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Advanced Foundation Engineering

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PROF. KOUSIK DEB
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, IIT KHARAGPUR

Module 01: Soil Exploration

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Lecture 01: Introduction and Soil Exploration I
CONCEPTS COVERED

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 Week 1: Introduction, planning of soil exploration for different
projects, methods of borings along with various penetration tests,
Geophysical soil exploration.

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 Week 2: Shallow foundations, methods of estimating bearing
capacity of footings and rafts, foundation on sloping ground.
 Week 3: Foundation under eccentric and inclined loading,
foundation on Two-layered soil system.
 Week 4: Methods of estimating settlement of footings and rafts.
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 Week 5: Concept of Beams on Elastic Foundation.
 Week 6: Proportioning of foundations using field test data.
 Week 7: Pile foundations, methods of estimating load transfer of

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piles, pile load tests.
 Week 8: Pile group capacity and settlement, negative skin friction of
piles.
 Week 9: Analytical estimation of load-settlement behavior of piles.
 Week 10: Laterally loaded piles, uplift capacity of piles.

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 Week 11: Well foundation, IS and IRC codal provisions, elastic theory
and ultimate resistance methods.
 Week 12: Foundations on problematic soils: foundations for
collapsible and expansive soil, foundations/anchors under uplift
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loads.
List of reference materials, books etc
Braja M. Das, “Principles of Foundation Engineering.” PWS
Publishing, USA. 1999

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Bowles, J.E., 1997. “Foundation Analysis and Design”, Fifth ed.
McGraw-Hill, Singapore.
Woodward, J. and Tomlinson, M. 1994, “Pile Design and
Construction Practice” Chapman & Hall
Poulos, H.G. and Davis, E.H. 1980, “Pile Foundation Analysis and

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Design” Rainbow-Bridge Book Co./ John Wiley & Sons
Murthy, V.N.S., 2001. “Geotechnical Engineering: Principles and
Practices of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering’, Marcel
Dekker, Inc. New York.
Ranjan, G. and Rao, A. S. R., 1991, 2000, 2007. “Basics and Applied
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Soil Mechanics”, New Age International.
 Introduction

• The field and laboratory investigations required to obtain the

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necessary data for the soils for proper design and successful
construction of any structure at the site are collectively called soil
exploration.

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• The choice of the foundation and its depth, the bearing capacity,
settlement analysis depend very much upon the various
engineering properties of the foundation soils.
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 Soil Exploration
The primary objectives of soil exploration are

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• Determination of the nature of the deposits of soil, depth and
thickness of various soil strata.
• Location of Ground water table and obtaining soil and rock
samples from the various strata.

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• The determination of the engineering properties of the soil and
rock strata that affect the performance of the structure.
• Determination of the in-situ properties by performing field tests.
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Methods: Test Pits
Boring
Standard Penetration Test (SPT) [N Value]

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Cone Penetration Test (CPT): Static cone penetration test (SCPT)[qc value]
Dynamic cone penetration test (DCPT)
Pressuremeter Test (PMT)
Dilatometer Test (DMT)
Vane Shear Test (VST)

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Geophysical Exploration: Seismic reflection survey
Seismic refraction survey
Seismic Cross-hole survey
Resistivity Survey
Plate Load Test
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Pile Load Test
 Common In Situ Testing Devices N. Sivakugan

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SPT

VST PMT DMT

CPT
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In bore holes
 Test Pits
• Test pits or trenches are open type or accessible exploratory methods.
• Soils can be inspected in their natural condition.

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• The necessary soils samples may be obtained by sampling techniques and used for
finding strength and other engineering properties by appropriate laboratory tests.

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URL: http://www.biblioresearch.com/images/Testpit.gif
Test Pits

• Test pits are considered suitable only for small depths up to 3m; the

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cost of these increases rapidly with depth.
• For greater depths, lateral supports or bracing of the excavations will
be necessary.

