In the Name of Allah

Department of English, Zabid-Faculty of

Education, Hodeidah University, Al-Hudaydah
Province, Yemen

CONTRASTIVE
ANALYSIS
AND
ERROR ANALYSIS
A Simplified Course-Book
Abstract
This simplified course-book of Contrastive Analysis and Error
Analysis (CA & EA) aims at developing the Yemeni students’
awareness of how (English-Arabic) Contrastive Analysis and Error
Analysis in Yemen (especially in Tihamah of Yemen, Zabid city,
Zabid Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University, Al-Hudaydah
Province, Yemen) is learned, studied, and practiced. The Yemeni
students will study some important terms and facts about
English-Arabic Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis. It is for the
4th -Year-B.Ed.-English, 1st Semester 2020-2021

Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi

<[email protected]>, <[email protected]>,
<[email protected]>, and <[email protected]>
 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

Table of Contents

Section 0: Welcome to Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a Simplified Course-

Book ……………………………………………………………………………..…........2
Section 1: Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis ………………………………….…4
Section 2: Contrastive Analysis (CA) .………………………………………………....12
Section 3: Error Analysis (EA) ……………………………………………………….. 24
General Readings, References, and Bibliographies…………………………………… 39
Appendices…………………………………………………………………………….. 41
Appendix 1: Previous Exam Question Papers ………………………………………… 41
Appendix 2: Supplementary Materials …………………………………………..…..…49

Page 1 of 57
 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

Section 0: Welcome to Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis a Simplified

Course-Book

This simplified course-book of Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis (CA & EA)
aims at developing the Yemeni students’ awareness of how English-Arabic Contrastive
Analysis and Error Analysis in Yemen (especially in Tihamah of Yemen, Zabid city,
Zabid Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University) is learned, studied, and practiced. The
Yemeni students will study some important terms and facts about English-Arabic
Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis. They will learn how to find the types of
differences and similarities between two different languages (English and Arabic), and
when they search for the points of differences and similarities, they are actually
searching for the points where the students would make errors and mistakes. They are
going to study these differences on different levels, such as: Phonologically, Lexically,
Morphologically, Syntactically, Semantically, Pragmatically, etc. With a top-down
approach, it is compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-
Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University, Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen.
The most important aim of this study is to find the errors that the native speaker of
Arabic commits when he/she learns (or speaks) English. So, what we are going to do is:

➢ To look for points of similarities and differences between two different languages
(English and Arabic) in order to predict points of differences during the learning
process.
➢ To search for errors and mistakes that students may commit and their solutions.
➢ To help students overcome these errors and mistakes.

Assessment

➢ Class Presentation/Continuous Assessment/mid-term exam: 45% of final mark.

➢ End of Semester Examination: 105% of final mark.

Who am I?

To learn more about me, search my name “shaghi, / abdullahshaghi / drabdullahshaghi /

abdullah.shaghi / abulbaraa shaghi” on my website (where you can download all the
lectures and models of final examinations): http://abdullahshaghi2012.wordpress.com/
as well as on my Gmail / Google drive / Google blogger, LinkedIn.com, academia.com,
scribd.com, or archive.org. The download of this Simplified Course-Book of Contrastive
Analysis and Error Analysis (CA & EA) is available online:
(https://archive.org/details/@dr_abdullah_shaghi).
Page 2 of 57
 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

Acknowledgement

The author of this simplified course-book would like to thank all of those (colleagues
and students) who have invest time and effort into this project. This simplified course-
book would not have been possible without them.

The production of this simplified course-book was with the following open source
program: (archive.org). Students and interested readers can find the author’s own
uploads in the link: (https://archive.org/details/@dr_abdullah_shaghi).

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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

Section 1: Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis

Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis is a branch of “Contrastive Linguistics.”

So, what is “Contrastive Linguistics”? “Contrastive Linguistics” is a branch of
knowledge; it is a kind of study and research which works among languages. We may
say that one of the undoubted merits of contrastive linguistics is the fact that it offered a
natural, even if only partial explanation to the errors made by foreign language learners.
“A Contrastive Analysis consists of a series of statements about the similarities
and differences between two languages” Johansson (1975). Some thirty years ago it
was believed that foreign language learning consisted mainly, if not exclusively, in
learning the contrast between L1 and L2. Today contrastive analysis is being reassessed,
and its applicability to language teaching is viewed in a different light. During the last
decades, a systematic contrastive analysis has been advocated as a means of predicting
the difficulties in learning a foreign language. It is now recognized that Contrastive
Analysis (CA) should be used as part of the explanatory stage in Error Analysis (EA).
The most widely recognized source of foreign language learning errors is that of
L1 interference. Those elements that are similar to the learner’s native language, will
be simple for him/her and those that are different will be difficult and will, by
implication, be likely to produce errors.
Contrastive Analysis considered most errors to be the result of a phenomenon of
interference, when patterns existing in the learner’s mother tongue were transferred as
such into his/her use of the language to be learned. Viewed from this point of view,
Error Analysis had no proper status, it was a mere addition to Contrastive Analysis.
It must be must pointed out that the value of contractive analysis is beyond its
importance in explaining the learner’s difficulties. The confrontation/opposition of two
languages is important from the point of view of translation theory, language typology
and study of language universals.
But not all errors made by learners of a foreign language are due to the differences
existing between the structures of the two languages in contact. There are indeed a
certain number of errors due, primarily, to this cause, especially with beginners but there
are, of course, many others whose explanation should be looked for somewhere else.
One effective way of eliminating error is self-correction. This can be done if the
teacher uses certain symbols (T = tense error, Sp = spelling; Sg Pl = singular and plural
concord wrong etc.), explanatory comments in the margin of the written paper or only
underlines the mistakes. Giving back written work with brief comments is a good way
for the student to correct his own mistakes. Another procedure is to offer the students the
possibility to examine their errors and discuss them with each other. Other solutions
refer to further explanations with more adequate examples or teaching aids, comparison
with the mother tongue, translations etc.
To conclude, contrastive analysis has laid the emphasis on error analysis as a way
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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

to study the difficulties encountered by foreign – language learners. Contrastive analysis

and error analysis are complementary to one another, in the sense that the results
obtained and the predictions made by the contrastive studies are to be checked up and
corrected by the results obtained in the error analysis.

Contrastive Analysis & Error Analysis (English and Arabic)

Contrastive analysis of two languages point at the specific features of each language
system in its major areas: phonology, morphology, lexicology, syntax, text analysis. The
knowledge about the kinds and degree of differences and similarities between languages
on a number of linguistic levels helps in the process of anticipating possible difficulties
with L2 learners.
When we contrast two languages (i.e. English and Arabic), we analyze each
language from all levels and aspects. We study the words of the language, the grammar,
the semantics, the pragmatics, and so on. So, in our course, we are going to compare and
contrast between the Arabic language and the English language. Why do we do this?
What is the main goal behind this study? The main goal behind this study is to find the
types of differences and similarities between the two languages, and when we search for
the points of differences and similarities, we are actually searching for the points where
the students would make mistakes. We are going to study these differences on different
levels, such as:

Phonologically,
Lexically,
Morphologically,
Syntactically,
Semantically,
Pragmatically, etc.

