Power Quality Problems and New Solutions

A. de Almeida, L. Moreira. J. Delgado

ISR – Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

University of Coimbra, Pólo II
3030-290 Coimbra (Portugal)
phone: +351 239 796 218, fax: +351 239 406 672
e-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected].

Abstract: In this paper, the main Power Quality (PQ) 2. Types of Power Quality Problems
problems are presented with their associated causes and
consequences. The economic impacts associated with PQ are The most common types of Power Quality problems are
characterized. Finally, some solutions to mitigate the PQ presented in Table I.
problems are presented.
3. Power Quality Characterization
Key words
Even the most advanced transmission and distribution
Power Quality, Power Quality problems, Power Quality systems are not able to provide electrical energy with the
costs, Power Quality solutions. desired level of reliability for the proper functioning of
the loads in modern society. Modern T&D (transmission
1. Introduction and distribution) systems are projected for 99,9 to
99,99% availability. This value is highly dependant of
Power Quality (PQ) related issues are of most concern redundancy level of the network, which is different
nowadays. The widespread use of electronic equipment, according to the geographical location and the voltage
such as information technology equipment, power level (availability is higher at the HV network). In some
electronics such as adjustable speed drives (ASD), remote sites, availability of T&D systems may be as low
programmable logic controllers (PLC), energy-efficient as 99%. Even with a 99,99% level there is an equivalent
lighting, led to a complete change of electric loads interruption time of 52 minutes per year.
nature. These loads are simultaneously the major causers
and the major victims of power quality problems. Due to The most demanding processes in the modern digital
their non-linearity, all these loads cause disturbances in economy need electrical energy with 99.9999999%
the voltage waveform. availability (9-nines reliability) to function properly.

Along with technology advance, the organization of the Between 1992 and 1997, EPRI carried out a study in the
worldwide economy has evolved towards globalisation US to characterize the average duration of disturbances.
and the profit margins of many activities tend to The result for a typical site, during the 6-year period is
decrease. The increased sensitivity of the vast majority of presented below.
processes (industrial, services and even residential) to PQ
problems turns the availability of electric power with
quality a crucial factor for competitiveness in every
activity sector. The most critical areas are the continuous
process industry and the information technology services.
When a disturbance occurs, huge financial losses may
happen, with the consequent loss of productivity and
competitiveness.

Although many efforts have been taken by utilities, some

consumers require a level of PQ higher than the level
provided by modern electric networks. This implies that
some measures must be taken in order to achieve higher Fig. 1 – Typical distribution of PQ disturbances by its duration
levels of Power Quality. for a typical facility in 6 years (1992-97) in the US [2].
 Table I – Most common Power Quality problems [ 1], [4]

Description: A decrease of the normal voltage level between 10 and 90% of the nominal rms voltage at the
1. power frequency, for durations of 0,5 cycle to 1 minute.
Voltage sag (or dip) Causes: Faults on the transmission or distribution network (most of the times on parallel feeders). Faults in
consumer’s installation. Connection of heavy loads and start-up of large motors.
Consequences: Malfunction of information technology equipment, namely microprocessor-based control
systems (PCs, PLCs, ASDs, etc) that may lead to a process stoppage. Tripping of contactors and
electromechanical relays. Disconnection and loss of efficiency in electric rotating machines.
2.
Description: Total interruption of electrical supply for duration from few milliseconds to one or two seconds.
Very short
Causes: Mainly due to the opening and automatic reclosure of protection devices to decommission a faulty section
interruptions
of the network. The main fault causes are insulation failure, lightning and insulator flashover.
Consequences: Tripping of protection devices, loss of information and malfunction of data processing equipment.
Stoppage of sensitive equipment, such as ASDs, PCs, PLCs, if they’re not prepared to deal with this situation.

3.
Description: Total interruption of electrical supply for duration greater than 1 to 2 seconds
Long interruptions
Causes: Equipment failure in the power system network, storms and objects (trees, cars, etc) striking lines or
poles, fire, human error, bad coordination or failure of protection devices.
Consequences: Stoppage of all equipment.