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• Test pits are usually made only for supplementing other methods or
for minor structures.
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 Boring
• Boring: Making or drilling bore holes into the ground with a view to

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obtaining soil or rock samples from specified or known depths is
called ‘boring’
• The common methods of advancing bore holes are:
• Auger boring

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• Wash boring
• Rotary drilling
• Percussion drilling
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 Auger Boring

• ‘Soil auger’ is a device that is useful for advancing a bore hole into the

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ground.
• Augers may be hand-operated or power-driven; the former are used for
relatively small depths (less than 3 to 5 m), while the latter are used for

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greater depths (upto 60 to 70 m in case of continuous-flight augers).
• Augur boring is convenient in case of partially saturated sands, silts and
medium to stiff cohesive soils.
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 Auger boring

The soil auger is advanced by rotating it

while pressing it into the soil.

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As soon as the auger gets filled with soil, it is
taken out and the soil sample collected.

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The soil samples obtained from this type of
borings are highly disturbed

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T6neYRCgdTw
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Bowles, J.E, 1996
 Shell and Auger
• Used widely in India

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• The shell, (called a sand bailer) is a heavy duty pipe
with a cutting edge.
• The shell is raised and let fall in a hole. The soil is cut,

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enters the tube which is emptied when full.
• Shell is used when auger boring becomes difficult.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yK4j5SIaGhE
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Ranjan and Rao, 2000
 Wash Boring
• Wash boring is commonly used for exploration below ground water
table for which the auger method is unsuitable.

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• This method may be used in all kinds of soils except those mixed
with gravel and boulders.
• A casing pipe is pushed in and driven with a drop weight.
• The soil particles collected represent a very disturbed sample and is

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not very useful for the evaluation of the engineering properties.
• Wash borings are primarily used for advancing bore holes;
whenever a soil sample is required, the chopping bit is to be
replaced by a sampler.
• The change of the rate of progress and change of color of wash
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water indicate changes in soil strata.
https://edtech.engineering.utoronto.ca/files/wash-boring
 A casing pipe is pushed in and driven with a
drop weight.

hollow drill bit is screwed to a hollow drill

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rod connected to a rope passing over a pulley
and supported by a tripod.
Water jet under pressure is forced through
the rod and the bit into the hole which
loosens the soil.

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The soil-water suspension forced upward is
led to a settling tank where the soil particles
settle while the water overflows into a sump.

Bowles, J.E, 1996

N https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8PpbBnstrgs

https://edtech.engineering.utoronto.ca/files/wash-boring
Rotary Drilling A drill bit, fixed to the lower end of a drill rod, is rotated by
power while being kept in firm contact with the hole.

Drilling fluid or bentonite slurry is forced under pressure through

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the drill rod and it comes up bringing the cuttings to the surface.

When soil samples are required, the drilling rod raised and
drilling bit is replaced by a sampler.

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Note: Can be used in sand, clay and rocks (unless badly
fissured). This is a very fast method. Even rock cores
may be obtained by using suitable diamond drill bits.
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mxDDX_sfEm4
http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/water/tube-well/drilling-methods-for-tube-wells-and-its-selection/61098
 Percussion Drilling A heavy drill bit is suspended from a drill rod or a cable
and is driven by repeated blows.

Water is added to facilitate the breaking of stiff soil or

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rock.

The slurry of the pulverised material is bailed out at

intervals.

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Note: The method cannot be used in loose sand
and is slow in plastic clay. The formation gets
badly disturbed by impact.
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https://www.google.co.in/search?q=percussion+drilling+method+for+soil&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwictPKQ6PzZAhXKqo8K
HSdNCukQ_AUICigB&biw=1440&bih=769#imgrc=9FhqVgYMfI_ljM:
Standard Penetration Test (SPT) IS: 2131-1981
• The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) is
widely used to determine the parameters

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of the soil in-situ. The test consists of
driving a split-spoon sampler into the soil
through a bore hole at the desired depth.
• The split-spoon sampler is driven into the
soil a distance of 450 mm at the bottom of

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the boring
• A hammer of 63.5 kg weight with a free
fall of 750 mm is used to drive the
sampler.
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https://civilblog.org/2015/11/27/how-to-do-standard-penetration-test-spt-of-soil-on-site/
•The number of blows for a penetration of
last 300 mm is designated as the “Standard

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Penetration Value” or “Number” N.
• The test is usually performed in three stages.
The blow count is found for every 150 mm
penetration.

