AP Calculus AB/BC – Unit 6 Notes

Lesson 6.1: Integration by Partial Fractions (Textbook Section 7.5)

We already know how to integrate this.

2𝑥 − 2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3

Why does u-substitution work for this problem?

Example #1: Why doesn’t u-substitution work for the problem below?

5𝑥 − 3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 − 2𝑥 − 3

What if we factor the denominator →

It is very tempting to simplify that to…

But that would be an algebra violation.

So what do we do with it?

1. First, we will rewrite it as the sum of two fractions with unknowns 𝐴 and 𝐵 in the numerators.
2. Then we will use algebra to get a common denominator and a simpler equation with 𝐴 and 𝐵.
3. To find 𝐴 and 𝐵, pick convenient values for 𝑥. Namely, the roots.

This technique is called integration by partial fractions. When you rewrite the original rational
function as the sum of two fractions, that is called a partial fraction decomposition.
p. 1
 When Should You Use Partial Fractions
1. The integrand is a rational expression of two polynomials.
2. The numerator is NOT the derivative of the denominator. (Or only different by a constant)
3. The denominator is factorable.
4. Numerator degree < denominator degree.
NOTE: May have to long divide if numerator degree ≥ denominator degree. After long division, you
may end up having to do partial fractions on the answer.

Example #2:
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 −1

Example #3:
2𝑥 + 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 − 7𝑥 + 12

Example #4:
2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3

p. 2
 Lesson 6.2: Integration by Parts (Textbook Section 7.1)

Let’s derive the formula for integrating by parts:

Formula for Integration by Parts:

∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢

𝑢 easy to differentiate. 𝑑𝑣 is easy to integrate.

The Integration by Parts formula is a “product rule” for integration.

How do you know what to call 𝑢 and what to call 𝑑𝑣? Choose 𝑢 in this order:

L ________________________________

I ________________________________

P ________________________________

E ________________________________

T ________________________________

Example #1:

∫ 𝑥 ∙ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

p. 3
Example #2:

∫ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Example #3: What if it is a definite integral?

3
∫ 𝑥 2 ∙ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1

Example #4:
1/2
∫ arcsin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0

p. 4
Example #5:

∫ arctan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Example #6:

∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

A Shortcut: Tabular Parts Integration:

Tabular integration works for integrals of the form:
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)
differentiates integrates
to zero in repeatedly.
several steps.

Let’s do Example #6 again, this time using tabular integration:

∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Take derivative Integrate

p. 5
Example #7:

∫ 𝑥 3 sin(2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Example #8:

∫ 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

This is called solving for the unknown integral.

It works when both factors integrate and differentiate forever.

p. 6
 Lesson 6.3: L’Hospital’s Rule…AGAIN! (Textbook Section 4.5)

L’Hospital’s Rule:
0 ∞
Recall that when evaluating limits, 0 and ∞ are indeterminate forms. These two indeterminate forms can
be solved using L’Hospital’s Rule.
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓′ (𝑥)
If lim 𝑔(𝑥) is indeterminate, then lim 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑔′(𝑥) .
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

The 7 Indeterminate Forms:

0 ∞
∞∙0 ∞−∞ 1∞ 00 ∞0
0 ∞
0 ∞
NOTE: Only and are in the correct form for employing L’Hospital’s Rule. For the other five forms, we
0 ∞
must do some algebra to get them into the proper form.

Example #1:
1
lim (𝑥 sin ( ))
𝑥→∞ 𝑥

For ∞ ∙ 𝟎:

Example #2:
1 1
lim ( − )
𝑥→1 ln 𝑥 𝑥 − 1

For ∞ − ∞:

p. 7
Example #3:
lim 𝑥 1/𝑥
𝑥→∞

For 𝟏∞ , 𝟎𝟎 , and ∞𝟎 :
1. Write 𝑦 = limit statement to create an equation.
2. Take natural log of both sides.
3. Use logarithm properties to rewrite in format for L’Hospital’s.
4. Evaluate using L’Hospital’s.
5. DON’T FORGET that the left side is 𝐥𝐧 𝒚. Exponentiate to get 𝒚 =answer.

Example #4:
1 𝑥
lim (1 + )
𝑥→∞ 𝑥

Determinate Forms that DON’T need L’Hospital’s Rule:

∞ 0
∞+∞ −∞−∞ 0∞ 0−∞
0 ∞
p. 8
 Lesson 6.4: Improper Integrals (Textbook Section 7.7)

Definition of Improper Integral:

An integral with an infinite limit of integration or an integral of a function that becomes infinite at a
point within the interval of integration is an improper integral.