It is worth mentioning here, that CA is still in use and of use in language teaching in
spite of all the criticisms made against it. There have been many CA-based studies
where their predictions have been confirmed by empirical results (George 1972: 27).
The research estimates that nearly one-third of all errors made by the L2 learners are due
to interference from the Mother Tongue (MT).
Thus, many of these studies maintain that MT interference is one of the strongest
variables that influence FL learning and consequently CA still seems to have place in
foreign language teaching methodology.
Abdi (n.d) explained that contrastive analysis is helpful for teachers in: a) designing
teaching and learning materials. b) Engaging learner in activities to be a good user of
target language. c) Evaluating text books. d) Paying attention to the structure of the texts
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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

beyond sentence level. e) Paying attention to conversation in its regular pattern in

different situations. f) Paying attention to complex areas like intonation. g) Paying
attention to different underlying rules which differ from culture to culture and h) helping
methodologists to pay attention to the whats of teaching and hows of teaching.
One of the focal facts about language enquiry is that it is a communicative process by
means of the information is exchanged between individuals through a common system
of symbols, signs, or behaviors. Actually, Arabic and English are entirely different in
their linguistic system. Both languages are of two typical families. Unfortunately, each
has different language components, phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics.
As native speakers of Arabic, and as students of English as a foreign language, you
unconsciously commit certain errors that you do not know about, but why don’t you
know about the errors we make? This is because your Arabic language interferes
unconsciously when you use English.
Let me give you a simple example: As you know, in English, we have the sounds /b/
and /p/, while in Arabic we just have the sound /b/ the Arabic script of which is /‫ب‬/.
Therefore, we often pronounce all the English words that have /b/ or /p/ with one
sound—which is wrong, of course.
Other examples: In Arabic we have the letter /‫ض‬/ which we do not have in English,
but we have the letter /d/. It represents the emphatic consonant /dˤ/ was actually
pronounced [ɮˤ], or possibly [d͡ɮˤ] either way, a highly unusual sound. The medieval
Arabs actually termed their language lughat al-ḍaad 'the language of the Ḍaad' (the
name of the letter used for this sound), since they thought the sound was unique to their
language.
In Arabic we have /‫ خ‬,‫غ‬/ which does not exist in English, but we write instead /kh/,
/gh/ or their IPA corresponding sounds /x/ and /ɣ/; they are often post-velar, though
velar and uvular pronunciations are also possible.
In Arabic we have /‫ق‬/ and in English we use instead /k/ or /q/. So, here we have
differences in pronunciation which could lead to mistakes made by students and this
very simple comparison between the English language and the Arabic language makes it
easy to know what kind of problems the Arabic students may face when they study
English. Some speakers do not concentrate on the aspiration of the sound /ph/ at the
beginning of words, and this is a mistake in itself.
In Morphology, there are very few English Arabic cognates and because English and
Arabic are not cognate languages, i.e. genetically related. They are considerably
different in the classes that are characterized by inflectional affixes. Arabic has
inflection in the nouns, adjectives, verbs, pronouns, relative and demonstrative
pronouns; English has inflection in all these except adjectives. In Arabic, Inflectional
affixes may be prefixes (in verbs), suffixes; in English they are suffixes only. Arabic has
three number forms: singular, dual and plural; English has singular and plural. The
Arabic equivalent to an English singular countable noun is singular and to an English
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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

plural countable noun is always plural in regular and irregular variable nouns that have
both singular and plural forms, e.g.:

English Arabic Transcription English Arabic Transcription

A Boy ‫ ولد‬/walad-un/ Boys ‫ أوالد‬/’awlaad-un/
A Girl ‫ بنت‬/bint-un/ Girls ‫ بنات‬/banaat-un/

In Syntax, there are two tenses in Arabic: past and present. There is no future
tense corresponding to the time/tense relation for present and past. The future time is
rendered by means of the future particles ( ‫ س‬/sa-/) and (‫ سوف‬/sawfa/). What are they?
Also, Arabic has no verb tense “to be” in the present tense and no auxiliary “to do”.
Furthermore, there is a single present tense in Arabic, as compared to English, which has
the simple and continuous forms. These differences result in errors such as “She good
teacher!”, “When you come to Germany?”, “I flying to Egypt tomorrow.” or “Where he
going?”
In English sentences, adjectives are words acting to modify nouns. They play an
important main role in many languages. English is not an exception. English adjectives
may take two main roles in a sentence: First, acting as a predicative adjectives where
they modify a preceding noun as a predicate, linked by a verb. An example of a
predicative adjective is the following:

A Fish is spotted.

The adjective spotted is linked the subject of the sentence, Fish, by use of the
copula verb to be in this form. Second, acting as an attributive adjective where they
modify a noun by being linked directly to the noun as part of the noun phrase. An
example of an attributive adjective is the following:

The spotted fish moved.

The adjective spotted is directly connected to the subject of the sentence, Fish. In
English, most attributive adjectives precede the nouns they are going to modify, while in
many Romance languages: Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian, Romanian and Catalan,
the adjective comes after the noun. So while in English we might say: The beautiful
woman. In French we would say: (Le femme jolie.)
It is may be literally translated as: The woman beautiful. Also, in Arabic
Language which is not one of the Romance Languages we say: ‫ أمراه جميلة‬/ Emrah
gamiilah/. Also, it is may be literally translated as: The woman beautiful.
The word order of Arabic is Verb, Subject, Object (VSO), but that of English is
Subject, Verb, and Object (SVO). Moreover, Arabic uses punctuation much more
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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

loosely than English.

Why do we make this kind of contrastive analysis? This kind of analysis is very
important for learners, like yourselves, in order to avoid the errors you, as learners, may
commit in the future while you are studying English.

So, this is the main aim of our study. For example, one of the errors on the level of
pronunciation is the word “foreign”! Some of the students may pronounce the letter ‘g’,
but the correct way is not to pronounce it. Why? This is because in the Arabic language
there is no letter that is written and not pronounced; all the letters that are written are
pronounced.
On another level such as the ‘grammatical level’, for instance, students may
commit mistakes like:

*We talking a second language.

*He running very fast.

NB: The asterisk (*), here and after, will be used to indicate the grammatical errors.

In these two examples, the wrong is the absence of the verb ‘to be’, so the
sentences should be:

We are talking a second language.

He is running very fast.

The reason of such errors is that we do not have something similar to ‘verb to be’
in Arabic.
Also, under the word/phrase ‘Contrastive Analysis’ we have two languages to be
contrasted: the Arabic Language and the English Language. This will be on the level
of sounds/phonemes (consonants & vowels, & diphthongs), letters, words/morphemes,
phrases … etc.
By the way, the course is really a theoretical one; that is why we will, first of all,
have an idea about Contrastive Analysis in general.
There is also another section dedicated to the interference [= intervention] of the
Mother Tongue (MT) in the process of learning a new language. For example, your
mother language is Arabic; when you want to study a new language such as English, or
French, your storage of words, vocabularies, sentences and rules in Arabic will interfere
in the conception of the new language or in the understanding the new language. That is,
for example, in translation, if you want to translate an English text, you will try to
translate the text word by word, and this kind of translation is impossible and even
wrong, at times [= sometimes/now and again].
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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

In other words, there are sentences in English which cannot be translated into
Arabic word by word. Sometimes, you have to change the sentence completely, but it
has to convey the same meaning to the Arabic/English audience or to the Arabic/English
reader.
Contrastively, there are limitations of translating from Arabic into English and vice
versa in one area of what has been called Pragmatics or Language in Use that
incorporates the most polite forms / utterances in Arabic and their equivalents in
English. There is interrelation between Social Context and Language. Culture is
expressed through Language. Arabic expresses cultural values.
For instance, in the Islamic Yemeni Arabic Culture, when greeting someone
whether in person, on the phone, through an email, etc., the expected greeting is
/assalaamu ‘alaykum/ or "The peace of God be with you, or Peace be upon/onto you!”
Then, the expected response is, /wa ‘alaykumu ssalaam/, which means, "And also with
you." When leaving, the expected farewell saying is /ma‘assalamah/, which means, "Go
with the peace of God, or Go well!" More examples are illustrated below:

Greetings (L1) Literal Translation (L2) Pragmatic Equivalence

1) /assalamu ‘alaikum/ Peace be upon you! Good morning!
2) /marHaba/ Hello! Hello!
3) /ahlan wa sahlan/* Kin and plain! Welcome!/ hallo! /hullo

* Notice that the literal translation of this utterance in Arabic is ‘Kin and plain’, but
what is pragmatically intended is a “welcome to your Kin and plain’s home!' Other
examples are given below:

Travel/Leaving (L1) Literal Translation (L2) Pragmatic Equivalence

1) /Allah ma‘ak/ May God be with you! Have a safe journey!
2) /khaaTrak/ By your leave Good-bye
3) /ma‘assalamah/ with peace All the best! / Go well!

We present some of these forms in Arabic with a literal translation first and
secondly an alternative (i.e. pragmatic equivalence) based on the contextual effects
each form may yield in a similar context in the English culture, and present English
examples to compare with Arabic ones in similar situations of interaction.
This semantic/literal difference justifies the linguistic side of the error usually
committed by the foreign learner of English. However, the pragmatic effect may be lost
with the increase of linguistic deviation in one language from another in such
expressions.

