Chapter 2

Discrete-State Control
Part II
 Content

Relay Controller and Ladder Diagram

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Objectives

Know the function of symbols and construct
a ladder diagram.

Develop ladder diagram from narrative
event-sequence description.

Know the nature of PLCs and its use in
process control.

Develop program for PLC.
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 Ladder Diagram
 Ladder diagram/ logic is the main programming method
used for PLCs.
 It is used to represent the hardware and the sequence of
the event.
 An industrial control system typically involves electric
motors, solenoids, heaters or coolers, and other
equipment that is operated from the AC power line.
 When a control system wants to turn on a motor, this is
done by a switch to energize a relay with contact ratings
that can handle the heavy load.
 Relay is the primary control element of discrete-state
control systems.
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 Ladder Diagram Elements
 The ladder diagram is a symbolic and schematic way of
representing both the system hardware and the process
controller.
 It is called a ladder diagram because the various curcuit
devices connected in parallel across the AC line form
something that looks like a ladder.
 Special symbols are used to represent the variuos circuit
elements in a ladder diagram. For example:
(1) Relays
(2) Motors and Solenoids
(3) Lights
(4) Swithes
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 Relays
 A relay coil is represented by a
circle identified as CR (control
relay) and a identifying number.
The contacts can be normally
open (NO) or normally closed
(NC) identified by the same
number.
 A NO contact is open when the
relay coil is not energized, and
closed when the relay is
energized. The NC contact is
closed when the relay coil is not
energized and opens when the
relay is energized. 5
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 Time-delay Relay
 Time-delay relay: the contacts
activate after a specified time
delay. It is designated TR (timer
relay).
 An on-delay timer relay: when
the coil is energized, the
contacts are not energized until
the time delay has lapsed.
 An off-delay timer relay: the
contacts engage when the coil
is energized. When the coil is
de-energized, there is a time
delay before the contacts de-
energize.

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Type of Relay
 Motors and Solenoids
The symbol for a motor is a
circle with a letter M followed
by a number. This is usually a
motor starter system.
The solenoid symbol is shown
in (b). It may be a solenoid to
open a flow valve, or move
material off a conveyor, or
many other functions.

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 Lights
The lights symbol shown in (c),
is used to give operators
information about the state of
the system.
The color of the light is
indicated by a capital letter in
the circle; for example, R stands
for red, G for green, A for amber,
and B for blue.

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 Switches

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Example 2.4
Construct a ladder diagram for
the figure shown beside

 The figure shows a relay used as a

latch
 The green light is on when the relay
is not latched and a red light is on
when the relay is latched.
 When the normally open (NO)
push-button switch PB1 is
depressed, control relay RL1 is
energized and stays closed.
 To de-energize or unlatch the relay,
the normally closed (NC) push
button PB2 is depressed. PB2 opens
the circuit, and the relay is released.
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Example 2.5 The elevator has a platform to move
objects up and down. The global
objective is that when the UP button is
pushed, the platform moves to the up
position, and when the DOWN button is
pushed, the platform moves to the
down position.
Output Elements
M1 = Motor to drive the platform up
M2 = Motor to drive the platform down
Input Elements
LS1 = NC limit switch for UP
LS2 = NC limit switch for DOWN
START = NO push button for START
STOP = NC push button for STOP
UP = NO push button for UP
DOWN = NO push button for DOWN
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Narrative Description
1. When the START button is
pushed, the platform is
driven to the down position.
2. When the STOP button is
pushed, the platform is
halted at whatever position it
occupies at that time.
3. When the UP button is
pushed, the platform, if it is
not in downward motion, is
driven to the up position.
4. When the DOWN button is
pushed, the platform, if it is
not in upward motion, is
driven to the down position.
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 Construct a ladder
diagram for the
elevator.
Let us start by breaking
the requirements into
individual tasks.
The first task is to move
the platform to the
down position when
the START button is
pushed.

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Solution
•Initialization to move to DOWN when starting.
•This task can be done by using the START button to latch a
relay CR1, whose contacts also energize M2 (the down
motor). When the LS2 limit switch opens, the CR1 is
released and unlatched, stopping M2.

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Solution...
The next task, the STOP sequence.
 Let us assume a relay CR3 is the master control for the rest of the
system.
 Because STOP is a NO switch, we cannot use it to release CR3 in the
same sense used in previous examples.
 Instead, we use STOP to energize another relay, CR2, and use the NC
contacts of that relay to release CR3.
 When START is pushed, CR3 in rung 4 is energized by the latching of
the CR1 contact and the NC contact of CR2.
 When STOP is pushed, CR2 in rung 3 is energized, which causes the
NC CR2 contact in rung 4 to open and release CR3.