Example #1
1
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 √1 − 𝑥 2

We could define this integral as:

NOTE: The limit must approach the value from ____________________ the interval.

This integral ____________________________because it approaches a real number solution.

Example #2
1
𝑑𝑥
∫
0 𝑥

This integral ____________________________

p. 9
Example #3
3
𝑑𝑥
∫
0 (𝑥 − 1)2/3

Improper Integrals with Infinite Discontinuities:

1. If f is continuous on the interval [a, c) and has an infinite discontinuity at c, then
𝑐 𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = lim− ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑏→𝑐 𝑎

2. If f is continuous on the interval (a, c] and has an infinite discontinuity at a, then

𝑐 𝑐
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = lim+ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑏→𝑎 𝑏

3. If f is continuous on the interval [a, c], except for some k in (a, c) at which f has an infinite
discontinuity, then
𝑐 𝑏 𝑐
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = lim− ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + lim+ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑏→𝑘 𝑎 𝑏→𝑘 𝑏

Convergence and Divergence:

• If the limit exists (in other words, is a real number), the improper integral _________________________.

• If the limit does not exist, the improper integral _________________________.

• In the case of splitting the improper integral into two integrals (3rd type on previous slide), both
integrals must converge for the original integral on the left to converge. If either integral on the
right diverges, the original integral diverges.

p. 10
Example #4
∞
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(2𝑥 + 1)3
1

Example #5
∞
𝑒𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 + 𝑒 2𝑥
−∞

Improper Integrals with Infinite Limits of Integration:

1. If f is continuous on the interval [a, ∞), then
∞ 𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = lim ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑏→∞ 𝑎

2. If f is continuous on the interval (−∞, a], then

𝑎 𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = lim ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
−∞ 𝑏→−∞ 𝑏

3. If f is continuous on the interval (−∞, ∞), then

∞ 𝑐 𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = lim ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + lim ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 where 𝑐 is any real number.
−∞ 𝑏→−∞ 𝑏 𝑏→∞ 𝑐

p. 11
Example #6: What about this?
∞
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 where 𝑃 is a constant > 0
1 𝑥𝑃

Shortcut for Integrals of the Following Form:

∞
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 where 𝑃 is a constant > 0
1 𝑥𝑃

• If 𝑃 ≤ 1, the integral ____________________________.

• If 𝑃 > 1, the integral ____________________________.

Example #7
∞
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 √𝑥

Example #8
For what values of 𝑝 is the following improper integral divergent?
∞
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥 (−2𝑝+5)

p. 12
 Lesson 6.5: Euler’s Method (Textbook Section 5.7)

There are many differential equations that cannot be solved by separation of variables. However, we can
still find an approximate solution using Euler’s Method.

Euler’s method is really just repeated tangent line approximations, with each successive approximation
based on the previous approximation. Often, people will work Euler’s method problem in a table to
organize the values.

Example #1: We will start with an easy one that can be solved by separation.
𝑑𝑦
Given the differential equation 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥 and 𝑦(0) = 1. Find an approximation for 𝑦(1) using Euler’s
method with two equal steps.

Euler’s Method Facts:

• Euler’s Method uses repeated tangent line approximations. As such, whether the value obtained
from using Euler’s method is an over- or underestimate is the same reasoning as whether a tangent
line is an over- or underestimate.
o Euler’s method is an overestimate when the graph is concave down at the initial condition.
o Euler’s method is an underestimate when the graph is concave up at the initial condition.

• Estimate will be more accurate if a smaller step size is used (smaller 𝑑𝑥).

• Estimate will be less accurate as you move away from the initial 𝑥-value.

p. 13
Example #2
𝑑𝑦 𝑥
Given 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑦

(a) Use Euler’s Method to approximate 𝑦(−1) if 𝑦(0) = 3. Use two steps of equal size.

(b) Is the approximation from part (a) an overestimate or underestimate? Justify your reasoning.

(c) Does the particular solution that goes through (0,3) have a relative minimum, relative maximum or
neither at 𝑥 = 0? Justify your answer.

(d) Find the particular solution 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) of the differential equation that passes through the point (0, 3).

Example #3
𝑑𝑦
Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) be the particular solution to the differential equation 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 with the initial condition
𝑓(−1) = −1. Use Euler’s method starting at 𝑥 = −1 with a step size of 0.5 to approximate 𝑓(0). Show the
work that leads to your answer.

p. 14
 Lesson 6.6: Length of a Curve (Textbook Section 6.5)

Formula for the Length of a Curve (aka Arc Length):

Example #1
Find the length of the curve 𝑦 = −𝑥 2 + 9 on the interval 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3.

