Filtration

Filtration is a mechanical or physical operation which is used for the separation of

solids from fluids (liquids or gases) by interposing a medium through which only the fluid can
pass.

After filtration the filtrate is transparent liquid free from insoluble solids, colloidal hazes,
or insoluble liquid drops

Classification Of Filtration
Filtration and filters can be classified several ways:

1. By driving force

The filtrate is induced to flow through the filter medium by hydrostatic head (gravity),
pressure applied upstream of the filter medium, vacuum or reduced pressure applied
downstream of the filter medium, or centrifugal force across the medium. Centrifugal
filtration is closely related to centrifugal sedimentation.

2. By filtration mechanism

Although the mechanism for separation and accumulation of solids is not clearly
understood, two models are generally considered and are the basis for the application of
theory to the filtration process. When solids are stopped at the surface of a filter medium and
pile upon one another to form a cake of increasing thickness, the separation is called cake
filtration. When solids are trapped within the pores or body of the medium, it is termed depth,
filter-medium, or clarifying filtration.

3. By objective

The process goal of filtration may be dry solids (the cake is the product of value),
clarified liquid (the filtrate is the product of value), or both. Good solids recovery is best
obtained by cake filtration, while clarification of the liquid is accomplished by either depth or
cake filtration.

4. By operating cycle

Filtration may be intermittent (batch) or continuous. Batch filters may be operated with
constant-pressure driving force, at constant rate, or in cycles that are variable with respect
to both pressure and rate. Batch cycle can vary greatly, depending on filter area and solids
loading.

5. By nature of the solids

Cake filtration may involve an accumulation of solids that is compressible or

substantially incompressible, corresponding roughly in filter-medium filtration to particles that
are deformable and to those that are rigid. The particle or particle aggregate size may be of
the same order of magnitude as the minimum pore size of most filter media (1 to 10 μm and
greater), or may be smaller (1 μm down to the dimension of bacteria and even large
molecules). Most filtrations involve solids of the former size range; those of the latter range
can be filtered, if at all, only by filter-medium type filtration or by ultrafiltration unless they are
converted to the former range by aggregation prior to filtration.

These methods of classification are not mutually exclusive. Thus filters usually are
divided first into the two groups of cake and clarifying equipment, then into groups of
machines using the same kind of driving force, then further into batch and continuous
classes. This is the scheme of classification underlying the discussion of filters of this
subsection. Within it, the other aspects of operating cycle, the nature of the solids, and
additional factors (e.g., types and classification of filter media) will be treated explicitly or
implicitly.

MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN FILTRATION

The process of filtration involves several mechanisms:

1.) Straining - has been identified as the principal mechanism that is operative in the removal
of suspended solids during the filtration of settled secondary effluent from biological
treatment processes. It occurs when the opening between the media members (fibers,
screen mesh, corrugated metal, etc.) is smaller than the particle diameter of the particle the
filter is designed to capture.

a.) Mechanical - particles larger than the pore space of the filtering medium are
strained out mechanically.

b.) Chance contact - particles smaller than the pore space are trapped within the filter
by chance contact

2.) Sedimentation - is the process of allowing particles in suspension in water to settle out of
the suspension under the effect of gravity. The particles that settle out from the suspension
become sediment, and in water treatment is known as sludge. In this mechanism, particles
settle on the filtering medium within the filter

3.) Impaction - occurs when a particle is so large that it is unable to quickly adjust to the
abrupt changes in streamline direction near a filter fiber. The particle, due to its inertia, will
continue along its original path and hit the filter fiber. This type of filtration mechanism is most
predominant when high gas velocities and dense fiber packing of the filter media is present.

4.) Interception - occurs when a particle which is following a gas streamline comes within
one particle radius of a filter fiber. The particle touches the fiber and is captured, thus being
removed from the gas flow.