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• The blows for the first 150 mm are ignored
as those required for the seating drive.
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https://civilblog.org/2015/11/27/how-to-do-standard-penetration-test-spt-of-soil-on-site/
 63.5 kg Number of blows for the first 150 mm penetration is
disregarded due to the disturbance likely to exist at the
bottom of the drill hole

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0.75 m The test can be conducted at every 1m vertical intervals
(Not more than 1.5 m)

0.15 m Number of blows = N1

Drill rod 0.15 m Number of blows = N2

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0.15 m
Number of blows = N3
Standard penetration resistance (SPT N) = N2 + N3
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=12J5D4WltYM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9cUOBSF8bMg
The refusal of test when
• 50 blows are required for any 150 mm increment.

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• 100 blows are obtained for required 300 mm penetration.
• 10 successive blows produce no advance.

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PT
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Advanced Foundation Engineering

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PROF. KOUSIK DEB
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, IIT KHARAGPUR

Module 01: Soil Exploration

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Lecture 02: Soil Exploration II
 Standard Penetration Test (SPT):IS: 2131-1981
Two corrections due to:

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(a) Overburden pressure (granular soil)
(b) Dilatancy (for saturated fine sands and silts)
The corrected N value is given by

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N′ = CN N
where N′ = corrected value of observed N
CN = correction factor for overburden pressure
N′′= 15+0.5(N′-15) if N′ > 15
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Ranjan and Rao, 2000
 SPT Corrections
The standard blow count N′70 can be computed as (ASTM D 1586) (American Society for
Testing and Materials)
• Hammer Efficiency Correction

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′ = C N × N ×η1 ×η 2 ×η3 ×η 4
N 70 • Drill rod, sampler and borehole corrections
where • Correction due to overburden pressure
ηi = correction factors

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N′70 = corrected N using the subscript for the Erb and the ′ to indicate it has been corrected
Erb = standard energy ratio value
CN = correction for effective overburden pressure p′0 (kPa) computed as:
[Liao and Whitman, 1986] 1
 95.76  2
C N =  
N
 p0′ 
Correction factor η1 for hammer efficiency
Er
η1 = Er =
Actual hammer energy to sampler
×100
Erb

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Input energy

Different types of hammers are in use for driving the drill rods. Two types are
normally used. They are (Bowles, 1996):
1. Donut hammer with Er = 45 to 67

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2. Safety hammer with Er as fellows:
• Rope-pulley or cathead = 70 to 80
• Trip or automatic hammer = 80 to 100.
Now if Er = 80 and standard energy ratio value (Erb) = 70,
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then η1 = 80/70 = 1.14
Bowles, J.E, 1996
 Correction factor η2 for rod length
Length >10 m η2 = 1.00
6 – 10 m = 0.95

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4–6m = 0.85
0–4m = 0.75
Note: N is too high for Length < 10 m

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Correction factor η3 for sampler
Without liner η3 = 1.00
With liner: Dense sand, clay = 0.80
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Loose sand = 0.90
Bowles, J.E, 1996
 Correction factor η4 for borehole diameter

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Hole diameter: 60 – 120 mm η4 = 1.00
150 mm = 1.05
200 mm = 1.15

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Bowles, J.E, 1996
• Example 1
Given: N = 21, rod length= 13 m, hole diameter = 100 mm, p′0 = 200 kPa, Er= 80; loose sand
without liner. What are the standard N′70 and N′60 values?
Solution

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For Erb= 70:
′ = C N × N ×η1 ×η 2 ×η3 ×η 4
N 70
1
 95.76 
2
CN =   = 0.69
 200 

