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(known also as the unit

pressure or simply pressure) is the force per
unit of area.
p=F/A
where: p = average pressure (Pa)
F = force (N)
A = area (m2)

The law of Pascal on fluid statics states that “at A B

any point in a fluid at rest, the pressure is the
same in all directions”. Y X dF1 h1
Y
(1) h2
L
F
Fx θ h = Lsinθ
dy dl θ

dx (2) dW
X dF2
p2 – p1 = γh
Fy

REMARKS: Since point 2 may now be considered as a general

point in the liquid below the free surface, then the
1. If points 1 and 2 lie along the same horizontal pressure at a vertical distance h is
plane (h = 0) then the pressure at these points
are equal. Conversely, all points having equal p = pa + γh
pressures lie along a horizontal plane.
2. If point 1 lies along plane AB, assuming that
the free surface is exposed to the atmospheric - Positive pressure - negative pressure
pressure pa, then p1 = pa and the intensity of
pressure at point 2 becomes
p2 = pa + γh

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p = pa + γh p
p = γh h= γ
RELATIVE PRESSURE – is the pressure without
taking into account the effect of atmospheric PRESSURE HEAD – the vertical distance from the
pressure (may also be called gage pressure). free surface to the point under consideration that
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE – is the sum of the causes the pressure p.
available atmospheric pressure and the gage In absolute pressure units, the pressure head
pressure. formula is
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE – is the pressure p pa
exerted by the atmosphere. 1 atm = 101.3 kPa γ =h+ γ

Transmission of pressure states that the pressure 1. Determine the gage pressure at a point in a
at any point in a liquid at rest is transmitted body of oil (s = 0.80) 2.5m below the free
equally and undiminished to every other point in surface. If the atmospheric pressure on the
the liquid. free surface is 101 kPa, what is the
p2 = p1 + γh corresponding absolute pressure at that point?

2. If the pressure 3m below the free surface of a

liquid is 140 kPa, calculate its specific weight
and specific gravity.

3. An open vessel contains carbon tetrachloride 5. How many meters of water are equivalent to a
(s = 1.50) to a depth of 2m and water above this pressure of 100 kPa? How many centimeters of
liquid to a depth of 1.30m. What is the pressure mercury?
at the bottom?
6. A piece of timber 3m long and having a 30 cm
4. A pressure of 150 kPa is equivalent to how by 30 cm section is placed in a body of water
many meters of water? Of mercury (s = 13.6)? in a vertical position. If the timber weighs 6.5
In absolute units, what are the corresponding kN/m3, what vertical force is required to hold it
pressure heads assuming standard condition? with its upper end flush with the water
surface?

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7. The pressure at a certain point in a fluid is

123.55 kPa. What is the pressure 3 m above
this point? p2 = p1 e-gh/RT

8. A closed cylindrical septic tank 7.50 m high RT p1

and diameter of 2.50 m is filled with yucky h = g ln p
2
liquid for a height of 6.0 m. The pressure of the
disgusting air above the liquid is 47 kPa. If the where T is the constant absolute temperature in
pressure at the bottom of the tank is 150 kPa, Kelvin (K) and R is the gas constant in N-m/kg-K.
determine the specific gravity of the yucky
liquid.

1. Determine the pressure of the atmosphere at

If the specific weight γ of the gas is assumed an elevation of 6200 m above sea level (a) if the
constant, the equation is reduced to temperature is constant at 15°C, and (b) if the
specific weight of the atmosphere is constant
p2 = p1 - γh at 12 N/m3. Assume normal atmospheric
conditions at sea level. Use gas constant equal
to R = 287 N-m/kg-K.

2. At ground level, the atmospheric pressure is

101.3 kPa at 15°C. Calculate the pressure at a • Bourdon Gage
point 6500m above the ground, assuming (a) • Barograph
no density variation, (b) an isothermal variation • Aneroid Barometer
of density with pressure.

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• Manometer • Manometer
The term manometer is given to a wide variety of The term manometer is given to a wide variety of
devices that measure pressure by balancing the devices that measure pressure by balancing the
pressure against a column of liquid in static pressure against a column of liquid in static
equilibrium. The more common types in use are: equilibrium. The more common types in use are:
(1) The open type which has an atmospheric (2) The differential type which does not have any
surface in one leg and capable of measuring atmospheric surface and used for measuring
relative or gage pressures. pressure differences.

PIEZOMETER is the simplest form of the open- PIEZOMETER is the simplest form of the open-
type manometer. type manometer.

m
-h
h y
x

1. Fluid A in the figure is water while fluid B is 2. Fluid A in the figure is air (γ = 12 N/m3), fluid B
mercury (s = 13.6). If x = 35 cm and y = 50 cm, is mercury (s = 13.6) and the height x = 10 cm.
determine the pressure at the center of the Determine the gage and absolute pressures at
conduit. point m assuming standard conditions.
m

y
Fluid A x

Fluid B

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Fluid A 3. The manometer in the figure is tapped to a

m y pipeline carrying oil (s = 0.85). Determine the
pressure at the center of the pipe.
x

Fluid B

mercury
4. Find the pressure and pressure head at point
m in the figure. Fluid A is oil (s = 0.90), fluid B
75cm is carbon tetrachloride (s = 1.50) and fluid C is
air.
oil

150cm
m

Fluid B

DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETER is a class of

manometers not open to the atmosphere. This is
Fluid C used to measure the difference in pressure
60cm
between two points in a pipeline or in a pipe
Fluid A system instead of measuring actual pressure at
45cm specific points.
m

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1. In the figure, fluid A is water, fluid B is oil (s =

0.85). Determine the pressure difference
n
between points m and n.
Fluid A
Fluid B
m n
Fluid A 68cm

170cm
m

2. In the figure, fluid A is water while fluid B is oil 3. In the figure, x = 25cm initially. If the pressure
(s = 0.85). If x = 70 cm and y = 140 cm, find the at m is increased by 35 kPa while maintaining
pressure difference between points m and n. the pressure at n constant, calculate the new
value of x.
Fluid B

Fluid A x n

y
m
Fluid A

x mercury MICROMANOMETER is the special type of

water differential manometers ordinarily used for
60cm measuring the difference in gas pressure. This
m type provides a higher precision and is used
water when the pressure difference to be read is very
2m
small.
n

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1. In the figure, fluids A and D are both air, fluid B

Fluid A Fluid D is kerosene (s = 0.805) while fluid C is calcium
m n
chloride (s = 1.25). The diameters of the
reservoirs and the tube are 10 cm and 5 mm,
Fluid B respectively. Determine the reading y if the
pressure difference between m and n is 1.25
∆x
∆x cm of water.
x
y/2
y/2
Fluid C

Fluid A Fluid D
m n

Fluid B

∆x
∆x
x
y/2
y/2
Fluid C