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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

Some language forms under pragmatics are mostly language-specific in structure,

culture-specific in communication, and very difficult to translate appropriately (i.e.
mistranslation is likely to occur).
Historical pragmatics is a field of study that lies at the intersection of historical
linguistics and pragmatics. … To the extent that different stages in the history of a
language are compared, historical pragmatics is a kind of contrastive analysis.
May be errors are committed because of the interference of your Arabic language,
or maybe because of some difficulty in absorbing the vocabularies of the new language,
or because grammatical rules of the new language are completely different from
grammatical rules of your mother tongue. We will try to see all this in our course for this
semester.
It is the duty of the foreign language teacher both to identify and classify the
typical errors and to apply remedial strategies, to find adequate methods to eliminate
them both at the individual and group level.
The methodology of error analysis has generally followed a uniform method of
investigation consisting of the following steps:

– collection of data (either from “free” compositions by students on a

given theme or from examination papers);
– identification of errors (labeling the exact nature of the deviation, e.g.
dangling preposition, anomalous sequence of tenses, etc.);
– classification into error types (e.g. errors of agreement, articles, verb
forms, etc.);
– statement of relative frequency of error types;
– identification of the areas of difficulty in the target language;
– therapy (remedial drills, lessons, etc.).

While the above methodology is roughly representative of the majority of error

analyses in the traditional framework, the more sophisticated investigations went further,
to include one or both of the following:

– analysis of source of the errors (e.g. mother tongue interference, overgeneralization,

inconsistencies in the spelling system of the target language, etc.);
– determination of the error in terms of communication, norm, etc.

Nevertheless, the results from Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis would
be incomplete without awareness of the deep level of semantic categories. Different
languages and their grammars may be regarded as autonomous, but when it comes to
Semantics it seems that it is the core of the languages and a common or universal basis
that they share, regardless of the differences in their grammars. Therefore it is very
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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

important for a translator of a foreign language teacher to be aware of the interaction of

the level of semantic categories and the level of formal exponents.

Page 11 of 57
 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

Section 2: Contrastive Analysis

Contrastive Analysis (CA) is a general approach to the investigation of language

(Contrastive Linguistics), particularly as carried on in certain areas of applied
linguistics, such as foreign-language teaching and translation. The Contrastive Analysis
(CA) or Contrastive Linguistics is considered as a part of applied linguistics. Its main
final aim is establishing the similarities and differences between the learner’s native
language and the foreign language being learned. It was developed and practiced in the
1950s and 1960s as application of structural linguistics to language teaching.
In a contrastive analysis of two languages, the points of structural difference are
identified, and these are then studied as areas of potential difficulty (interference or
‘negative transfer’) in foreign-language learning. The claim that these differences are the
source of difficulty in foreign-language learning, and thus govern the progress of the
learner, is known as the contrastive analysis hypothesis.
Although strongly influential (motivating audio-lingual methods of language
teaching), by the 1980s the validity of the contrastive analysis hypothesis had been
seriously questioned, especially following research into the nature of interlanguage and
into the cognitive contribution which individuals themselves bring to the learning task.
Contrastive analyses are synchronic; analogous ‘contrastive’ studies of two states in the
history of a language would be grouped under a different heading, such as comparative
or historical linguistics.
Contrastive Analysis is known amongst linguists and educationist as a study used to
predict the errors language learners may make in the second language production. In
fact, they mostly agree that it is a systematic study of a pair of languages with a view to
identifying their structural differences and similarities.
In conclusion, Contrastive analysis has laid the emphasis on error analysis as a way
to study the difficulties encountered by foreign – language learners.

General Overview of Contrastive analysis (CA):

By definition as attested in literature, Contrastive Analysis (CA) means the comparison

of two languages by paying attention to differences and similarities between languages
being compared; or the CA is the study and comparison of two languages, learners’
Target Language (TL) and learners’ Native Language (NL); or, in other words, the CA
is the systematic study of a pair of languages with a view to identifying their structural
differences and similarities.

The following 9 points are what to take into consideration with regard to the general
overview of the Contrastive Analysis (CA):

Page 12 of 57
 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

1. It was first suggested by Whorf (1941) as contrastive linguistics, a comparative

study which emphasizes on linguistic differences.
2. The publication of Robert Lados' book (Linguistics across Cultures) in 1957 was
the start of modern applied contrastive linguistics.
3. The Systematic comparison of L1 and L2 structures is done in order to predict
difficulties.
4. In the 1940s to 1960s before the SLA field as we know it was established,
a. Charles Fries (1945:9) wrote: "The most efficient materials are those that are
based upon a scientific description of the language to be learned, carefully compared
with a parallel description of the native language of the learner."
5. The theoretical foundations for what became known as the Contrastive Analysis
Hypothesis were formulated in Lado's Linguistics across Cultures (1957). In this book,
Lado claimed that "those elements which are similar to [the learner's] native language
will be simple for him, and those elements that are different will be difficult".
6. CA is founded on the assumption that second/foreign language (L2) learners tend
to transfer into the target language features found in their native (L1) language.
7. Individuals tend to transfer the forms and meanings, and the distribution of forms
and meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign language and culture
(Lado: 1957).
8. The transfer may be positive or negative. Transfer is said to be positive when a
familiar skill facilitates the learning of a new structure. When the patterns are similar,
the acquisition of the new pattern is facilitated, but when there are differences in
patterns, these differences hinder the learning of the foreign language.
9. In later studies the term contrastive linguistics changed to contrastive analysis.
10. The purpose of CA was to find the “best” teaching materials. This hypothesis
suggested that before preparing teaching materials, one should compare L1 and L2.
Fries’ aim was to develop teaching materials, which were seen as language specific, for
adults that would help them master the sound and structural systems of L2 as automatic
and unconscious “habits.” This purpose is clear in Fries’ preface to his book Teaching
and Learning English as a Second Language: “‘… foreign’ language teaching is always
a matter of teaching a specific ‘foreign’ language to students who have a specific
‘native’ language background.”

Contrastive Analysis (CA) and Second Language Acquisition (SLA)

The following 2 points are what to take into consideration with regard to the CA and
SLA:

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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

1. CA was used extensively in the field of SLA in the 1960s and early 1970s, as a
method of explaining why some features of a Target Language (TL) were more
difficult to acquire than others.

2. According to the behaviorist theories prevailing at the time, language learning

was a question of habit formation, and this could be reinforced or impeded by
existing habits. Therefore, the difficulty in mastering certain structures in L2
depended on the difference between the learners' L1 and the language they were
trying to learn.

Mainstream of CA

The following three points are what to take into consideration with regard to the
Mainstream of CA:

1. The bulk of the Second Language Acquisition (SLA) field was concerned,
however, with prediction of errors.
2. The simplistic model: The most simplistic version was the belief that linguistic
differences based simply on similarities and differences alone could be used to
predict learning difficulties. Thus, the following quote:
3. A simplistic prediction: “Where two languages were similar, positive transfer
would occur; where they were different, negative transfer, or interference,
would result."

Branches Involved in Contrastive Analysis

The branches which contrastive analysis is involved are Translation, Teaching,

Linguistics, Textbook Writing, and Error Analysis. These are discussed in details as
follows:

Translation as a Branch in Contrastive Analysis

As regard to translation as a branch involved in contrastive analysis, there are the

following points to be taken into consideration:

a. As a translator, she/he should be faithful to the text, so she/he should know the
exact equivalents in two languages (Source Language (SL) and target Language
(TL)).
b. A translator understands that most of the differences in two languages are not
semantically but culturally.
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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

c. She/he understands that most of these differences comes from:

i. Different beliefs;
ii. Different values; and
iii. Different patterns of thought.

More often than not, Yemeni Speakers/learners make mistakes in using or

translating English tenses. The mistakes may occur because the number of tenses in
English may be more than any other language. Learners of a foreign language, as Corder
(1969:73) states, will transfer to English the association of adverb and tense of their own
language to the language they are learning. Consider the following Arabic sentence:

/hal nimta murtahan alaylata albariha/‫ھل نمت مرتاحا الليلة البارحة؟‬

Which means: (Did you sleep well last night?)