η1= 80/70 = 1.14; η2 = 1.0; η3 = 1.0; η4 = 1.0

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′ = 0.69 × 21×1.14 ×1.0 ×1.0 ×1.0 = 17
Thus, N 70

 70 
Now Er1 × N1 = Er 2 × N 2 ; Thus, N ′
60 =   ×17 = 20
 60 
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not corrected for
overburden SPT Correlations in Clays

N′60 cu (kPa) consistency visual identification

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0-2 0 – 12.5 very soft Thumb can penetrate > 25 mm
2-4 12.5-25 soft Thumb can penetrate 25 mm
4-8 25-50 medium Thumb penetrates with
moderate effort

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8-15 50-100 stiff Thumb will indent 8 mm
15-30 100-200 very stiff Can indent with thumb nail; not
thumb
>30 >200 hard Cannot indent even with
thumb nail
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not corrected for SPT Correlations in Granular Soils
overburden
(N′)60 Dr (%) consistency

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0-4 0-15 very loose

4-10 15-35 loose

10-30 35-65 medium

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30-50 65-85 dense

>50 85-100 very dense

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 Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

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Dynamic cone penetration test (DCPT) Static cone penetration test (SCPT)
similar to SPT; hammer driven pushed into the ground @ 1 cm/s

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using cone instead of split spoon gives continuous measurements
gives blow counts @1.5 m depth intervals
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N. Sivakugan
 Static Cone Penetration Test
• The Static cone penetration test, which is also known as Dutch
Cone test, has been standardized by “IS: 4968 (Part-III)-1976 -

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Method for subsurface sounding for soils - Part III Static cone
penetration test”.
• The equipment consists of a steel cone, a friction jacket,

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sounding rod, mantle tube, a driving mechanism and measuring
equipment.
• The cone have an apex angle of 60° ± 15′ and overall base
diameter of 35.7 mm giving a cross-sectional area of 10 cm2.
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• The friction sleeve should have an area of 150 cm2 as per
standard practice.

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• The sounding rod is a steel rod of 15 mm diameter which
can be extended with additional rods of 1 m each in length.
• The driving mechanism should have a capacity of 20 to 30

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kN for manually operated equipment and 100 kN for the
mechanically operated equipment.
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 40 mm
Static Cone Penetrometer test https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6haEMA5Jx9I
40 mm
Sounding rod

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40 mm
Mantle tube
40 mm
Friction jacket
assembly

Cone assembly

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZKQbCA-QUcU
 Han, F., Prezzi, M., Salgado, R.
(2018) Static and Dynamic Pile
Load Tests on Closed-Ended
Driven Pipe Pile, IFCEE 2018
(10.1061/9780784481578.047)

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 SCPT Correlations
In Clays
In Sand
qc − σ v φ= tan -1 [0.1 + 0.38 log (qc/σv′)]
cu =

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(Kulhawy and Mayne, 1990)
Nk
cu = Undrained shear strength of where
σv = total vertical stress at the depth of φ is the friction angle
penetration qc is the cone resistance

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qc = The cone tip resistance σv′ (or p0′) is the vertical effective

Nk = cone factor (15-20) overburden pressure or stress

Electric cone mechanical cone

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N Sivakugan
Following properties for clayey soil can be determined from cone resistance (qc)
(Mayne and Kemper (1988)
Pre-consolidation pressure (pc)

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pc = 0.243(qc )
0.96

 qc − σ v 

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OCR = 0.37 
 σ v′ 
σv = total vertical stress at the depth of penetration
σv′ (or p0′) is the vertical effective overburden pressure or stress
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 Das, B. M. ,1999

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100

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N
Normally consolidated quartz sand (after Robertson and Campanella, 1983)
 fs
Friction ratio, Fr =
qc

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Cone resistance or cone tip
resistance (qc)
Peat
Sleeve friction (fs)

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Das, B. M. ,1999
 Piezocone

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Pushed into the ground Porous stone for pore pressure

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measurement

A modern static cone; measures

pore water pressure also.
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N Sivakugan
 Dynamic Cone Penetration Test
• The dynamic cone penetration test is standardised by “IS: 4968 (Part I) – 1976 -
Method for Subsurface Sounding for Soils-Part I Dynamic method using 50 mm
cone without bentonite slurry”.