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Solution...
 Finally, we come to the sequences for
up and down motion of the platform.
 In each case, a relay is latched to
energize a motor if CR3 is energized,
the appropriate button has been
pushed, the limit has not been reached,
and the other direction is not energized.
 A NC relay connection is used to ensure
that the up motor is not turned on if
the down motor is on, and vice versa
 Also, it was necessary to add a contact
to rung 2 to be sure M2 could not start
if there was up motion and if the START
button is accidentally pushed.
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Simplified solution
 The solution can be
simplified by considering
the fact that M1 and M2
are actually relays used to
turn on the motors via
contacts.
 If we assume that these
relays can have added
contacts to drive other
ladder diagram operations,
then some of the control
relays can be eliminated

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Example 2.6

Draw the ladder diagram

assume when the control
system is commanded off,
the input valve is closed
and a 1-minute prefill is
required for initialization.

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I. Initialization (prefill of tank)
A. Converyor stopped, output valve closed
B. Start the level control system
1. Operate for a sufficient time to reach the
setpoint, or
2. Add another sensor so that the system
knows when the setpoint has been reach

II. Running
A. Start the bottle conveyor
B. When a bottle is in position (BP true)
1. Stop the conveyor (M1 off)
2. Open the output valve
C. When the bottle is full (BF true)
1. Close the output valve
D. Go to step II.A and repeat

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Solution

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 Initialization is done by a 60 s timer in rung 2 that turns on
the level control system for 1 min when start button is
pushed.
 Rung 4 drives the conveyor motor until a bottle is in
position, as indicated by the bottle position switch opening.
 Rung 5 is used to detect the bottle –full condition by
energizing CR2.
 The contacts of CR2 turn on both the valve solenoid (rung 5)
and the level-control system (rung 6).
 Note the timer in rung 6 for initialization.
 Rung 7 is necessary to detect that the bottle is full and to
restart the conveyor until the bottle is moved out of position
and the bottle-present switch is opened.
 Continuous running now occurs between rung 3 and rung 7.
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 Programmable Logic Controllers
Discrete-state control is now implemented by programmable
controller (PC) or programmable logic controller (PLC).
Microprocessor-based controllers have replaced relay logic controllers
due to –
(i) The input and output variables of discrete-state control systems are
binary in nature, just as with a computer.
(ii) Many of the "control relays" of the ladder diagram can be replaced
by software, which means less hardware failure.
(iii) It is easy to make changes in a programmed sequence of events by
change in the software.
(iv) Special functions, such as time-delay actions and counters, are
easy to produce in software.
(v) The semiconductor industry developed solid-state devices that can
control high-power ac/dc in response to low-level commands from a
computer, including SCRs and TRlACs.

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 Why PLC?
Cost effective for controlling complex
systems.
Flexible and can be reapplied to control
other systems quickly and easily.
Computational abilities allow more
sophisticated control.
Troubleshooting aids make programming
easier and reduce downtime.
Reliable components make these likely to
operate for years before failure.
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 Basic Elements of PLC

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 Processor
 A processor is used to execute a program to perform the
operations specified in a ladder diagram or a set of Boolean
equations.
 The processor performs arithmetic and logic operations on
input variable data and determines the required state of the
output variables.
 The processor can only perform one operation at a time.
 Like a computer, it is a serial machine. It must sequentially
sample each of the inputs, evaluate the ladder diagram
program, provide each output, and then repeat the process.
 The heart of a PLC is a microprocessor such as AMD 2901 and
2903.
 With the great increases in processor speed, it is now possible
to employ a desktop personal computer with data I/O boards
running PLC software to emulate PLC operation.
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 Input Modules
 The input modules examine the
state of the switches and other
input devices. The PLC is able to
accommodate a number of inputs,
called channels.
 The input state systems usually
work on 24V dc. This type of
connection assumes that
switches, for example, are wired
to the PLC, as shown in the figure.
 If the switch is closed, the input will be 24V dc and if open the
input will be 0V dc. The input module converts this into the 1 or 0
state for the processor.
 The input modules have a certain number of channels per module.
Each channel is often equipped with an indicator light to show if
the particular input is ON or OFF.
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 Output Modules
 The output module supplies dc
power to external devices. For large
load, an external relay is used, as
shown in the figure.
 Internally, the output module accepts
a 1 or 0 input from the processor and
uses this to turn a control device
such as a TRIAC ON or OFF. The
output module works as a solid-state
relay.
 PLCs are also designed with output modules to provide other
outputs, such as variable-rate pulse outputs (such as would be
required by a stepper motor).
 An output module can have one or several channels per unit. Each
channel is provided with an indicator light to show the particular
channel is ON or OFF. 29
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 Commercial PLC Example