To translate the Arabic sentence above into English the Yemeni learner think
directly of the Arabic question word/hal/ (‫ ھل‬under the influence of interference so he
starts his sentence with any auxiliary verb as a substitute for /hal/, and imitates the
Arabic sentence leaving it without any other change, as in

(Did you slept well last night?) This is grammatically wrong.

In Arabic, there are two tenses; present and past. As to the future it can be
expressed by the present simple tense preceded by the common word” ‫سوف‬/sawfa/ “
meaning “shall “ or “will” placed at the beginning of the verbal Arabic sentence to refer
to future, as in ; (I shall go) /sawfa ‘athhab/ . ‫ أذھب سوف‬Or The alphabetic Arabic letter “
‫(“س‬S) joins the verb and it constitutes the first letter of the simple present verb in Arabic
to refer to future, as in;/sa-‘athhab/ ‫سأذھب‬. (I shall go.)
The number of tenses in English is more than those used in Arabic, so the time at
which an action occurs can be expressed by more than one tense. The two sentences
below express a past action by two different tenses, as in, (I wrote the letter). (Past
simple) /katabt-u al-risaalat-a/ ‫( كتبت الرسالة‬I have written the letter. (Present perfect) ‫كتبت‬
‫الرسالة‬
Usually, the future can be expressed by using “shall “and “will”, as in; (I shall
visit him tomorrow.) ‫ غدا سأزوره‬/ghadan sa-‘azuur-u-hu/. The context of sentence above
can also be expressed by present continuous, as in; (I am visiting him tomorrow. ‫سأزوره‬
‫غدا‬. /ghadan sa-‘azuur-u-hu/

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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

Going to” also indicates future, as in; (I am going to buy a new house after
summer holiday.)
/sa-'ashtari bayt-an gadiid-an ba’da al-‘utlati al-sayfiyyati)‫سأشتري بيتا جدیدا بعد العطلة الصيفية‬
The simple present tense is also used with future meaning, but not with all verbs,
it is used with verbs of “going” and “coming”(corder; 1969:81) The climbing party plan
to set off at dawn tomorrow.

‫یخطط فریق التسلق لالنطالق فجر غدا‬

/Yu-khatit-u fariiqa al-tasaluqi lil’intilaaqi fagra ghadin/
Translation from Arabic into English, as far as conditional sentences are concerned, will
not be easy because the structure of the conditional sentence in Arabic is not the same as
that of English. Consider the following example:

./law thahaba hasan ‘ila al-haflati la-wagada sadiiqahu ‫لو ذھب حسن إلى الحفلة لوجد صدیقھ ھناك‬
hunaaka/

To translate the sentence above into English we need to use a conditional sentence
that expresses a situation which is unlikely to happen, because “George” did not go to
the party and consequently he did not see his friend, so the structure is absolutely
different from that in Arabic, as in (Hassan had gone to the party, he would have seen
his friend.
The present study explains and sometimes translates any grammatical unit that is
widely used in English by giving one or two examples related to the topic under
discussion for the purpose of clarity.

(All above adapted from: Qassim, Abdul- Hassan Sh. (n.d.), Translation Grammatically
viewed. English Department, Faculty of Languages ,University of Baghdad.)

Teaching as a Branch in Contrastive Analysis

Learning the second language is different from acquiring the first language. A child
acquiring English as a native language makes perceptual differences about different
languages, he acquires language system. But an Arabic child who is learning English as
his / her second language does not have this perception about different situations, he /
she just learns the language. e.g.: the concept of the word "cousin" for an English child
is completely different from that of an Arabic child.

The Contrastive Analysis can help teachers to do the following:

➢ To design teaching and learning materials (methodology);
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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

➢ To engage learner in activities to be a good user of target language.(classroom

activities);
➢ To evaluate text books;
➢ To pay attention to the structure of the texts beyond sentence level;
➢ To pay attention to conversation in its regular pattern in different situations;
➢ To pay attention to complex areas like intonation; and
➢ To pay attention to different underlying rules those differ from culture to culture.

The Contrastive Analysis does not suggest a method or a teaching technique but it helps
methodologists to pay attention to the Whats of teaching and Hows of teaching.

Linguistics as a Branch in Contrastive Analysis

As regard to linguistics as a branch involved in the Contrastive Analysis, there are the
following points to be taken into consideration:
❖ The Contrastive Analysis pays attention to different languages at the lexical,
phonological, morphological, syntactical and semantic levels; and
❖ The Contrastive studies find similarities and differences between languages in:
i. Grammatical structures ( pronouns, articles, verbs, consonants and vowels)
ii. b) Sentences and constructions (interrogatives, relatives, negatives, normal
phrases, syllables, diphthongs…)
iii. c) Rules of the compared languages (interrogative, passivization … etc.)
According to Richards (1971), researches show that contrastive analysis may be most
predictive at the level of phonology and least predictive at the syntactic level, for this,
many of the common mistakes are syntactic errors in written work.

Textbook Writing as a Branch in Contrastive Analysis

As regard to Textbook Writing as a branch involved in Contrastive analysis, there is what

is called the “Principle Programming for Writing a Textbook” as well as there are the
following two points that should be taken into consideration:
a) The Contrastive analysis helps a textbook writer avoid using the material with a
high degree of difficulty and high degree of occurrence in a same text ( which makes
the text more difficult ); and
b) The writer should balance among the most difficult items and the least difficult
items throughout the text.

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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

Error Analysis as a Branch in Contrastive Analysis

As regard to Error Analysis as a branch involved in Contrastive analysis, there is the

following point that should be taken into consideration: The Contrastive Analysis helps
you as a learner of English or any other language to classify the errors, predict and finally
avoid them.

Interference Theory

One of the most important factors in studying contrastive analysis is paying attention to
the definition of "Interference Theory". It has been attested in literature that the
contrastive analysis is a valid and useful but not a unique method in second language
teaching, but language interference is a phenomenon that occurs when learning another
language. James (1980, p. 23) argues that "Interference theory predicts that if a learner
is called upon to produce some L2 form which he has not learnt, he will tend to produce
an erroneous [= mistaken / wrong / incorrect] form having its origin in his L1."
Similarly, Lado (1957, p. 2) considers that language interference is the way in
which learners of a second language transfer "the forms and meanings, and the
distribution of forms and meanings of their native language and culture both
productively when attempting to speak the language and to act in the culture, and
respectively when attempting to grasp and understand the language and the culture as
practiced by natives."

Interference Theory Based on Psycholinguistics

You look at the second language through filter /glasses of the first language. The rules of
the first language are matched with the rules of the second language. (You see that the
rule systems of the source and target languages are different and sometimes the rules of
languages are interfered with each other). So studying contrastive analysis can help you
to understand and know these interferences. If certain elements of a second language
differed greatly from the student’s native language, that student would likely encounter
difficulties. (Lado 1957) it means sometimes your mother tongue interferes. For
example, /maryam muhtamat-un bi-qraa’ati l-kutub/ ‫مریم مھتمة بقرائة الكتب‬
*Maryam is interested with reading books.
✓ Maryam is interested in reading books.

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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

Interference Theory and Degrees of Difficulty

Before discussing about the different hypothesis of contrastive analysis we should be

familiar with the concept of difficulty and simplicity in language study, so we look at the
hierarchy (degrees of difficulty) in languages:
To avoid using high degree of difficulties along with a high degree of occurrences
in a same text, a contrastive analyst should predict the levels of difficulties in foreign
language.

Levels of Difficulties

1. Level 0: Transfer

According to some of behaviorists the principle of transfer is at work in learning.

(Transfer: affecting the first language on the second one)

Positive transfer
Transfer
Negative transfer

1.1. Positive Transfer:

It occurs when the first language is similar to the second language.