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• The equipment consists of a cone, driving rods, driving head, hoisting
equipment and a hammer.
• The hammer used for driving the cone shall be of mild steel or cast-iron with a
base of mild steel and the weight of the hammer shall be 640 N (65 kg).

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• The cone shall be driven into the soil by allowing the hammer to fall freely
through 750 mm each time.
• The number of blows for every 100 mm penetration of the cone shall be
recorded.
• The process shall be repeated till the cone is driven to the required depth.
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Dynamic Cone Penetration Test
Better than SPT or SCPT in hard soils such as dense gravels

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Like SPT relies on correlations based on blow counts

Hollow (split spoon)

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SPT

DCPT
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Solid (∴no samples)
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PT
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 EL
Advanced Foundation Engineering

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PROF. KOUSIK DEB
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, IIT KHARAGPUR

Module 01: Soil Exploration

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Lecture 03: Soil Exploration III
 Pressuremeter Test
The pressure meter consists of an inflatable
cylindrical probe which is connected to a water

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reservoir. Borehole
Expand cylindrical probe inside a bore hole.
The probe presses against the wall of bore hole. So
the soil begins to deform cylindrical probe

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guard cell
The volumetric deformation of the borehole is
measured by noting the fall in water level in the
water reservoir
IS: 1892-1979 describes the use of pressure meter
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CgbZR23Znuk
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V0 is measured and the probe is inserted into the borehole.
The pressure is applied in increment and the volumetric expansion of the cell is measured
Zone I: Reloading Zone and p0 represents the in-situ total horizontal stress
Zone II: Pseudo-elastic Zone

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Zone III: Plastic Zone and pl represents the limit pressure
pl

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Das, B. M. ,1999
 pl Das, B. M. ,1999

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 ∆p 
Pressuremeter modulus, E p = 2(1 + µ )(V0 + vm ) 
 ∆v 
where vm = (v0 + vf)/2; ∆p = pf – p0; ∆v = vf – vo, µ = Poisson’s ratio and
V0 = measuring cell volume = 535 cm3
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Pl = limit pressure, is usually obtained by extrapolation, not by direct
measurement
 Correlations Pre-consolidation pressure (pc) = 0.5pl
pl − p0
cu = (Baguelin et al. 1978) (Kulhawy and Mayne, 1990)
Np

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where cu is undrained shear strength of clay
 Ep 
N p = 1 + ln 
 2cu 

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Typical values of Np vary between 5 to 12 (average = 8.5)

E p (kN / m 2 ) = 908 N 0.66 For Clay Ohya et al. 1982, also

Kulhawy and Mayne, 1990
E p (kN / m 2 ) = 1930 N 0.63 For Sand
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where N is standard penetration (SPT) value
Das, B. M. ,1999
 Dilatometer Test
Advance @ 20 mm/s. Test every 200-300 mm.
Nitrogen tank for inflating the membrane.

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Gives cu, K0, OCR, ch, kh, soil stiffness.
Can identify soil.

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60 mm diameter flexible steel
membrane
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E8hq-dLN1Fo
N Sivakugan
 Marchetti (1980) Mainly for Clay (ID<1.2)
 KD 
0.47 p0 − u 0
K0 =   − 0.6 Horizontal stress index KD = σ '
Material Index
 1.5  v0
Dilatometer Modulus E D (kN / m ) = 34.7( p1 − p0 )
2

cu = 0.22σ v 0 (0.5 K D )
′ 1.25

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•p0 is the contact stress i.e the
pressure required to just begin to
OCR = (0.5 K D ) (NC clay, KD=2)
1.56
move the membrane
cu
= 0 .22 Normally consolidated clay •p1 is the expansion stress i.e pressure
σ v' required to move the centre of the

