tube has to be used to d e v e l o p m e n t s are often
obtain the drift of the hole when using this method since it gives only the tortuous Ore being normally
bearing. softer, is easier to excavate
Brigg's Clinophone: This is a very accurate instrument designed -A.C. though the excavations may
for determining the inclination of bore holes used in the freezing and SOURCE need support. Exploratory
cementation processes of shaft sinking. The error in this method rarely development in ore can partly
exceeds T. pay for itself from the sale of ore.
Cross-cuts are mainly driven in
The instrument consists of a transmitter, which is lowered into the
waste rock, but their
hole, it has a plumb bob with a needle n at the bottom, which dips into a
intersection with the ore body
bakelite cup C containing electrolyte. Four electrodes, N, S, E and W are
yields valuable information
fixed in the electrolyte as shown in Fig.2.30. The electrodes are connected
about the width of ore body,
to another set of corresponding electrodes N' , S', E' and W dipped in
F ' -
9 2 3 0 " B r i 39's Clinophone. particularly with assay
electrolyte in the cup C at the surface by a five-core cable. There is a — ..upiione. boundaries, as well as the
needle n' which can be moved in the cup at the surface. An alternating
voltage is applied to n and n' through the fifth core in the cable. Two telephone presence of parallel ore bodies
nearby.
receivers T and 1 are connected between NN', SS', EE' and W W as
1 ?
Bore holes drilled from underground excavations help in proving
shown in the figure.
wide ore bodies and locating other ore bodies in the neighbourhood at
The transmitter is lowered into the hole at the end of rigid rods after much less cost than surface bore holes. They can also explore the ore
being oriented at the surface. After allowing enough time for the plumb body at depth at less cost if suitable cross-cuts are available.
bob to come to rest the position of n' in cup C is shifted till the two Steep deposits can be explored by shafts in the ore body along
telephones produce equal sound when the position of n' exactly corresponds with levels, raises and winzes spaced at suitable intervals. Cross-cuts are
to that of n in cup C. The bearing and drift are then read off from graduations driven at regular intervals in wide lodes to prove the width. Underground
at the bottom of the cup C (.•xploratory openings are usually narrow, though they are often designed
Underground Methods of Exploration the initial exploitation of the deposit, if found profitable to mine.
Exploratory levels are spaced at close intervals varying from 10 to 30 m
Underground exploration becomes necessary to prove the nature
depending on the nature of the deposit.
and extent of ore bodies at depth with a greater degree of surity than can
be obtained with surface drilling. It becomes particularly valuable to Adits provide a better mode of exploratory entry into an ore body
establish the grade and reserves of irregular mineral deposits. Shafts, as compared to shafts when it outcrops on the top or flank of a hill.
adits, drifts, cross-cuts, raises and winzes are the various developments Longitudinal adits are more informative than cross adits and are less likely
adopted for underground exploration. They should, as far as possible, be to miss the ore body, but it is usually difficult to find suitable locations to
•tart a longitudinal adit.
driven in ore so as to yield the maximum amount of exploratory data.
Exploration Planning
100
Prospecting and exploration of an area for mineral deposits need
Careful planning in order to obtain the maximum information with the
10]
minimum cost. One may be required to plan the prospecting and exploration
of areas of various sizes and at various stages of exploration. The procedure
is however, the same in all cases except that the programme starts from this stage. Detailed aeromagnetic survey, gravity survey, reconnaissance
induced polarization survey are the common geophysical methods adopted
the beginning or any other intermediate stage. For a virgin area, the
at this stage to pinpoint the target areas. Ageochemical survey, particularly
programme can be divided into the following stages, the first three covering
of stream sediments is of immense help at this stage.
prospecting and the last two, exploration. Analysis of mineral production Q

statistics and determination of indices such as unit regional value and

11 Stage 4 - Detailed surface appraisal of target area: This is
undiscovered unit regional resources help in identifying broad regions for
12 indeed the first stage of exploration. Stage 3 identifies the geophysical
prospection. Areas of low unit regional value (value of mineral production anomalies within the favourable areas prospected. But only a few of these
over the years per unit area) are accorded prospection priority. may be of real worth. Hence it is necessary to judiciously select the most
Stage 1 - Examination of Available Records: Available geological promising anomalies and check them by detailed geophysical methods
such as ground electromagnetic or induced polarisation surveys. This stage
maps and records substantially reduce the cost of prospecting and must
also involves detailed geological mapping of outcrops over a narrowed
be examined. Landsat imagery and remote sensing data often yield
down target area of 2.5 to 125 km establishing detailed structure,
2
valuable geological information apart from accurate topographic maps.
petrography and mineralogy. Detailed geological mapping of the first few
Stage 2 - Aerial Photography of the area along with anomalies can often save a lot of labour and expenses in checking the
aeromagnetic and aerial radiometric survey, if necessary: This stage other anomalies of the area.
covers areas ranging from 2 500 to 2 50 000 km depending on the regional
2

geology and ore genesis. Such large areas are best mapped by aerial Stage 5 - Detailed exploration by test pitting, trenching,
photography for preparing photo-mosaics or topographic maps. A photo- drilling etc.: This is the ultimate stage of exploration and involves the
geologic map is then prepared in the laboratory from the stereo- collection of direct evidence about the ore body by surface and, if necessary,
photographs. With areas relatively free from thick jungle and with good underground methods of exploration over an even smaller area of 0.3 to
geological exposures, fairly good photo-geologic maps can be prepared, 5 0 km depending on the nature of the mineral deposit. Samples are
2