In positive transfer first language helps learning the second language.
No difference or contrast is present between the two languages. (Similar
sounds, lexical items or similar structures in two languages are seen
(positive transfer)).
The learner can simply transfer (positively) a sound, a structure or lexical
item form the native language to the target language.
Concepts of negation and interrogation in two languages are the same.
Word order in two languages has the same pattern.
Such transfer makes no difficulty; hence the label of "level zero" is given to
it. See the following examples:

L=‫ل‬
A bank=‫ بنك‬/bank/
The wall= /al-gidaar/ ‫ال جدار‬
Yeah= /yeh/ ‫یه‬
A flower garden= /hadiitat-u zahrat-in/ ‫حدیقة زھرة‬
A garden flower= ‫ زھرة حدیقة‬/zahrat-u hadiiqat-in/
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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

1.2. Negative transfer:

It is problematic, because of interference of the first language on the second

one.
It occurs when the first language is different from the second language.
Learning differences in language takes a lot of time and energy
The first learning inhibits prevents the second learning.

2. Level 1 : Coalescence

Two or more items in the NL become coalesced (come together) into one item in the TL
( here our NL is Arabic and TL is English).
In NL ‫ أنتن‬-‫ أنتم‬-‫أنت – أنتما‬/’anta/’anti – ‘antumaa – ‘antum – ‘antunna/ = you in TL

3. Level 2: Under-Differentiation:

An item in the Native Language (NL) is absent in the Target Language (TL).

NB: The mark (?) indicates the absence of the item in the TL

➢ Phonemes in Arabic /χ/, /ʁ/, /ħ/, /ʕ/, and /ʔ/ =? In English

4. Level 3: Over-Differentiation :

A new item in the Target Language (TL) (i.e. English) is absent in the Native Language
(NL) (i.e. Arabic).

NB: The mark (?) indicates the absence of the item in the NL

➢ Consonants in English /p, v, ŋ/ =? In Arabic

➢ Phonemes in English /o /p/, /v/, /ɹ/, /ʒ/, and /ŋ/ =? In Arabic
➢ Initial consonants cluster in English like (school – student) =? In Arabic
➢ Present perfect continuous (have been + ing) in English =? In Arabic
➢ Future in the past (would + infinitive) in English =? In Arabic
➢ Past perfect continuous (had been + ing) in English =? In Arabic
➢ (am) in English = ? In Arabic (e.g. I am a student. /’ana Taalib-un/ ‫) أنا طالب‬

5. Level 4: Reinterpretation:

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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

➢ An item that exists in the native language (Arabic) is given a new shape or
distribution. It is similar to a given item in the target language (English) but not
the same.
➢ An Arabic learner over-generalizes on the basis of similarities and make errors:

(Present Perfect and past tense in Arabic language = Present Perfect in English language

We have read this book. = /(qad) qara’naa hatha-l-kitaab/ .‫(قد) قرأنا ھذا الكتاب‬

The number of tenses in English is more than those used in Arabic, so the time at which
an action occurs can be expressed by more than one tense. The two sentences below
express a past action by two different tenses, as in, (I wrote the letter). (Past simple)
/katabt-u al-risaalat-a/ ‫( كتبت الرسالة‬I have written the letter. (Present perfect) ‫كتبت الرسالة‬

6. Level 5: Split:

An item in the native language (Arabic) refers to more than one reference in the target
language (English)

‫ طاولة‬/taawilah/ = table, desk .

‫ مدرسه‬/madrasah/ = school, institute, Faculty
‫ رئيس‬/ra’iis/ = president- director-head, chairman, chief, boss, master
‫ كبير‬/kabiir/ = Big (mistake) Great (man) Large (house) Grown up (boy) Major
(problem)

Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (= CAH)

The following 6 points are what to take into consideration with regard to the Contrastive
Analysis Hypothesis (CAH):

1. CAH is an extension of the notion of CA. It attributed the ability to predict errors
to a CA of two languages, a predictability that practitioners associated with the
degree of similarity between the two systems.

2. Advantages of CAH (i) Explains pronunciation and phonological interference

(ii.) Enhancing language learner awareness: which elements they can transfer
from L1.

3. Problems for the CAH version However, the CAH version of CA, that is, the
predictive version ran into some problems:
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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

(i) Association with behaviorism:

-1959 Noam Chomsky's classic review of Skinner's Verbal Behavior, in
which Chomsky seriously challenged the behaviorist view of language.
CAH, intimately associated with behaviorism, got caught in this
discrediting of this view of language.
(ii) Mis-predictions:
In particular, the supposed ability of CAH to predict errors was not
supported by the facts. This is because:
1. It under-predicted, that is, it failed to predict some errors;
2. It over-predicted, that is, it predicted some errors that failed to
occur; and
3. Of course, it also got some right.

4. Why?
(i) As pointed out Long and Sato (1984), one cannot depend upon the
analysis of a linguistic product to yield meaningful insight into a
psycholinguistic process.
(ii) In accordance with Psycholinguistics (Osgood 1953) "When two
sets of materials to be learned are quite different or are easily
discriminated by the learner, there is relatively little interaction, that is,
learning one has little effect upon learning the other. If they are similar
in such a way that the learning of one serves as partial learning of the
other, there may be facilitation, or positive transfer. If, however, the
similarities either of stimuli or responses are such that responses
interfere with one another, then there will be greater interference as
similarity increases."

5. Note CAH failed, not CA.

6. The failure discussed thus far is the failure of CAH, not the failure of
CA.

Strong vs. Weak Versions of CA

The following 3 points are what to take into consideration with regard to the Strong vs.
Weak Versions of the CA:

1. Wardhaugh (1970) proposed a distinction between the strong and the weak
version of the CA.
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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

2. The strong version [CAH] predicts apriori ((predictive)).

3. The weak version deals with learner errors and uses CA, when applicable, to
explain them, apostriori, that is, after the fact.

Criticism of CA

The following five points are what to take into consideration with regard to the
Criticism of CA:

1. The process of L2 acquisition is not sufficiently described by the characterization

of errors.

2. Errors in L2 acquisition do not only arise from interference.

3. The structural differences between two languages are not sufficient to predict the
occurrence of errors in L2 acquisition.

4. In its strongest formulation, the CAH claimed that all the errors made in learning
L2 could be attributed to 'interference' by the L1. However, this claim could not
be continued by empirical evidence that was accumulated in the mid- and late
1970s. It was soon pointed out that many errors predicted by CA were
inexplicably not observed in learners' language.

5. Even more confusingly, some uniform errors were made by learners irrespective
of their L1. It thus became clear that CA could not predict learning difficulties,
and was only useful in the retrospective explanation of errors. These
developments, along with the decline/refuse of the paradigms by behaviorists as
well as structuralists considerably weakened the appeal of CA.

In fact, this was the beginning of error analysis, that is, the detecting of the source
of errors.

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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

Section 3: Error Analysis

Because of shortcomings of the Contrastive Analysis to clarifying the second-language

errors, researchers began to look for another approach which was both theoretical and
practical; this approach is called Error Analysis (EA).
Error Analysis (EA) can be described as an effective tool that enables
instructors/teachers to identify, describe and categorize the errors committed by second
or foreign language learners. Many learners commit errors when learning a new
language. Committing errors in the target language is inevitable by every learner.
Errors have to be differentiated from mistakes. (Corder, 1967) points out that
errors are committed due to the lack of language system. Corder says that adults
sometimes commit errors in one sort or another when they speak, but they have been so
often reminded recently. The learners know the rules of the language, but these errors
are the result of memory lapses, physical states such as tiredness, and psychological
conditions such as strong emotion. These errors don’t defect the learners’ knowledge of
the language because he/she is aware of them. Corder calls these types of errors as
mistakes and they are self-corrected. Errors, on the other hand, are committed due to the
ignorance of the rules of language. Corder describes errors as being systematic while
mistakes are non-systematic.
Many researchers confirm the significant role of errors in learning the second
language. Corder (1974) points out errors are significant in three different ways: first,
they provide the language teacher with an understanding of how far they achieved the
predetermined goals of the system and what remains to be taught; second, the study of
learners' errors is a good way for researchers to study how language is learnt and what
strategies or procedures the learner is employing in his discovery of the language. The
third way is that they are significant to the learner himself. They are indispensable for
the learner himself/herself because we can regard the making of errors is a device to
learn a second language. Learners’ errors provide evidence of the system of the language
that he is using at a particular point in the course.
In foreign language learning, error correction has become one of the important
teaching processes. But actually, few teachers know a lot about error analysis and some
related theories. They often take so negative attitudes toward errors that they could not
tolerate any errors and tend to correct them as soon as they could find any. As a result,
although they think they have been working hard enough and spend much time and
energy working on error correction, their effort is not effective and the students do not
believe they have benefited a lot. On the contrary, the students often feel upset, for they
have found that there is a great gap between themselves and their teachers in dealing
with errors and understanding of error correction. So we find it necessary to have a
theoretical foundation about error analysis. In the next section, the development of the
theory - error analysis would be briefly reviewed.
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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

General Overview of Error Analysis (EA)

Of course, CA survived. No one can deny that the L 1 influences L2 performance.