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 cu   cu  membrane by 1.1 mm into the soil
 '  =  '  (0.5K D ) •u0 is the pore water pressure
1.25

 σ v  over consolidated caly  σ v  normally consolidated caly

E = (1 − µ 2 ) E D
σv0′ (or p0′) is the vertical effective overburden pressure or stress
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E is the elastic modulus
K0 is the coefficient of earth pressure at rest Das, B. M. ,1999
µ= Poisson’s ratio
 Horizontal Coefficient of Consolidation and permeability of soil
Mainly for Clay

Point of contraflexure

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Horizontal Coefficient of Consolidation
7 cm 2
ch ≈
t flex
Horizontal Coefficient of Permeability

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(Schmertmann, 1988)
chγ w
kh =
Mh
where M h = K 0 M DMT
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Failmezger, R. A. and Anderson, J. B. (2006) Proceedings from the Second
International Conference on the Flat Dilatometer, Washington, D.C., April 2-5, 2006.
Vertical Drained Constrained Modulus (MDMT) = RM ED For Sand
Now,
if ID ≤ 0.6, then RM = 0.14 + 2.36 log KD where ID is the Material Index: I = p1 − p0
if ID ≥ 3, then RM = 0.5 + 2 log KD p0 − u 0
D

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if 0.6 < ID < 3, then RM = RM0 + (2.5 - RM0) log KD
where RM0 = 0.14 + 0.15 (ID - 0.6)
0.1<ID<0.6 Clay
Note:
if KD > 10, then RM = 0.32 + 2.18 log KD
0.6< ID <1.8 Silt
if RM < 0.85 take RM = 0.85 1.8< ID <10 Sand

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Now, Note: penetration resistance of the blade tip :qD ≈qc
For NC sand: MDMT /qc = 5 to 10
For OC sand: MDMT /qc = 12 to 24
Thus, first determine MDMT and qc (cone resistance, can be obtained from
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Static Cone Penetration Test). Based on the range of the MDMT /qc value it can
be identified whether the sand is NC or OC.
Baldi et al. (1986) For Sand
K0 = 0.376 + 0.095 KD - 0.0046 (qc /σ'v0) for river sand
Marchetti (1997).

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φ = 28° + 14.6° log KD – 2.1° log2 KD

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Failmezger, R. A. and Anderson, J. B. (2006)
Proceedings from the Second International
Conference on the Flat Dilatometer,
Washington, D.C., April 2-5, 2006.
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 EL
Advanced Foundation Engineering

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PROF. KOUSIK DEB
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, IIT KHARAGPUR

Module 01: Soil Exploration

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Lecture 04: Soil Exploration IV
Example
A dilatometer test was conducted in a clay deposit. The ground water table was located at a depth of 2m
below ground level. At a depth of 6 m below the ground level, the contact pressure (p0) was 280 kN/m2
and the expansion stress (p1) was 350 kN/m2. Determine K0, OCR and E. Assume, µ = Poisson’s ratio

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=0.45. Saturated and bulk unit weight is 20 kN/m3 and 18 kN/m3, respectively. Unit weight of water is 10
kN/m3.

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PT
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 Vane Shear Test measuring (torque) head

For clays, and mainly for soft clays.

Measure torque (T) required to quickly

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shear the vane pushed into soft clay. bore
hole
Typical d = 20-100 mm.
vane
h≈2d

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vane
c = Undrained shear strength
u
T d
cu = of soil
 2 h d  T = Torque applied
3
π  d +  h= Height of the vane soft clay
 2 6  d= diameter of the soil cylinder
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N Sivakugan sheared
 Types of Samples
• Samples of soil taken out of natural deposits for testing may be
classified as:

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 Disturbed sample: A disturbed sample is that in which the
natural structure of the soil gets modified partly or fully during
sampling

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Undisturbed sample: An undisturbed sample is that in which
the natural structure and other physical properties remain
preserved.
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 Disturbed but representative Undisturbed samples must be
samples can generally be used for used for

EL
• Grain-size analysis • Consolidation test
• Determination of liquid and • Hydraulic conductivity test
plastic limits • Shear strength test

PT
• Specific gravity of soil solids
• Organic content determination
• Soil classification
N
 Undisturbed Samples
• Required for triaxial, consolidation tests in the lab.
• Good quality samples necessary.