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 PLC Operation
 I/O Scan Mode
– the processor updates all outputs and the state of all inputs
one channel at a time.
– the time required for this depends on the speed of the
processor.
 Execution Mode
– The processor evaluates each rung of the ladder diagram
program that is being executed sequentially.
– As a rung is evaluated, the last known state of each switch and
relay contact in the rung is considered, and if any TRUE path to
the output device is detected, then that output is indicated to
be energized - that is, set to ON.
– At the end of the ladder diagram, the I/O mode is entered
again, and all output devices are provided with the ON or OFF
state determined from execution of the ladder diagram
program. All inputs are sampled, and the execution mode
starts again. 32
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 Scan Time
It is the time required for one complete cycle of I/O scan
and execution.
This depends on how many input and output channels
and on the length of the ladder diagram program, and
also depends on the clock frequency of the processor.
The higher the clock frequency, the greater the speed,
and the faster the scan/execution time.
The length of time for one scan consists of three parts:
i) input time,
ii) execution time, and
iii) output time.
Most of the scan time comes from the execution phase.
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Example 2.7
A PLC with a scan time of 30 ms is used to detect 2 cm objects on a
conveyor. The object breaks a light beam to provide an input to the
PLC. Find the max. conveyor speed to ensure detection of the object.
The photodetector output will be a
high pulse that will last for a time
determined by the conveyor speed:
tpulse = (2cm)/(S cm/s)

To ensure detection, the signal must

last at least until the end of the next
scan input phase. Thus, the pulse time Thus, the maximum conveyor speed
must be: can be determined as,
tpulse = 1 scan time = 30 ms S = (2 cm) / (30 ms) = 66.7 cm/s

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 Programming Unit
Is an external electronic package that is
connected to the programmable controller
when programming occurs.
The unit usually allows input of a program
in ladder diagram symbols.
The unit then transmits tha program into
the memory of the programmable
controller.

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 Programming
Although the PLC can be programmed directly in
ladder diagram symbols through the
programming unit, there are some special
considerations.
These considerations include the availability of
special functions and the relation between
external I/O devices and their programmed
representations.
The programmable controller has no "real" relays
or relay contacts. The relay used in the ladder
diagram programming is only the software
symbols.
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 Addressing
The PLC uses a “device label” method of identifying devices
as for the ladder diagram, but it is referred to as the device
address or channel. The addresses are used to identify
both the physical and software devices according to the
following categories:
(i) Physical input devices - ON or OFF,
(ii) Physical output devices - energized (ON) or de-
energized (OFF),
(iii) Programmed control relay coils and contacts which can
have many pairs of contacts,
(iv) Programmed time-delay relay coils and contacts,
(v) Programmed counters and contacts,
(vi) Special functions.
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 Addressing
 The adress designation depends on the type of
programmable controller.
 Some controllers may reserve certain address for
physical I/O devices, other addresses for software
control relays etc.

PLC Addressing
Function Address

Input channels 00 to 07
Output channels 08 to 15
Internal relays 16 to 31
Timers & counters 32 to 39

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 Programmed Diagram Interpretation
A difference between the interpretation of a
physical ladder diagram and a programmed
ladder diagram arises from the fact that the
programmed diagram bases the state of a
rung on a logical interpretation of the
symbol rather than its physical state.
A complete TRUE path in a rung must exist
for the output to be TRUE or ON.

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 Programmed Diagram Interpretation
 In a physical diagram, the symbol for a NO contact
indicates a normally open contact through which current
cannot flow unless the contact is closed.
 For the NC contact, the current will flow until the
contact is opened.
 In a programmed diagram, the symbol for a NO contact
means that the device is interpreted as FALSE if the
contact is found to be open, and TRUE if it is found to be
closed. We often say it is to be “examine ON”.
 For the NC symbol, if it is found to be closed, then it is
FALSE, and if found open, it is ON. We often say this is an
“examine OFF”.
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 Interpretation of Diagram
Suppose we have a physical NC push-button
switch and we want to turn on a red light when
the switch is pushed.
Figure (a) shows the physical interpretation.
We cannot simply wire the light to the switch
In this case, the light will normally be ON and go
out (OFF) when the switch is pushed

(a)
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 Interpretation of Diagram
Figure (b) shows how to provide the answer in a
physical system with a control relay, CR1.
Now, CR1 is normally energized, so its NC
contacts are open and the light will be OFF.
When the button is pushed, CR1 is de-energized
and the red light comes ON

(b)
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 Interpretation of Diagram
In the programmed system we do not need
either physical or programmed control relay to
do this.
We simply refer to the push button with
“examine OFF” symbol connected directly to the
light.

(c)
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 Interpretation of Diagram
Therefore, it interprets logically as FALSE, and the
light is not energized by the program.
When pushed, it is tested to be closed, and
therefore there is a logic TRUE and the light is
energized.