4. Description: Very fast variation of the voltage value for durations from a several microseconds to few
Voltage spike milliseconds. These variations may reach thousands of volts, even in low voltage.
Causes: Lightning, switching of lines or power factor correction capacitors, disconnection of heavy loads.
Consequences: Destruction of components (particularly electronic components) and of insulation materials,
data processing errors or data loss, electromagnetic interference.
5.
Description: Momentary increase of the voltage, at the power frequency, outside the normal tolerances, with
Voltage swell duration of more than one cycle and typically less than a few seconds.
Causes: Start/stop of heavy loads, badly dimensioned power sources, badly regulated transformers (mainly
during off-peak hours).
Consequences: Data loss, flickering of lighting and screens, stoppage or damage of sensitive equipment, if the
voltage values are too high.

Description: Voltage or current waveforms assume non-sinusoidal shape. The waveform corresponds to the
sum of different sine-waves with different magnitude and phase, having frequencies that are multiples of
6. power-system frequency.
Causes: Classic sources: electric machines working above the knee of the magnetization curve (magnetic
Harmonic distortion
saturation), arc furnaces, welding machines, rectifiers, and DC brush motors. Modern sources: all non-linear
loads, such as power electronics equipment including ASDs, switched mode power supplies, data processing
equipment, high efficiency lighting.
Consequences: Increased probability in occurrence of resonance, neutral overload in 3-phase systems,
overheating of all cables and equipment, loss of efficiency in electric machines, electromagnetic interference
with communication systems, errors in measures when using average reading meters, nuisance tripping of
thermal protections.
7.
Voltage fluctuation Description: Oscillation of voltage value, amplitude modulated by a signal with frequency of 0 to 30 Hz.
Causes: Arc furnaces, frequent start/stop of electric motors (for instance elevators), oscillating loads.
Consequences: Most consequences are common to undervoltages. The most perceptible consequence is the
flickering of lighting and screens, giving the impression of unsteadiness of visual perception.

Description: Superimposing of high frequency signals on the waveform of the power-system frequency.
8.
Causes: Electromagnetic interferences provoked by Hertzian waves such as microwaves, television diffusion,
Noise
and radiation due to welding machines, arc furnaces, and electronic equipment. Improper grounding may also
be a cause.
Consequences: Disturbances on sensitive electronic equipment, usually not destructive. May cause data loss
and data processing errors.
9. Description: A voltage variation in a three-phase system in which the three voltage magnitudes or the phase-
Voltage Unbalance angle differences between them are not equal.
Causes: Large single-phase loads (induction furnaces, traction loads), incorrect distribution of all single-phase
loads by the three phases of the system (this may be also due to a fault).
Consequences: Unbalanced systems imply the existence of a negative sequence that is harmful to all three-
phase loads. The most affected loads are three-phase induction machines.
As it can be seen in Fig. 1., the vast majority of the in the facilities and market conditions, among other, also
disturbances registered (about 87%) lasted less than 1 influence the costs of PQ problems.
second and only 12 have duration greater than 1 minute.
It is clear that not all these disturbances cause equipment A. Power Quality Costs Evaluation
malfunctioning, but many types of sensitive equipment
may be affected. The costs related to a PQ disturbance can be divided in:

Another study of EPRI was undertaken, between 1993 1) Direct costs. The costs that can be directly
and 1999, in order to characterize the PQ on Low attributable to the disturbance. These costs
Voltage (LV) distribution networks. This study include the damage in the equipment, loss of
concluded that 92% of disturbances in PQ were voltage production, loss of raw material, salary costs
sags with amplitude drops up to 50% and duration below during non-productive period and restart costs.
2 seconds. Fig. 2 shows the typical distribution of sags Sometimes, during the non-productive period
under 0.5 seconds and micro-interruptions. some savings are achieved, such as energy
savings, which must be subtracted to the costs.
Some disturbances do not imply production
stoppage, but may have other costs associated,
such as reduction of equipment efficiency and
reduction of equipment lifetime.
2) Indirect costs. These costs are very hard to
evaluate. Due to some disturbances and non-
productive periods, one company may not be
able to accomplish the deadlines for some
deliveries and loose future orders. Investments
to prevent power quality problems may be
considered an indirect cost.
3) Non-material inconvenience. Some inconveniences
due to power disturbance cannot be expressed in
money, such as not listening to the radio or
watch TV. The only way to account these
inconveniences is to establish an amount of
money that the consumer is willing to pay to
avoid this inconvenience [4], [5].
Fig. 2 – Distribution of sag and micro-interruption in LV
networks in US [3]. B. Estimates on Power Quality Costs

The situation in developed countries of Europe is very Several studies have been made to evaluate the costs of
similar to the one observed in the US. Fig. 3 shows the PQ problems for consumers. The assessment of an
characterization of PQ in an industrial area of the center accurate value is nearly impossible; so all these studies
of Portugal by monitoring of the supply in the period are based on estimates. Some of these studies are
February 2002-January 2003. presented below.