EL
AR<10% soil O.D.2 − I .D.2
AR = ×100 (%)
2
I .D.

PT
Area Ratio
sampling tube

• Thicker the wall, greater the disturbance.

N
• Take good care in transport and handling.
N Sivakugan
 Sample Disturbance
• Inside clearance, Ci

D3 − D1

EL
Ci = ×100
D1

• Outside clearance, C0 • According to IS: 1892 – 1979, Ci should be in

D2 − D4

PT
C0 = ×100 between 1% to 3%
D4
• C0 usually lies between 0 to 2 %
• Area ratio, AR
• AR should not be greater that about
D22 − D12
AR = ×100 20% for stiff formation, whereas for soft
D12
N
sensitive clay, AR ≤ 10%
Ranjan and Rao, 2000
• The degree of disturbance of a cohesive or rock sample can be estimated
by recovery ratio Lr

EL
Actual length of re cov ered sample
Lr =
Theoretical length of re cov ered sample

Lr = 1 (recovered length of the sample = the length sampler was forced into the
stratum). Theoretically, the sample did not become compressed from friction

PT
on the tube.
Lr = 1 indicates a good recovery
Lr <1 indicates that the soil is compressed
N
Lr >1 indicates that the soil has swelled
 Types of Samplers

EL
• Soil samplers are classified as:

• ‘Thick wall’ samplers (Split spoon sampler)

• ‘Thin wall’ samplers (Shelby tubes)

PT
N
 Split Spoon Sampler
• A drive shoe attached to the lower end serves as the cutting edge. A
sample head may be screwed at the upper end of split spoon.

EL
• The standard size of the spoon sampler is of 35 mm (34.9 mm) internal
and 50.8 mm external diameter.
• The sampler is lowered to the bottom of the bore hole by attaching it to
the drill rod. The sampler is then driven by forcing it into the soil by

PT
blows from a hammer.
• The assembly of the sampler is then extracted from the hole and the
cutting edge and coupling at the top are unscrewed. The two halves of
the barrel are separated and the sample is thus exposed.
N
• Samples are generally taken at intervals of about 1.53 m (5 ft)
 Split Spoon Sampler

EL
PT
N
Das, B. M. ,1999
 Split Spoon Sampler

 For a standard split-spoon sampler

EL
(50.8) 2 − (34.9) 2
AR = (100) = 112%
2
(34.9)

PT
Hence the samples are highly disturbed.

Note: When the material encountered in the filed is sand (particularly

fine sand below the water table), a device such as a spring core
catcher is placed inside the split spoon.
N
 Thin Walled Sampler

• Commonly used to obtain undisturbed clayey samples.

EL
• Outside diameter: 50.8 mm (2 in) and 76.3 mm (3 in)
• Sampler with a 50.8 mm outside diameter has an inside diameter of about 47.63
mm. The area ratio is

(50.8) 2 − (47.63) 2

PT
AR = (100) = 13.75%
2
(47.63)
N
 Thin Walled Sampler

EL
PT
N
Das, B. M. ,1999 Bowles, J.E, 1996
How many bore holes?

