Physics 2 Current, Resistance, EMF 1

CURRENT, I
 A current is any motion of charge from one region to another. It is the amount of charge flowing through a
specified area, per unit time.
Q
I
t , Ampere (A) or C/s

Where
Q = Qn  Q p
Qn A during time t
= the total negative charge that passes thru area
Qp t
= the total positive charge that passes thru area A during time
 SI unit is the AMPERE (A), in honor of the French scientist Andre Marie Ampere.
 The current through an area, A , depends on the concentration n and charge q of the charge carriers, as well as
vd
the magnitude of their drift velocity .
I  n q vd A
Where I = current, A
q = charge of a particle, C
n = concentration of particles, per m3
vd
= drift velocity, m/s
A = cross-sectional area of the conductor, m2
 It is conventionally described in terms of a flow of positive charge, even when the actual charge carriers are
negative or both signs. In the figure below, the same current can be produced by (a) positive charges moving in

the direction of the electric field E or (b) the same number of negative charges moving at the same speed in the

direction opposite to E .


o In (a) above, the moving charges are positive; the electric force is in the same direction as E , and the drift
vd 
velocity is from left to right. In (b) above, the charges are negative; the electric force is opposite to E ,
vd
and the drift velocity is from right to left.
o Conventional Current: The case where the current, denoted by I , is defined to be in the direction in
which there is a flow of positive charge. Thus we describe currents as though they consisted entirely of
positive charge flow, even in cases in which we know that the actual current is due to electrons

Current Density, J
 It is the current per unit cross-sectional area.
 The units of current density are amperes per square meter (A/m 2).
I
J
A where J = current density, A/m2
J  n q vd
(vector current density)

“Action expresses priorities.” ~Mahatma Gandhi, considered the father of the Indian independence movement~
Physics 2 Current, Resistance, EMF 2

“Action expresses priorities.” ~Mahatma Gandhi, considered the father of the Indian independence movement~
Physics 2 Current, Resistance, EMF 3
RESISTANCE, R
 OHM’S LAW: Was discovered in 1826 by German Physicist Georg Simon Ohm. For materials obeying Ohm's law,
the potential difference V across a particular sample of material is proportional to the current I through the
V V
R 1 1
material. The ratio I is the resistance of the sample. The SI unit of resistance is the ohm ( A ).


The resistance of a cylindrical conductor is related to its resistivity , length L , and cross-sectional area A :
L
R
A
Where R = resistance, 
L = length of the material, m
 = resistivity of the material, m
A = cross-sectional area of the material, m2

Resistivity,

 The resistivity of a material is the ratio of the magnitudes of electric field and current density.
 Good conductors have small resistivity; good insulators have large resistivity.
 Ohm's law, obeyed approximately by many materials, states that
 is a constant independent of the value of E.
E

 J ,  m 
where: E : Electric Field, V/m or N/C J : Current Density, A/m2
Resistivities at Room Temperature (20 ⁰C)
Substance   m  Substance   m 
Conductors Semiconductors
Metals Pure carbon (graphite) 3.5 x 10-5
-8
Silver 1.47 x 10 Pure germanium 0.60
Copper 1.72 x 10-8 Pure silicon 2300
Gold 2.44 x 10-8 Insulators
Aluminum 2.75 x 10-8 Amber 5 x 1014
Tungsten 5.25 x 10-8 Glass 1010-1014
Steel 20 x 10-8 Lucite >1013
Lead 22 x 10-8 Mica 1011-1015
Mercury 95 x 10-8 Quartz (fused) 75 x 1016
Alloys Sulfur 1015
Manganin 44 x 10-8 Teflon >1013
Constantan 49 x 10-8 Wood 108-1011
Nichrome 100 x 10-8

 Resistivity usually increases with temperature; for small temperature changes this variation is represented
approximately by:
  T    0  1    T  T0  

T
where: : resistivity at temperature T
 : temperature coefficient of resistivity
0 T0
: resistivity at a reference temperature

Temperature Coefficients of Resistivity (Approximate Values Near Room Temperature)

 C    C  
1 1
Material  Material 
Aluminum 0.0039 Lead 0.0043
Brass 0.0020 Manganin 0.00000
Carbon (graphite) -0.0005 Mercury 0.00088
Constantan 0.00001 Nichrome 0.0004
Copper 0.00393 Silver 0.0038
Iron 0.0050 Tungsten 0.0045

“Action expresses priorities.” ~Mahatma Gandhi, considered the father of the Indian independence movement~
Physics 2 Current, Resistance, EMF 4

Color Codes for Resistors

Color Value as Digit Value as Multiplier
Black 0 1
Brown 1 10
Red 2 102
Orange 3 103
Yellow 4 104
Green 5 105
Blue 6 106
Violet 7 107
Gray 8 108
White 9 109
Tolerances
No Band ± 20%
Silver Band ± 10%
Gold Band ± 5%

 Every resistor has a power rating, the maximum power the device can dissipate without becoming overheated and
damaged. In practical applications the power rating of a resistor is often just as important a characteristic as its
resistance value.