1) Business Week (1991). PQ costs were estimated

on 26,000 million USD per year in the United
States.
2) EPRI (1994). This study pointed 400,000
million USD per year for PQ costs in the United
States.
3) US Department of Energy (1995). PQ costs were
estimated on 150,000 million USD per year for
United States.
4) Fortune Magazine (1998). Stated that PQ costs
were around 10,000 million USD per year in
United States.
5) E Source (2001). A study comprising continuous
Fig. 3 – Characterization of electrical energy supply
disturbances in an industrial facility in Portugal.
process industries, financial services and food
processing in the United States, estimated the
average annual costs of PQ problems on 60,000
4. Costs of Power Quality Problems to 80,000 USD per installation.
6) PQ costs in EU (2001). Overall PQ costs in
The costs of PQ problems are highly dependant of industry and commerce, in European Union, are
several factors, mainly the business area of activity. estimated in 10,000 million EUR per year [6].
Other factors, like the sensitivity of the equipment used
The estimates of the various studies differ a lot, but all
point to a common factor: the PQ costs are enormous.

C. Costs of Momentary Interruptions

An interruption is the PQ problem with the most

perceivable impact on facilities. Table II summarizes the
typical costs of momentary interruptions (1 minute) for
different types of consumers. The costs presented are
without major investments in technologies to achieve
ride-through capabilities to cope with the interruption.
These values are based on published services and
Electrotek Concepts experiences with individual studies
[5].

Table II – Typical costs of momentary interruptions (1 minute, Fig. 4 – Costs of interruptions as function its duration [5].
in $/kW demand, for different types of industrial and services
facilities.
5. Solutions for PQ Problems
Cost of momentary
interruption The mitigation of PQ problems may take place at
($/kW demand) different levels: transmission, distribution and the end-
Maximum Minimum use equipment. As seen in Fig. 5, several measures can
Industrial be taken at these levels.
Automobile manufacturing 5.0 7.5
Rubber and plastics 3.0 4.5
Textile 2.0 4.0
Paper 1.5 2.5
Printing (newspapers) 1.0 2.0
Petrochemical 3.0 5.0
Metal fabrication 2.0 4.0
Glass 4.0 6.0
Mining 2.0 4.0
Food processing 3.0 5.0
Pharmaceutical 5.0 50.0
Electronics 8.0 12.0
Semiconductor manufacturing 20.0 60.0
Services Fig. 5 – Solutions for digital power [7]
Communication, information
1.0 10.0
processing
Hospitals, banks, civil services 2.0 3.0
6. Grid Adequacy
Restaurants, bars, hotels 0.5 1.0
Commercial shops 0.1 0.5
Many PQ problems have origin in the transmission or
distribution grid. Thus, a proper transmission and
distribution grid, with adequate planning and
As it can be seen, the industrial sector is the most
maintenance, is essential to minimize the occurrence of
affected by interruptions, especially the continuous
PQ problems.
process industry. In the services sector, communication
and information processing is the most affected business
area. 7. Distributed Resources – Energy Storage
Systems
The costs of interruptions are also function of its
duration. Fig. 4 depicts the costs of interruptions against Interest in the use of distributed energy resources (DER)
its duration. has increased substantially over the last few years
because of their potential to provide increased reliability.
These resources include distributed generation and
energy storage systems.

Energy storage systems, also known as restoring

technologies, are used to provide the electric loads with
ride-through capability in poor PQ environment.
 Fig. 6 – Restoring technologies principle [1].

Recent technological advances in power electronics and

storage technologies are turning the restoring
technologies one of the premium solutions to mitigate PQ
problems.

Fig. 8 – Flywheel [http://www.beaconpower.com]

Traditional flywheel rotors are usually constructed of

steel and are limited to a spin rate of a few thousand
revolutions per minute (RPM). Advanced flywheels
constructed from carbon fibre materials and magnetic
bearings can spin in vacuum at speeds up to 40,000 to
60,000 RPM. The stored energy is proportional to the
moment of inertia and to the square of the rotational
speed. High speed flywheels can store much more energy
than the conventional flywheels.