The number of bore holes depends on:

EL
 type and size of the project

 budget for site investigation

 soil variability

PT
Locate the bore holes where the loads are expected. proposed building
N
N Sivakugan
 Spacing of Borings

EL
Type of project Spacing (m)

Multistory buildings 10 – 30
One-story industrial plants 20 – 60

PT
Highways 250-500
Residential subdivision 250-500
Dams and dikes 40 - 80
N
• The minimum depth of boring for a building with a width of 30.5 m (100 ft) will be as
follows (Sowers and Sowers, 1970)

EL
No of stories Boring depth
1 3.5 m
2 6.0 m
3 10 m

PT
4 16 m
N 5 24 m
 Ground Water Level

• A correct indication of the general ground water level is found by

EL
allowing the water in the boring to reach an equilibrium level.
• In sandy soils, the level gets stabilized very quickly - within a few
hours at the most.
• In clayey soils it will take many days for this purpose. Hence,
standpipes or piezometers are used in clays and silt.

PT
N
N
PT
EL
 EL
Advanced Foundation Engineering

PT
PROF. KOUSIK DEB
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, IIT KHARAGPUR

Module 01: Soil Exploration

N
Lecture 05: Soil Exploration V
 Observation of Water Table by Piezometer

EL
PT
N
Das, B. M. ,1999
N
PT
EL
Geophysical Exploration

EL
• Seismic Reflection Survey
• Seismic Refraction Survey
• Seismic Cross-hole Survey

PT
• Resistivity Survey
N
Seismic reflection survey
Seismograph

Geophone Cable

EL
Trigger Cable
Explosive
Geophones
S charge in a
R shallow hole
x

PT
Direct waves

Reflected H
waves 2i
Soil
vp1
N
Bedrock
 t
Some of the wave energy follows a direct path from
S to R and arrives R at
1
v p1 x
Reflected Wave td =

EL
v p1
The part of the wave that is reflected back
Direct Wave toward the ground surface arrives at the
2H
receiver at (H is the thickness of the layer)

PT
v p1
x
2 H 2 + ( x / 2) 2
tr =
v p1

By measuring x and td, the p-wave velocity of the upper layer, vp1 , can
N
be determined
By measuring tr and x and knowing vp1 from the direct wave calculation, the thickness of
the upper layer (H) can be calculated as

EL
1 2 2
H= t r v p1 − x 2

PT
2

N
N
PT
EL
 EL
Advanced Foundation Engineering

PT
PROF. KOUSIK DEB
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, IIT KHARAGPUR

Module 01: Soil Exploration

N
Lecture 06: Soil Exploration VI
Seismic refraction survey Seismograph

Geophone Cable

EL
Trigger Cable
Geophones Explosive
charge in a
shallow hole

PT
Direct waves
Refracted
waves α
Soil
v1
Refracted
N
v2 Bedrock
waves
 A (x1) B (x2) C D (x3)
d

Time of first arrival

x
Layer I, v1 v1 v1 Z1
c
Velocity, vp1 v1
T2

EL
v2
Layer II, v2 v2 Z2 b
Velocity, vp2
T1
v3 xc
Layer III, a
Velocity, vp3 Distance, x

PT
N
 +

N
PT
EL
Example
The results of a refraction survey at a site are as follows:
Distance from the source (m) Time of first arrival of wave (msec)

EL
2.5 5.1
5.0 10.2
7.5 15.3
10 17.0
15 19.8

PT
20 23.9
25 27.0
30 28.0
40 31.0
50 33.7
N
Determine the thickness of the layers and the wave velocity.
40

35

EL
30

25

20

15

PT
10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
N
Seismic cross-hole survey

EL
Receiver
Source
vs = Δx/Δt

PT
Δx Soil
N Soil

Direct measurement using two bore hole

 EL
Receivers
Source

PT
Soil
Soil

Interval measurment using three-hole configuration

N
G = ρVs2 where G is the shear modulus of the soil, Vs is the shear wave
velocity and ρ is the density of the soil

EL
4
K+ G where K is the bulk modulus of the soil
Vp = 3
ρ

PT
N
 Electrical Resistivity Survey

EL
Material Resistivity
(ohm-m)
Sand 500-1500

PT
Clay, silt 0-150

Clayey sand 200-500

Gravel 1500-4000
N
Das, B. M. ,1999
N
PT
EL