Thus, the next approach was to limit the analysis to the examination of errors that
students actually made. The following 9 points are what to take into consideration with
regard to the general overview of the Error Analysis (EA):
1. Learners’ L1 influences L2 learning. Of course, CA survived. No one can deny
that the L1 influences L2 performance. Thus, the next approach was to limit the analysis
to the examination of errors that students actually made. This, however, had its
problems.
2. EA Focuses on the errors L2 → learners produced while using L2 →
Interlanguage is the starting point of analysis
3. Investigating cross-linguistic influence, language transfer (from the point of view
of errors)
4. Pit Corder (1967) The significance of learner‘s errors.
(i) L2 acquisition should not be looked at from a purely pedagogical perspective.
(ii) Errors in L2 are interesting because they reflect underlying linguistic rules.
(iii) The study of L2 can be seen as a subfield of general linguistics or cognitive
science.
5. Mistake: random slip in performance → self-correction possible
6. Error: systematic deviation from the norm caused by underlying competence
problem → self-correction not possible
7. The mathematical analysis done to show quantitatively how uncertainties in data
produce uncertainty in calculated results, and to find the sizes of the uncertainty in the
results.
8. A type of work sample analysis in which the incorrect responses of the student are
described and categorized. In this procedure, samples of learner’s language are collected
and the errors are identified, described, and classified according to their hypothesized
causes. The errors are then evaluated for relative seriousness.
9. The analysis of the errors could serve as basis for inferring the learning strategies
the learners employ.

Contrastive Analysis vs. Error Analysis:

Contrastive Analysis Error Analysis

Pedagogical orientation Scientific orientation
Focus on input, practice inductive learning Focus on linguistic and cognitive processes
Errors of transfer Multiple types of errors

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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

Differences between Errors and Mistakes:

1) Errors are rule-governed; they are systematic and show the lack of knowledge of
learners.
2) Mistakes are random deviations, unrelated to any system.
3) Mistakes may occur in writing of native speaker, or during speech, such as slips
of tongue, slips of pen, and slips of the ear. Mistakes happen because of strong emotion,
memory limitations, and lack of concentration or tiredness.
4) Sometimes the distinguishing between mistakes and errors is difficult, but
according to linguistics, mistakes have a rather low frequency but errors have high
frequency and they are systematic.

Error Analysis and the Procedures

In order to analyze learners’ errors in a proper perspective, it is crucial to make a

distinction between “mistake” and “error”. According to Brown (2000), a “mistake”
refers to a performance error in that it is a failure to utilize a known system correctly.
While an “error” is a noticeable deviation from the adult grammar of a native speaker,
reflecting the interlanguage competence of the learner. This recognition process is
followed by the error description process. We compare learners’ sentences with the
correct sentences in target language, and find the errors. Then we come to the next
step—explanation stage, finding the sources of errors.
The beginning stages of learning a second language are characterized by a good deal
of interlingual transfer from the native language. In the early stages, the native language
is the only linguistic system upon which the learner can draw. These kinds of errors can
be found in all aspects of language learning.
Intralingual transfer (within the target language itself) is also a major factor. At an
intermediate level, learners’ previous experience and existing subsumes begin to
influence structures within the target language itself. Most of time, negative
intralingual transfer or overgeneralization has occurred, and these kinds of errors are
called developmental errors. We have found that overgeneralization makes it significant
for us to study the psychological process of language learners.
Cultural interference can cause either linguistic errors or inappropriateness in the
context. In addition, it sometimes hinders communication, so it should be taken
seriously. For example, an American lady said to a Chinese lady “what a beautiful
dress!” Instead of saying: “Thank you, I’m glad to hear that”, her reply “No, no.” In
accordance with Chinese way of receiving compliment will make the American lady feel
at loss. Thus language learning is also the culture learning. Otherwise, we cannot get a
good understanding of the language.

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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

In some occasions, due to their insufficient linguistic knowledge, learners have to

express themselves with the help of communicative strategies. The most frequently used
communicative strategies are avoidance, language switch and prefabricated patterns.
Factually communicative strategies do help learners a lot in expressing their ideas and
the communicative teaching approach need these strategies as well. On the other hand,
teachers need to pay more attention to the errors occurred, otherwise they will backfire
(= fail).

(All data above are taken from Fang, XIE and JIANG Xue-mei (2007). Error analysis
and the EFL classroom teaching. In REN Li-ping and ZHANG Dong-ling (edt.) US-
China Education Review. Sep. 2007, Volume 4, No.9 (Serial No.34), ISSN1548-6613,
USA.)

Description of Errors

The errors can be described in these three dimensions Types of Errors, Levels of Errors,
and Stages of Errors.

Types of Errors

The types of errors can be illustrated in these four types: Addition, Omission /
Deletion, Ordering / Reordering, and Substitution.

Addition

1. *Does can he go to Faculty?

2. *He will to go home.
3. *He entered into the class room.
4. *They always discuss about different matters.
5. * Please answer on my letter soon.
6. *Good writing is depends on several factors.
7. *He was going to home when I saw him.

Omission / Deletion

1. *I went to # movie. (the)

2. * My father is # doctor. (a)
3. *I am learn # English well. (ing)
4. * I bought three new book# yesterday. (s)
5. * What # you want to do now? (do)
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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

Ordering / Reordering

1- * I to the cinema went. (I went to the cinema.)

2- * We last night went to the cinema. (We went to the cinema last night.)
3- * He comes always late to school. (He always comes to school late.)
4- *My brother is a driver fast. (My brother is a fast driver.)
5- * I don't know why is he late. (I don't know why he is late)

Substitution

1. *I lost my road. (way)

2. *I goed home. (went)
3. *I am not afraid from dogs.( of)
4. *She was angry from her friend. (with)
5. *His bigger brother is a teacher.(elder)
6. *I always do many mistakes in spelling (make)

Levels of Errors

The levels of errors can be illustrated in these four levels: Phonology (Orthography)
Error, Grammar (Syntax) Error, Lexicon (Vocabulary) Error, and Discourse Error.

Phonology / Orthography Error

*I went to skuul. (I went to school.)

* he is happyer than Maryam. (He is happier than Maryam.)

Grammar (Morphology and Syntax) Error:

He has been in London since 1990.

*He was in London since 1990. (Level: Grammar-Type: substitution)
* I to the cinema went. (Level: Grammar.- type: ordering)

Lexicon (Vocabulary) Error:

i. *I lost my road. (Level: Lexicon- type: substitution)

ii. *I drank a glass of lion yesterday. (Level: Lexicon- type: substitution)
iii. *I enjoyed from the film. (Level: Lexicon- type: addition)

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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

Discourse Error: it is beyond sentence level.

A: How are you?

B: The crops were destroyed by the rain! (No cohesion and coherence)

Stages of Errors

The stages of errors can be illustrated in these three stages: Pre-Systematic Stage,
Systematic Stage, and Post Systematic Stage.

Pre-systematic Stage

a. Random Errors:

The learner has no any definite rule in his mind. He can’t explain his error and
naturally cannot correct it.
He/she doesn’t know where he should use the rules and how. He has no any
system in mind.

i. *Hassan cans sing. (Hassan can sing.)

ii. *Hassan can to sing. (Hassan can sing. Or (Hassan has to sing.))
iii. *Hassan can singing. (Hassan can sing. Or (Hassan like singing.))

b. Emergent Errors:

In these kinds of errors, the learner tries to make a rule and internalize a system in
his mind.
These rules may not be correct but they are legitimate in the mind of the learner.
Again in this stage the learner cannot correct the errors and even after correcting
the native speaker he doesn’t understand his errors.
Avoidance of structures and topics can be seen here. .e.g.:

Learner: I go to New York.