The flywheel provides power during a period between the

Fig. 7 – Working principle of an energy storage system.
loss of utility supplied power and either the return of
utility power or the start of a back-up power system (i.e.,
The first energy storage technology used in the field of diesel generator). Flywheels typically provide 1-100
PQ, yet the most used today, is electrochemical battery. seconds of ride-through time, and back-up generators are
Although new technologies, such as flywheels, able to get online within 5-20 seconds.
supercapacitors and superconducting magnetic energy
storage (SMES) present many advantages, B. Supercapacitors
electrochemical batteries still rule due to their low price
and mature technology. Supercapacitors (also known as ultracapacitors) are DC
energy sources and must be interfaced to the electric grid
A. Flywheels with a static power conditioner, providing energy output
at the grid frequency. A supercapacitor provides power
A flywheel is an electromechanical device that couples a during short duration interruptions or voltage sags.
rotating electric machine (motor/generator) with a
rotating mass to store energy for short durations. The Medium size supercapacitors (1 MJoule) are
motor/generator draws power provided by the grid to commercially available to implement ride-through
keep the rotor of the flywheel spinning. During a power capability in small electronic equipment, but large
disturbance, the kinetic energy stored in the rotor is supercapacitors are still in development, but may soon
transformed to DC electric energy by the generator, and become a viable component of the energy storage field.
the energy is delivered at a constant frequency and
voltage through an inverter and a control system. Fig. 8
depicts the scheme of a flywheel, where the major
advantages of this system are explained.

Fig. 9 – Electric double layer supercapacitor [http://www.esma-

cap.com]

Capacitance is very large because the distance between

the plates is very small (several angstroms), and because
the area of conductor surface (for instance of the
activated carbon) reaches 1500-2000 m2/g (16000-21500
ft2/g). Thus, the energy stored by such capacitors may
reach 50-60 J/g [8].

C. SMES

A magnetic field is created by circulating a DC current in

a closed coil of superconducting wire. The path of the
coil circulating current can be opened with a solid-state
switch, which is modulated on and off. Due to the high
inductance of the coil, when the switch is off (open), the
magnetic coil behaves as a current source and will force
current into the power converter which will charge to Fig. 12 – Specific costs of energy storage devices [10].
some voltage level. Proper modulation of the solid-state
switch can hold the voltage within the proper operating The high speed flywheel is in about the same cost range
range of the inverter, which converts the DC voltage into as the SMES and supercapacitors and about 5 times more
AC power. expensive than a low speed flywheel due to its more
complicated design and limited power rating.
Electrochemical battery has a high degree of mature and
a simple design. Below a storage time of 25 seconds the
low speed flywheel can be more cost effective than the
battery.

8. Distributed Resources – Distributed

Generation
Distributed Generation (DG) units can be used to provide
clean power to critical loads, isolating them from
Fig. 10 – SMES system [9]. disturbances with origin in the grid. DG units can also be
used as backup generators to assure energy supply to
Low temperature SMES cooled by liquid helium is critical loads during sustained outages. Additionally DG
commercially available. High temperature SMES cooled units can be used for load management purposed to
by liquid nitrogen is still in the development stage and decrease the peak demand.
may become a viable commercial energy storage source
in the future due to its potentially lower costs. At present, reciprocating engine is the prevalent
technology in DG market, but with technology
SMES systems are large and generally used for short advancements, other technologies are becoming more
durations, such as utility switching events. attractive, such as microturbines or fuel cells (Table III).

D. Comparison of Storage Systems Table III – Evolution of DG technologies.

Fig. 11 shows a comparison of the different storage Reciprocating

Microturbines Fuel Cells
Engines
technology in terms of specific power and specific
Timing • Ongoing • Emerging • Mid-200’s
energy. now
Market • Standby/back • Peak-shaving • Prime power
up utilization and PQ and PQ
Economics • 300 a 600 • 750 $/kW • 1000* a 4000
$/kW $/kW
• 33-45% • 20-30% • 45-60%
efficient efficient efficient
• <5% • ~20% • >80%
utilization utilization utilization
• 15-30 • 10-15 • 5* cents/kWh
Fig. 11 – Specific power versus specific energy ranges for cents/kWh cents/kWh
storage technologies [9]. * predicted