5.) Adhesion – particles become attached to the surface of the filtering medium as they pass
through.
6.) Flocculation - By using the flocculation process, suspended and colloidal impurities are
reduced to a form suitable for sedimentation so that they can be removed from the water
by means of filtration or sedimentation devices. It can occur within the interstices of the filter
medium.

7.) Adsorption - takes place when molecules in a liquid bind themselves to the surface of a
solid substance. Adsorbents have a very high internal surface area that permits adsorption.

a.) Chemical Adsorption - occurs when gas or vapor molecules chemically react with
adsorbent material or with reactive agents impregnated into the adsorbent. Potassium
permanganate is a common chemisorbent, as it reacts with many common air
pollutants, including formaldehyde and sulfur and nitrogen oxides
b.) Physical Adsorption - Physical adsorption or physio-sorption results from the
intermolecular attraction (VanderWaals forces) of gas or vapor molecules to a
surface.
8.) Biological growth - Biological growth within the filter reduces the pore volume and
enhances the removal of particles with any of the above removal mechanisms.

Filter-Medium Characteristics
1. Breaking Tenacity (g/denier)

2. Abrasion Resistance

3. Resistance to Acids

4. Resistance to Alkalines

5. Resistance to Oxidizing Agents

6. Resistance to solvents

7. Specific Gravity

8. Maximum Operating Temperature

Breaking Tenacity

Breaking tenacity is the breaking strength of fibers, or the maximum load that can be
supported by the fiber. For man-made staple fibers, 1 mm length samples are pulled until
failure. Breaking tenacity is measured in grams per denier. Extremely low forces are
encountered in evaluating fiber properties, requiring instrumentation with gram level
accuracy.

Abrasion Resistance
 Abrasion resistance refers to the ability of materials and structures to withstand
abrasion. It is a method of wearing down or rubbing away by means of friction. This ability
helps to keep the material's original structure and look. Abrasion resistance resists
mechanical wear. Abrasion-resistant materials are useful for both moving and fixed parts in
settings where wearing is an issue

Resistance to Acids

Acid resistance depends on the nature of the material, the redox properties of the
medium, the nature of the anions, and theconcentration and temperature of the acids.

Resistance to Alkalines

A property of filter media describing its ability to resist fading, discoloring, or deteriorating
when exposed to alkaline (low-pH) substances such as soaps and adhesives. Alkali
resistance is an important property when a paper is intended to be used in the packaging of
such materials.

Resistance to Oxidizing Agents

Resistance to oxidizing agents is the ability of metallic materials to resist chemical

degradation of the surface caused by the action of air or other gaseous mediums at high
temperatures.

Ref: (https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Oxidation+Resistance)

Resistance to Solvents

Chemical resistance is the strength of a material to protect against chemical attack or

solvent reaction. It is the opposite of chemical reactivity. It determines a material’s resistivity
to corrosive environments.

Ref: https://www.corrosionpedia.com/definition/1760/chemical-resistance

Specific Gravity

Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a reference
substance; equivalently, it is the ratio of the mass of a substance to the mass of a reference
substance for the same given volume.

Ref: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_gravity

Maximum Operating Temperature

Maximum operating temperature - The operating temperature is the range of ambient

temperature within which a power supply, or any other electrical equipment, operate in. This
ranges from a minimum operating temperature, to a peak or maximum operating
temperature, outside which, the power supply may fail.
Ref: https://www.sunpower-uk.com/glossary/what-is-operating-temperature/

CLASSIFICATION OF FILTERS
Filters that must be taken off-line periodically to be backwashed are classified operationally
as semi-continuous.

Filters in which is filtration and backwash operations occur simultaneously are classified as
continuous.