Native-Speaker: You are going to New York?
Learner: (doesn’t understand) what?
Native-Speaker: You will go to New York?
Learner: Yes
Native-Speaker: when?
Learner: 1999
Native-Speaker: Oh, you went to New York in 1999.
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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

Learner: Yes, I go 1999. (Again he doesn’t understand the correction of the

Native speaker.)

Systematic Stage

➢ In this stage the learner is more mastered on language and he has some rules in his
mind although these rules may not be well-formed.
➢ The system in his/her mind is very near to the native speaker’s.
➢ In this stage the learner is able to correct his /her errors whenever a native speaker
mentions them.
➢ She/he tries to convey his idea through paraphrasing. (Changing words to convey
the message)

Learner: Many fish are in the lake. These fish are serving in the restaurants
near the lake.
Native speaker: (laughing) the fish are serving?
Learner: (laughing) Oh, no, the fish are served in the restaurant.
Learner: I lost my road.
Native speaker: What?
Learner: I got lost. (Paraphrasing and avoiding the use of structure)

Post-systematic Stage

i. Stabilization

❖ In this stage the learner has a few errors and has mastered the system.
❖ The learner is self-controlled on his/ her errors without waiting for feedbacks
from someone else.

Learner-*I lost my road; I mean I lost my way.

ii. Fossilization:

✓ If the learner in this stage makes some errors it means his errors has been
fossilized and correcting these kinds of errors will be very difficult, these errors
are permanent.

Source of Errors

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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

The source of errors can be observed in the Interlingual Transfer, Intralingual

Transfer, Language-Learning Strategies, Communication Strategy, Context of Learning,
and Nonlinguistic Errors: (Idiosyncratic Errors).

Interlingual Transfer

In the Interlingual Transfer, the interlingual errors result from the transfer of the
elements of the learner’s mother tongue to the learning of the target language.

a) Transfer of Phonological Elements of the Mother Tongue:

* /sukuul / instead of /skuul/

b) Transfer of Morphological Elements:

* Three clever student instead of three clever students

c) Transfer of Grammatical Elements

* I am going to university at 8 o'clock every day.

In Arabic: Simple Present Tense = Present Progressive

d) Transfer of Lexicosemantic Elements:

Two different concepts in Arabic are used with the same word which makes interference
in English:

1. *I can't study in the dormitory because some students open their radios loudly.
2. *He had a quarrel with his woman.
3. *My father bought a new machine last week.
4. *He smokes a lot of cigar.
5. *It was my chance to be in your class.

e) Transfer of Stylistic and Cultural Elements:

* Mr. Hassan are a good teacher. /al-‘ustaath hasan mudarris-un gayid/ ‫االستاذ حسن‬
.‫مدرس جيد‬

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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

Intralingual Transfer

In the Intralingual Transfer (i.e. the transfer within the target language itself), the
learner applies one rule in the Native Language for other structures in the Target
Language inappropriately. This is represented in Overgeneralization, Ignorance of Rule
Restriction, False Analogy,

Overgeneralization

Overgeneralization is a term used in language acquisition studies, referring to the

process whereby children extend their use of a grammatical feature to contexts beyond
those found in the adult language, e.g. when they overgeneralize the regular past-tense
form in such items as *goed, *wented, *goned. It takes place when the feature is
extended beyond its limits in the adult grammar – as when the regular plural ending is
applied to irregular forms, e.g. *mouses, *sheeps.

(Source: Crystal 2008, p. 345 and p. 207)

Given below are other examples showing Overgeneralization:

I always try to study.

We always go to cinema on Saturdays.
Maryam and Hassan always play the chess-set every night.

* He always try to help me. (Subject –Verb aggreement)

* I don't know how did they find my address. (Subject –Verb inversion)

Ignorance of Rule Restriction

In the Ignorance of Rule Restriction, the Arabic learner doesn't know the restriction
and exceptions of a general rule in English.

*There are many fishes in the lake.

*Teachers always give us good advices.

False Analogy

False Analogy refers to the use of certain elements in inappropriate contexts through
analogy.

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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

*I think she should remain home and grow up her child.

Language-Learning Strategies

The Language-Learning Strategies refer to the strategies used by the learners in

dealing with the target language:

a) Overgeneralization
b) Transfer of rules from the mother tongue
c) Simplification: (we discuss in here) in this strategy learner tries to simplify the
rules of target language form himself:

* I am student English language.

* I begin my work afternoon usually.

Communication Strategy

It is used when the learner is forced to express himself with the limited linguistic
resources.

1- Paraphrase:

"Pipe" (‫ )انبوب‬/’unbuub/ instead of "the water pipe" ((‫ انبوب الماء‬/’unbuub al-maa’/ "Air-
ball")) (which the learner makes it himself) instead of "balloon"

2- Borrowing:

* Don’t be tired. Instead of don’t work hard. (The learner translates word for word from
the native language.)

3- Appeal for Assistance:

*What is this? What called? (The learner asks for the correct term)

4- Mime:

Clapping his hands instead of applause (Using nonverbal action in place of lexical
items)

5- Avoidance:
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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

i. Lexical Avoidance:

I lost my road.
You lost your road?
Uh…I lost. I lost. I got lost.

(The learner tries to avoid the lexical item 'road', not being able to come up with the
word ' way' at that point)

ii. Syntactic Avoidance:

He finished his homework; he went to bed. (Instead of "Having finished his homework,
he went to bed.”)

6- Prefabricated Patterns:

The learner memorizes certain stock / standard / typical phrases or sentences:

- Where is the toilet?

- How much does it cost?
- Where is this address?

7- Language Switch:

Finally, when all the strategies fail, learners may resort to language switch. That is, they
may simply use their native language whether the hearer knows it or not.

Context of Learning

In the Context of Learning, the source of errors is the teacher or the text book.
For example, wrong or unsuitable usage of a rule by teacher or using dialogues in a text
book without mentioning the formality or informality of occurrences may cause some
errors for learning.

Nonlinguistic Errors: (Idiosyncratic Errors):

These kinds of errors are specialized to individuals or a small group of learners who
had the same teacher, used the same textbook, shared identical learning strategies, but

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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

the learners do not have a specific methodology for learning and cannot make a
generalization for designing a textbook or give the students a specific learning activity.

Criticism of EA

There are three points to consider as to criticism of errors according to Schachter and
Celce-Murcia (1977):

1. Focused only on errors

2. Did not deal with avoidance (relative clauses: Chinese and Japanese vs. Spanish
and Farsi English passive avoidance by Arabic speakers phrasal verbs by Hebrew
speakers)
3. In short, EA did not deal with what the students were doing that caused them to
succeed, that is, it did not deal with what led to learning.

Error Treatment

Error treatment is a very complicated and thorny problem. As language teachers,

we need to be armed with some theoretical foundations and be aware of what we are
doing in the classroom. Here principles of optimal affective and cognitive feedback, of
reinforcement theory, and of communicative language teaching all combine to form
these theoretical foundations. With these theories in mind, we can judge in the
classroom whether we will treat or ignore the errors, when and how to correct them.

What kinds of errors should be corrected?

Learners’ errors are usually classified in different categories. Burt (1975) made a
distinction between “global” and “local” errors. Global errors hinder communication and
they prevent the learner from comprehending some aspects of the message. Local errors
only affect a single element of a sentence, but do not prevent a message from being
heard. According to Hendrickson (1980), global errors need not be corrected and they
are generally held true. But the expressions such as “a news”, or “an advice” are
systematic errors, and they need to be corrected. As for pre-systematic errors, teachers
can simply provide the correct one. For systematic errors, since learners have already
had the linguistic competence, they can explain this kind of errors and correct them
themselves. So teachers just remind them when they commit such errors. As to what
kind of errors should be corrected, it needs teachers’ intuition and understanding of
errors. At the same time, the teacher should consider the purpose of the analysis and
analyze them in a systematic way.