Fig. 12 shows the specific costs of energy storage If DG units are to be used as back-up generation, a
devices. storage unit must be used to provide energy to the loads
during the period between the origin of the disturbance
and the start-up of the emergency generator.
 zener diode) that limits excessive line voltage and
The most common solution is the combination of conduct any excess impulse energy to ground.
electrochemical batteries UPS and a diesel genset. At
present, the integration of a flywheel and a diesel genset C. Constant Voltage Transformers
in a single unit is also becoming a popular solution,
offered by many manufacturers. Constant voltage transformers (CVT) were one of the
first PQ solutions used to mitigate the effects of voltage
sags and transients. To maintain the voltage constant,
they use two principles that are normally avoided:
resonance and core saturation.

Fig. 13 – Scheme of a continuous power system, using a

flywheel and a diesel genset [www.geindustrialsystems.com].
Fig. 15 – Constant voltage transformer.

When the resonance occurs, the current will increase to a

point that causes the saturation of the magnetic core of
the transformer. If the magnetic core is saturated, then the
magnetic flux will remain roughly constant and the
transformer will produce an approximately constant
voltage output.

If not properly used, a CVT will originate more PQ

problems than the ones mitigated. It can produce
transients, harmonics (voltage wave clipped on the top
and sides) and it is inefficient (about 80% at full load). Its
application is becoming uncommon due to technological
Fig. 14 – Dynamic UPS, by Hitec Power Protection, bv. advances in other areas.
[http://www.hitec-ups.com].
D. Noise Filters
9. Enhanced Interface Devices
Noise filters are used to avoid unwanted frequency
Besides energy storage systems and DG, some other current or voltage signals (noise) from reaching sensitive
devices may be used to solve PQ problems. equipment. This can be accomplished by using a
combination of capacitors and inductances that creates a
Using proper interface devices, one can isolate the loads low impedance path to the fundamental frequency and
from disturbances deriving from the grid. high impedance to higher frequencies, that is, a low-pass
filter. They should be used when noise with frequency in
A. Dynamic Voltage Restorer the kHz range is considerable.

A dynamic voltage restorer (DVR) acts like a voltage E. Isolation Transformers

source connected in series with the load. The working
principle of the most common DVRs is similar to Fig. 7. Isolation transformers are used to isolate sensitive loads
The output voltage of the DVR is kept approximately from transients and noise deriving from the mains. In
constant voltage at the load terminals by using a step-up some cases (Delta-Wye connection) isolation
transformer and/or stored energy to inject active and transformers keep harmonic currents generated by loads
reactive power in the output supply trough a voltage from getting upstream the transformer.
converter.
The particularity of isolation transformers is a grounded
B. Transient Voltage Surge suppressors (TVSS) shield made of nonmagnetic foil located between the
primary and the secondary. Any noise or transient that
Transient voltage surge suppressors are used as interface come from the source in transmitted through the
between the power source and sensitive loads, so that the capacitance between the primary and the shield and on to
transient voltage is clamped by the TVSS before it the ground and does not reach the load.
reaches the load. TVSSs usually contain a component
with a nonlinear resistance (a metal oxide varistor or a
 Business Equipment Manufacturer’s Association. This
standard specifies the minimum withstanding capability
of computer equipment to voltage sags, micro-
interruptions and overvoltages.

Fig. 16 – Isolation transformer.

F. Static VAR Compensators

Static VAR compensators (SVR) use a combination of

capacitors and reactors to regulate the voltage quickly.
Solid-state switches control the insertion of the capacitors
and reactors at the right magnitude to prevent the voltage
from fluctuating. The main application of SVR is the
voltage regulation in high voltage and the elimination of
flicker caused by large loads (such as induction
furnaces).
Fig. 18 – CBEMA curve.
G. Harmonic Filters

Harmonic filters are used to reduce undesirable

harmonics. They can be divided in two groups: passive
filters and active filters.

Fig. 17 – Harmonic filters [11].