Example #2
Find the length of the curve 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1 on the interval −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1.

Example #3
If you have an equation in terms of 𝑦, the length can be found the same way except reversing 𝑥 and 𝑦.
Find the length of the curve 𝑥 = 𝑦 2 on the interval 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 3.

p. 15
 Lesson 6.7: Logistic Growth (Textbook Section 5.6)

• You have been told in previous courses that populations grow according to an exponential model.
• In reality, there is more to it. The resources available to a population are only plentiful enough to
support so much growth before the resources become scarce. The population has a maximum size that
the resources can support, called the carrying capacity (M).
• Most populations grow according to a logistic model, which factors in the carrying capacity.

Exponential Growth/Decay vs Logistic Growth:

Differential Equation for EXPONENTIAL Growth/Decay:
The rate of change is proportional to the amount present

Differential Equation for LOGISTIC Growth/Decay (where M is carrying capacity):

The rate of change is proportional to BOTH the amount present AND the amount it can still grow.

This differential equation takes many equivalent forms:

Example #1
One of the most common problems regarding logistic growth in AP Calculus requires you to find the
carrying capacity, M, given a logistic differential equation. For each of the following, find the carrying
capacity.
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃 10 − 𝑃 𝑑𝑃 𝑃
= 0.03𝑃(100 − 𝑃) = 2.8𝑃 ( ) = .5𝑃 (1 − )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 10 𝑑𝑡 250

Example #2
For each of the following, find the carrying capacity.
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃
= 0.1𝑃 − 0.0004𝑃2 = 0.4𝑃 − 0.00025𝑃2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

p. 16
Example #3
10 grizzly bears were introduced to a national park to begin to grow the grizzly bear population there. The
national park can support a maximum of 100 grizzly bears. The rate of growth of the population of bears is
given by the differential equation below.
𝑑𝑃
= 0.001𝑃(100 − 𝑃)
𝑑𝑡
• General Formula for a Logistic Model:

• For the Bear Population the Solution to the

Differential Equation:

• At right is the graph of the bear population

curve. All logistic curves whose initial
value is less than the carrying capacity
have this shape.

• lim 𝑃(𝑡) = __________

𝑡→∞

Important Facts Regarding the Logistic Model:

• As long as the initial value of the population is below the carrying capacity, the logistic curve
always increases.

• If the initial value of the population is above the carrying capacity, the logistic curve decreases
(then levels off to carrying capacity).

• The curve starts concave up and then switches to concave down. This point of inflection occurs at
𝟏
the value t for which 𝑷 = 𝟐 𝑴.

𝟏
• The population is growing the fastest when 𝑷 = 𝟐 𝑴. In other words, the absolute maximum of
𝑑𝑃 1
𝑑𝑡
occurs at the value of t for which 𝑃 = 2 𝑀.

• We saw the limit below on the previous slide. This formula is true regardless of whether the initial
size of the population is above or below the carrying capacity.
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝑷(𝒕) = 𝑴
𝒕→∞

p. 17
Example #4: Florida Panther Population (No Calculator)
A conservation organization releases 25 Florida panthers into a game preserve. The preserve can
accommodate 200 panthers. The rate of growth of the Florida panther population in the preserve is given
𝑑𝑃
by the differential equation 𝑑𝑡 = 0.00132P(200 − P).

(a) Find lim 𝑃(𝑡).

𝑡→∞

(b) How many panthers are on the preserve when the population of Florida panthers is growing the
fastest?

(c) Is the panther population increasing or decreasing for all 𝑡 > 0? JYA

(d) What if the conservation organization had released 225 panthers instead of 25 panthers? Would the
panther population be increasing or decreasing for all 𝑡 > 0? JYA

Example #5: Bacteria (Calculator)

At time 𝑡 = 0 hours, a bacterial culture weighs 1 gram. The rate of growth of the bacteria is given by the
𝑑𝑦 y 20
differential equation = 0.779y (1 − ). The weight of the bacterial culture is given by 𝑦 = −0.779𝑡 .
𝑑𝑡 20 1+19𝑒

(a) What is the maximum weight of the bacterial culture?

(b) What is the weight of the bacterial culture when the bacterial culture is growing the fastest?

(c) When is the bacterial culture growing the fastest?

p. 18