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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

When to correct the errors?

Concerning this problem, the most controversial issue is to treat them

immediately or to delay. First, we are confronted with a dilemma—fluency versus
accuracy. For communicative purpose, delayed correction is usually preferred. Some
advanced students believe that when to correct errors is determined by the type of errors
committed. For instance, if they are pronunciation or grammatical errors, immediate
correction is preferable, for post-correction cannot make learners remember anything.
Furthermore, the overall situation in the classroom is also important. When the whole
class is familiar with a word, but only one of them is singled out for being corrected, he
or she would feel awkward. So, we can see that when to correct is very complicated.
Both the teachers’ intuition and the feedback from the students are equally important.

How to correct the errors?

According to James (1998), it is sensible to follow the three principles in error

correction. Firstly, the techniques involved in error correction would be able to enhance
the students’ accuracy in expression. Secondly, the students’ affective factors should be
taken into consideration and the correction should not be face-threatening to the
students.
Some scholars believed that teachers’ indirect correction is highly appreciated.
They either encourage students to do self-correction in heuristic method or present the
correct form, so students couldn’t feel embarrassed. Compare the two situations:

(1) Student: “What means this word?”

Teacher: “No, listen, what does this word mean?”
(2) Student: “What means this word?”
Teacher: “What does it mean? Well, it is difficult to explain, but it means…”

It is obvious that teacher’s remodeling in (2) is more natural and sensible than the
direct interruption in (1).
Up till now, both the theory and the application have been illustrated, in the next
section we are going to deal with both the significance and limitations of error analysis
in language teaching and learning.

Significance of Error Analysis in Language Teaching and Learning

Error analysis is significant. Firstly, by error analysis, teachers will get an overall
knowledge about the students’ errors. Foreign language learning is a process of

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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

hypothesis and trial and error occurrence is inevitable. So the teacher should learn to
tolerate some errors, especially some local errors.
Secondly, errors can tell the teacher how far towards the goal the learner has
progressed and consequently, what remains for him or her to learn. So students’ errors
are valuable feedbacks. We can do some remedial teaching based on their errors.
Thirdly, errors are indispensable to the learners themselves, for we can regard the
making of mistakes as a device the learner employs in order to learn.
Finally, some errors need to be handled, otherwise, they will become fossilized. In
a sense, error analysis theory together with other theories have enriched the second
language learning theory in that learning involves in a process in which success comes
by profiting from mistakes and by using mistakes to obtain feedback from the
environment. With the feedback they make new attempts to achieve the more closely
approximate desired goals.

(All data above are taken from Fang, XIE and JIANG Xue-mei (2007). Error analysis
and the EFL classroom teaching. In REN Li-ping and ZHANG Dong-ling (edt.) US-
China Education Review. Sep. 2007, Volume 4, No.9 (Serial No.34), ISSN1548-6613,
USA.)

Limitations of Error Analysis in Language Teaching and Learning

Certainly, error analysis is significant, but it also has its limitations. First, there is a
danger in too much attention to learners’ errors and in the classroom teacher tends to
become so preoccupied with noticing errors that the correct utterance in the second
language will go unnoticed. While the diminishing of errors is an important criterion for
increasing language proficiency, the ultimate goal of second language learning is the
attainment of communicative fluency in a language.
Another shortcoming in error analysis is the overstressing of production data.
Factually language comprehension is as important as production. It also happens that
production lends itself to analysis and thus becomes the prey of researchers, but
comprehension data is equally important in developing an understanding of the process
of language acquisition.
Thirdly, it fails to account for the strategy of avoidance. A learner who for one
reason or another avoids a particular sound, word, and structure or discourse category
may be assumed incorrectly to have no difficulty therewith. The absence of error
therefore does not necessarily reflect native like competence since learners may be
avoiding the very structure that poses difficulty for them.
Finally, error analysis can keep us too closely focused on specific languages
rather than viewing universal aspects of language.

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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

(All data above are taken from Fang, XIE and JIANG Xue-mei (2007). Error analysis
and the EFL classroom teaching. In REN Li-ping and ZHANG Dong-ling (edt.) US-
China Education Review. Sep. 2007, Volume 4, No.9 (Serial No.34), ISSN1548-6613,
USA.)

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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

General Readings, References, and Bibliographies

Abdi, N. (n.d). Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis Language. Retrieved September
1, 2012, from http://medicine.tums.ac.ir/fa/Users/N_abdi/.pdf
Aziz , yowell . Y . ( 1989 ) . A Contrastive Grammar of English and Arabic. Mosul :
The University of Higher Education .

Chalker, Sylvia . (1984 ). Current English Grammar. London . Macmillan Publishers .

Corder, S.P., 1981 – Error Analysis and Interlanguage, Oxford University Press.
Crystal, David. (2008). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th edition New York:
Basil Blackwell.
Fang, XIE and JIANG Xue-mei (2007). Error analysis and the EFL classroom teaching.
In REN Li-ping and ZHANG Dong-ling (edt.) US-China Education Review. Sep.
2007, Volume 4, No.9 (Serial No.34), ISSN1548-6613, USA.
Fisiak, Jacek. Ed. (1981). Contrastive Linguistics and the Language Teacher. Oxford:
Pergamon Press Ltd.
Gast, V. (n.d). Contrastive Linguistics: Theories and Methods. Retrieved September 6,
2012<http://www.personal.uni-jena.de/~mu65qev/papdf/contr_ling_meth.pdf>
Gramely, Stephan and, Kurt – Michael,Patzold . ( 1992 ), A Survey of Modern English.
London: Rutledge.
Howells, G., 1982 – Some Practical Applications of Error Analysis and Contrastive
Analysis in the Teaching of English as a Foreign Language, in World Language
English, vol. 1, No. 4.
James, C., 1998 – Errors in Language Learning and Ese, Harlow Addison Wesley
Longman.
James, Carl (1980). Contrastive Analysis. London: Longman Group Ltd.
Johansson, Stig, 1975 – The Use of Error Analysis and Contrastive Analysis, in E.L.T.J.,
vol. 29, No. 4.
Lado, Robert (1957). Linguistics across Cultures: Applied Linguistics for Language
Teachers. Michigan: The University of Michigan Press. Longman.
Maggie, Tallerman . ( 1989 ) . Understanding Syntax. London: Edward Arnold, LTD.
Qassim, Abdul- Hassan Sh. (n.d.), Translation Grammatically viewed. English
Department, Faculty of Languages ,University of Baghdad.
Quirk, R, S. Greenbaum , G . Leech, and J . Svartvik. (1973 ) . A Concise Grammar of
Contemporary English. London. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich , Inc .
Rivers, Wilga, 1970 – Contrastive Linguistics in Textbook and Classroom, in E.T.F.,
No. 4.
Wright, W. (1974) . A grammar of the Arabic Language .2 vols . Beruit : Libbrairie Du
Liban

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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

Corder, S.P., 1981 – Error Analysis and Interlanguage, Oxford University Press.
Howells, G., 1982 – Some Practical Applications of Error Analysis and Contrastive
Analysis in the Teaching of English as a Foreign Language, in World Language
English, vol. 1, No. 4.
James, C., 1998 – Errors in Language Learning and Ese, Harlow Addison Wesley
Longman.
Johansson, Stig, 1975 – The Use of Error Analysis and Contrastive Analysis, in
E.L.T.J., vol. 29, No. 4.
Rivers, Wilga, 1970 – Contrastive Linguistics in Textbook and Classroom, in E.T.F.,
No. 4.

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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

Appendices
Appendix 1: Previous Exam Question Papers

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Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

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Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

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Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

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Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

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Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

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Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

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Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

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Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

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Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

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Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

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 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

Appendix 2: Supplementary Materials

Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis Assignment

Page 52 of 57
Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

Page 53 of 57
Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

Page 54 of 57
Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

Page 55 of 57
Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

Page 56 of 57
Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis, a simplified course-book, compiled by Dr. Abdullah M. M. Ali Shaghi, assistant professor of
Linguistics, for 4th Y.E B.Ed. 1st semester 2020-2021, English Department, Zabid-Faculty of Education, Hodeidah University,
Al-Hudaydah Province, Yemen

Page 57 of 57