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE, emf, 

 Potential difference across the terminals of a power supply. The SI unit of emf is the same as that for potential,
the volt, equals 1 joule per coulomb.
 It is the influence that makes current flow from lower to higher potential. Sources may be batteries, electric
generators, or any kind of cells.

 For ideal sources:

Vab  

 In reality,
Vab    Ir , where r is the internal resistance of a battery
Symbols Used in Circuit Diagrams
Conductor with negligible resistance

Resistor

Source of emf (longer vertical line always represents the positive terminal,
usually the tenuinal with higher potential)

Source of emf with internal resistance r (r can be placed on either side)

Voltmeter (measures potential difference between its terminals)

Ammeter (measures current through it)

ELECTRICAL POWER AND ENERGY IN CIRCUITS

 Power, P : time rate of energy transfer
o In general:
Vab 2
P  Vab I  I 2 R  Watt, kW, Hp
 R
o For batteries:
P  Vab I     Ir  I   I  I 2 r

where  I = rate of conversion of battery energy to electric energy

“Action expresses priorities.” ~Mahatma Gandhi, considered the father of the Indian independence movement~
Physics 2 Current, Resistance, EMF 5
I 2 r = energy dissipated in the internal resistance
 I  I 2 r = net electrical power output of the source or the rate at which the
source delivers electrical energy to the remainder of the circuit
 Energy Transfer:
V 2t
Energy  Pt  VIt  I Rt 
2
Watt  s, kWh, J
o R

Current

Example25.1/350] An 18-gauge copper wire (the size usually used for lamp cords) has a nominal diameter of 1.02 mm.
This wire carries a constant current of 1.67 A to a 200-watt lamp. The density of free electrons is 8.5 x 10 28 electrons per
cubic meter. Find the magnitudes of (a) the current density and (b) the drift velocity.

25.3/874] A 5.00-A current runs through a 12-gauge copper wire (diameter 2.05 mm) and through a light bulb. Copper
has 8.5 x 1028 free electrons per cubic meter. (a) How many electrons pass through the light bulb each second? (b) What is
the current density in the wire? (c) At what speed does a typical electron pass by any given point in the wire? (d) If you
were to use wire of twice the diameter, which of the above answers would change? Would they increase or decrease?

25.8/874] Current passes through a solution of sodium chloride. In 1.00 s, 2.68 x 10 16 Na+ ions arrive at the negative
electrode and 3.92 x 10 16 Cl- ions arrive at the positive electrode. (a) What is the current passing between the electrodes?
(b) What is the direction of the current?

RESISTANCE

Example25.2/855] The 18-gauge copper wire in Example 25.1 has a diameter of 1.02 mm and a cross-sectional area of
8.20 x 10-7 m2. It carries a current of 1.67 A. Find (a) the electric-field magnitude in the wire; (b) the potential difference
between two points in the wire 50.0 m apart; (c) the resistance of a 50.0-m length of this wire.

25.13/874]In an experiment conducted at room temperature, a current of 0.820 A flows through a wire 3.26 mm in
diameter. Find the magnitude of the electric field in the wire if the wire is made of (a) tungsten; and (b) aluminum.

25.11/874] In household wiring, copper wire 2.05 mm in diameter is often used. Find the resistance of a 24.0-m length of
this wire.

25.23/874] A rectangular solid of pure germanium measures 12 cm x 12 cm x 25 cm. Assuming that each of its faces is
an equipotential surface, what is the resistance between opposite faces that are
(a) farthest apart and (b) closest together?

example25.3/856] Suppose the resistance of the wire in Example 25.2 is 1.05 Ω at a temperature of 20°C. Find the
resistance at O°C and at 100°C.

25.26/875] The potential difference between points in a wire 75.0 cm apart is 0.938 V when the current density is 4.40 x
107 A/m2. What are (a) the magnitude of E in the wire and (b) the resistivity of the material of which the wire is made?

EMF

25.32/875] Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 25.33. The terminal voltage of the 24.0-V battery is 21.2 V. What are (a)
the internal resistance r of the battery and (b) the resistance R of the circuit resistor?

25.34/875]. An idealized ammeter is connected to a battery as shown in Fig. 25.35. Find (a) the reading of the ammeter,
(b) the current through the 4.00-0. resistor, (c) the terminal voltage of the battery.

“Action expresses priorities.” ~Mahatma Gandhi, considered the father of the Indian independence movement~