Fig. 19 – ITIC curve
Passive filters (Fig. 17 left) consist in a low impedance
path to the frequencies of the harmonics to be attenuated This curve, although substituted recently by ITIC
using passive components (inductors, capacitors and (Information Technology Industry Council) curve (Fig.
resistors). Several passive filters connected in parallel 19), is still a reference in the area of PQ. When the
may be necessary to eliminate several harmonic voltage is within the limits determined by the shaded
components. If the system varies (change of harmonic zone, the equipment should function normally. When the
components), passive filters may become ineffective and voltage is comprised on the zone below the permitted
cause resonance. zone, the equipments may malfunction or stop. When the
voltage is comprised in the upper prohibited zone,
Active filters (Fig. 17 right) analyse the current besides equipment malfunction, damage on the
consumed by the load and create a current that cancel the equipment may occur.
harmonic current generated by the loads. Active filters
were expensive in the past, but they are now becoming Other standardization organizations (IEC, CENELEC,
cost effective compensating for unknown or changing IEEE, etc) have developed a set of standards with the
harmonics. same purposes. In Europe, the most relevant standards in
PQ are the EN 50160 (by CENELEC) and IEC 61000.
10. Develop Codes and Standards
Some measures have been taken to regulate the minimum
PQ level that utilities have to provide to consumers and
the immunity level that equipment should have to operate
properly when the power supplied is within the standards.

One major step in this direction was taken with the

CBEMA curve (Fig 18), created by the Computer and
 Table IV - Most important parameters defined by European the problems. Among the various measures, selection of
Norm 50160:2001. less sensitive equipment can play an important role.
Limits When even the most robust equipment is affected, then
Must remain between 49.5 (-1%) and 50.5 other measures must be taken, such as installation of
Frequency restoring technologies, distributed generation or an
(+1%) Hz.
The voltage must be between 90% and
interface device to prevent PQ problems.
Voltage
110% of nominal voltage.
The negative sequence cannot assume
Voltage
magnitude higher than 2% of the direct References
Unbalance
sequence.
[1] J. Delgado, “Gestão da Qualidade Total Aplicada ao
THD < 8 %
Sector do Fornecimento da Energia Eléctrica”,
Harmonic V3 < 5.0% Thesis submitted to fulfilment of the requirements
voltage V5 < 6.0% for the degree of PhD. in Electrotechnical
V7 < 5.0% Engineering, Coimbra, September 2002.
[2] "The Two Seconds Problem", American
Superconductor and EPRI Research, March 1998.
[3] EPRI Power Delivery Group, “The Future of Power
11. Make End-use Devices Less Sensitive Delivery in the 21st Century”, 1999.
[4] M. Bollen, “Understanding Power Quality Problems
Designing the equipment to be less sensitive to – Voltage Sags and Interruptions”, IEEE Press
disturbances is usually the most cost effective measure to Series on Power Engineering – John Wiley and
prevent PQ problems. Some manufacturers of end-use Sons, Piscataway, USA (2000).
equipment are now recognising this problem, but the [5] M. McGranaghan, “Costs of Interruptions”, in
competitive market means that manufacturers should proceedings of the Power Quality 2002 Conference,
reduce costs and only respond to customers’ Rosemont, Illinois, pp 1-8, October 2002..
requirements. The exception is the ASD market, where [6] D. Chapman, “Costs of Poor Power Quality”, Power
manufacturers are actively promoting products with Quality Application Guide – Copper Development
enhanced ride-through capabilities. Association, March 2001.
[7] EPRI, “Creating the Electricity Infrastructure for a
Adding a capacitor with a larger capacity to power Digital Society”, UIE-2000 Conference, Lisbon, 1-
supplies, using cables with larger neutral conductors, 3, November 2000.
derating transformers and adjusting undervoltage relays, [8] http://www.esma-cap.com
are measures that could be taken by manufacturers to [9] P. Ribeiro, B. Johnson, M. Crow, A. Arsoy, Y. Liu,
reduce the sensitivity of equipment to PQ problems. “Energy Storage Systems for Advanced Power
Applications”, Proceedings of the IEEE, vol 89, no.
12. Conclusions 12, December 2001.
[10] H. Darrelmann, “Comparison of Alternative Short
The availability of electric power with high quality is Time Storage Systems”, Piller, GmbH, Osterode,
crucial for the running of the modern society. If some Germany.
sectors are satisfied with the quality of the power [11] P. Ferracci, “ Power Quality”, Schneider Electric
provided by utilities, some others are more demanding. Cahier Technique no. 199, September 2000.

To avoid the huge losses related to PQ problems, the

most demanding consumers must take action to prevent