but they have to be confirmed with sufficient ground checks. Ground control collected and subjected to geological examination as well as physical
and chemical analysis with a view to estimating reserves and grade for
is also essential for accuracy in preparing topographic maps. Simultaneous
establishing the mineability of the prospect. Geophysical logging of the
aerial geophysical surveys, if conducted, often provide a good check on
exploratory bore holes can yield valuable information at this stage.
the photo-geologic maps. Aerial mapping is expensive and is not warranted
where reliable topographic and geologic maps compiled earlier by ground Drill holes yield core and sludge samples. Trenches and test pits
surveys are available. Aerial photography is also inadvisable in areas with ar, well as underground excavations such as adits and shafts etc. are
thick ground cover and poor geological exposures where ground-surveying normally sampled for chemical assay, but when required, can yield bulk
methods may be adopted for preparing a reconnaissance geological map samples for physical tests relevant to mining and beneficiation .
on a relatively small scale. In deciding on a programme of detailed exploration by surface and
Stage 3 - Survey of favourable areas by geological, underground methods, the cost of exploration vis-a-vis the possible worth
geophysical and geochemical methods: Geological and geophysical of the prospect has to be given the utmost consideration since the
information gathered in stages 1 and 2 help in locating smaller favourable exploration at this stage is very expensive. In North America stages 1
13

areas covering 25 - 250 km for a more detailed prospecting.

2 •rid 2 may cost 5 5 000 to $ 500 000, stage 3, $ 1 0 000 to $ 1 000 000,
Reconnaissance geological mapping of outcrops at this stage leads to stage 4, $ 50 000 to $ 1 500 000 and stage 5, $ 300 000 to $ 4 000 000.
the identification of major rock formations and establishment of their broad Some even place the total cost of prospecting and exploration at 30 million
stratigraphy and structure. Mapping of a few narrow representative sections to 290 million dollars
•«
across the general strike of the formations yields sufficient information at
It is wise to follow a step-by-step exploration programme, each
•tup involving progressively higher cost, but at the same time yielding
102
103
more and more information so as to establish the value of the prospect mining and annual profit can be estimated andeqn.(2.18) used to calculate
with a progressively higher degree of confidence. Initial exploration may Pwith the reserves estimated from surface exploration (Stonnes down to
be confined to cheap surface methods such as trenching, test pitting and a depth of C m). The amount that can be invested on further exploration
shallow drilling to prove the horizontal extent of the ore body near the can be obtained by subtracting the other capital investments required
surface. The number and location of trenches, test pits' and drill holes from P. It is obvious that detailed exploration down to a depth C so as to
should be judiciously chosen taking into consideration the topography of prove the reserves with a greater degree of surety should be carried out
first before exploring at deeper horizons.
the area and the geology of the deposit so as to minimize the cost of
exploration. An estimation of the extent of the ore body at depth is made Statistical and geo-statistical analysis of an initial lot of sample
from available geological and geophysical information with a view to values can yield the degree of confidence in the estimation of reserves
calculating possible reserves. An initial estimation of grade is made from and grade, which can then be more accurately discounted for use in
the few samples collected during surface exploration. These reserves and eqns.(2.18) and (2.19). They also determine the additional number of
grades are then suitably discounted before estimating the profits on mining. samples required and hence the additional cost of exploration by further
Further exploration at depth and in greater detail are carried out if justified drilling for estimating the reserves and grade with a desired degree of
by the profits. Justification of further exploration can be ascertained by confidence.
checking if the deposit has a reserve equaling the amortization tonnage
since otherwise its exploitation would be unprofitable. The amortisation Prospecting and exploration of mineral deposits is expensive and
tonnage is the minimum reserve of ore required to amortise the capital time consuming. Stages 1 and 2 take 1 - 12 months, stage 3, 1 3 - 2 0
invested on mining including that on prospecting and exploration and can months, stage 4, 1 6 - 3 0 months, and stage 5, 24 - 60 months though
be obtained from the Hoskold formula 14
some of the stages can overlap. The chances of prospects succeeding
vary from mineral to mineral. Some Canadian geologists claim that only
P = A/ [r/(R"-l)+r' ] (2. 18) 1 0 % of the anomalies found in stage 3 warrant any further investigation,
where P= capital invested in acquisition of the property, prospecting and 1 % warrant drilling and only 0 . 1 % develop into a successful mine.
Exploration planning is therefore of utmost importance in identifying a
exploration, development, infrastructure, plant and equipment
viable mining project.
etc., Rs,
A = annual profit, Rs,
n = life of the mine in years = S/a,
S = reserves, f,
a - annual production, t/y,
r' = safe rate of interest (interest obtainable on safe deposits),
r' = speculative rate of interest ( a higher rate taking into account
the hazards of business),
and R = r+1.
If the surface exploration has proved the ore body to have a length
of / m along the strike, a width of b m, then for ensuring a reserve of S f,
it should extend to a depth of C m given by the relation
C= S/lby (2.19)
where y = the specific weight of ore in situ or the tonnage factor in t/rrf.
With a reasonable assumption of the annual production, the cost of

104