Within each of these two classifications, there are a number of different types of filters
depending on bed depth (e.g., shallow, conventional, and deep bed), the type filtering
medium used (mono-, dual-, and multi-medium), whether the filtering medium is stratified or
unstratified, the type of operation (down-flow or upflow), and the method used for the
management of solids (surface or internal storage). For the mono- and dual-medium semi-
continuous filters, a further classification can be made based on the driving force (e.g.,
gravity or pressure)

Types of Filters

Gravity filters

Gravity filters are commonly used in applications where liquid-solids separation is required in
a variety of different applications for finish water treatment. Gravity filters can incorporate
various types of media such as silica sand, anthracite coal, greensand, and granular
activated carbon (GAC) to meet each plant’s water treatment needs. In addition, gravity
filters allow for easy inspection during operation and typically have a smaller profile.

Pressure filters

Pressure filters are used for the filtration from groundwater or high quality surface water that
does not require clarification.

Vacuum filters
In terms of media:

Perforated plates

Perforated metal, also known as perforated sheet, perforated plate, or

perforated screen, is sheet metal that has been manually or mechanically stamped or
punched to create a pattern of holes, slots, or decorative shapes. Materials used to
manufacture perforated metal sheets include stainless steel, cold rolled steel,
galvanized steel, brass, aluminum, tinplate, copper, Monel, Inconel, titanium, plastic,
and more

Sand Filters

Slow sand filters normally operate at a rate of 1.0 – 10 m3/m2.d

Rapid sand filter normally operate at a rate of 100 – 200 m3/m2.d

TYPES OF DEPTH FILTERS

The five types of depth filters used most commonly for wastewater filtration are:

1. Conventional down-flow filters: Single-, dual-, or multimedium filter materials are utilized
in conventional down-flow depth filters.
a. Single-medium Filter - Typically sand or anthracite is used as the filtering material.
b. Dual-medium Filter - Usually consist of a layer anthracite over a layer of sand.
c. Multimedium and Deep-bed Monomedium Filter - Developed to allow the
suspended solids in the liquid to be filtered to penetrate farther into the filter bed,
and thus use more of the solids-storage capacity available within the filter bed.

2. Deep-bed down-flow filters: The deep-bed down-flow filter is similar to the

conventional down-flow filter with the exception that the depth of the filter bed and
the size of the filter medium are greater than corresponding values an conventional
filter.
(Because of the greater depth and larger medium size, more solids can be stored
within the filter bed and the run length can be extended.)

3. Deep-bed up flow continuous-backwash filters: In this filter the wastewater to be

filtered is introduced into the bottom of the filter where it flows upward through a series
of riser tubes and is distributed evenly into the sand bed through the open bottom of
an inlet distribution hood. The water then flows upward through the downward-moving
sand. The clean filtrate exits from the sand bed, overflows a weir, and is discharged
from the filter. Because the sand has higher settling velocity than the removed solids,
the sand is not carried out of the filter.

4. Pulsed-bed filter: The pulsed-bed filter is a proprietary down-flow gravity filter with an
unstratified shallow layer of fine sand as the filtering medium. The shallow bed is used
 for solids storage, as opposed to other shallow-bed filters where solids are principally
stored on the sand surface.
(An unusual feature of this filter is the use of an air pulse to disrupt the sand surface and
thus allow penetration of suspended solids into the bed.)

5. Travelling-bridge filters: The travelling-bridge filter is a proprietary continuous down-

flow, automatic backwash, low-head, granular medium depths filter. The bed of the
filter is divided horizontally into long independent filter cells. Each filter cell contains
approximately 280 mm of medium. Treated wastewater flows through the medium by
gravity.

FILTER MEDIA
• All filters require a filter medium to retain solids, whether the filter is for cake filtration or for
filter-medium or depth filtration.

• Specification of a medium is based on retention of some minimum particle size at good

removal efficiency and on acceptable life of the medium in the environment of the filter.

TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION OF FILTERS

I. Fabrics of Woven Fibers

- most common type of filter-medium

• Construction characteristics of the filter cloth:

1. Weave

2. Style Number

3. Weight

4. Count

5. Ply

6. Yarn Number

• Four types of weave extensively used as filter media:

1. Plain Square Weave

2. Twill

3. Chain Weave

4. Satin

• Weave

- may be made from any textile fiber, natural or synthetic