(c)
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 Connections to PLC for Motor Control
 Suppose we want to implement a latch to turn on and off
a motor using two NO push-button switches.
 Figure below shows how the switches and motor are
physically connected to the input and output channels of
a PLC.

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 Connections to PLC for Motor Control
 We want the motor latched on if PB1 is depressed.
 This would make input channel 1 high.
 Thus, we want an EXAMINE ON condition for this
element of the rung.
 We want the motor to be turned on, and the rung
latched, even though no power is applied to input
channel 3 (that is, PB2 had not been depressed).
 Thus, for this channel we want an EXAMINE OFF (if it is
OFF, then the channel is TRUE).

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Example 2.8
Note: All PLC “AC” terminals
to be connected to the supply
neutral.

Design a program in ladder diagram form and show

the wiring connection achieve the objective:
1. PB1 – red light ON.
2. PB2 – green light ON.
3. Both PB1 and PB2 together – both lights OFF.
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 First objective Second objective
1. Red light on when PB1 is pushed 1. Green light on when PB1 is not
and PB2 is not. pushed and but PB2 is pushed.
2. Since PB1 is NO, true will be ON 2. Since PB2 is NO, true will be ON (PB2
(PB1 has been pushed), and so we has been pushed), and so we need an
need an EXAMINE ON. EXAMINE ON.
3. Since PB2 is NO, true will be OFF, so 3. Since PB1 is NO, true will be OFF, so
we need an EXAMINE OFF. we need an EXAMINE OFF.

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 Counter
 A counter makes an increment to the count each time the
input changes from False to True.
 If in one scan the input is False and in the next scan it is True,
the counter increments. No counts will occur until the input
goes False-True again.
 A counter has two input lines, one for the count input and
another to reset the counter. The counter has an address and
a preset number of counts.
 When the preset number of counts have been accumulated,
the counter becomes True and can activate some other part of
the ladder diagram.

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Example 2.9
 A counter is used to count objects on a conveyor.
 Show how the counter can be set up to count 200 objects
and then turn off the conveyor motor.
 What is the max. conveyor speed to assure that no objects
will be missed in the count if the objects are 1 cm apart?
The scan time is 30 ms.

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Solution

Figure above shows a timing diagram of the PLC scan cycles and the pulses
coming in from detected objects. Remember that there must be a return to
zero (false) before the next object can be detected. This mean that even the
shortest time, which is the 1 cm between objects, must last one full scan to
assure a return to zero.
S = (1 cm) / (30 ms) = 33.3 cm/s
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Solution...
The object detector is connected to input
channel 01, and the conveyor motor to output
channel 08.
The counter is assigned address 32, and the
count is preset to 200.
When a count of 200 occurs, the counter will
become true, and the third rung will become
false, and motor will be off.

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 Timers
 The timer in (a) has an address and the
preset number of ticks to count. The timer
only counts the time while it has a True
input.
 If the input becomes False and then True
again, the timer will reset to zero and start
from the beginning again.
 (b) shows an accumulating timer which
retains a tick count when its input goes
False.
 When the input goes True again, the tick
count will pick up where the previous one
left off, i.e. it continues the count.
 It is necessary to have a reset input to this
timer so that it can be reset back to zero.
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Example 2.9
Draw a ladder diagram using a timer to turn a red light on
for 2500 ms when NO start push button is pushed. The PLC
timer tick is 10 ms. Use a NC stop button to reset.

We need a preset tick count of

2500 ms / 10 ms = 250.

We need to latch the effect of

the push button, since it will
likely not be held for the full
2500ms. Without the latch, the
timer would only count while
the push button is held down.

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Example 2.10
 A mixture in a vat is to be cooked at over 100°C for 10 min. The
temperature may fall below 100 °C during cooking and will not be
counted for cooking time.
 After filling, a NC Start button starts the cooking and ends by a NC Stop
button. A thermal switch goes high when above 100°C. At the end of
cooking the heater is turned off and output valve opens. PLC has a tick
time of 100 ms. Draw the ladder diagram for the process.

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Solution
 Since the tick marks are 10 ms, the required count is
(60s/min)(10 min)/(10 ms) = 6000 counts
 A start/stop latch is used with a programmed control relay to
start the process with the NC switches addressed at 01 and 02.
 The accumulating timer (32) will count so long as the start is
latched and the temperature is above 100oC as indicated by
the thermal switch, address 03.
 As long as the timer has not timed out, the heater is on and
the valve is closed.
 When the timer times out, the heater is turned off and the
valve is opened
 The timer is reset by pressing the stop button.

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Solution...

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Example 2.11
The global objective is to heat a liquid
to and keep at a specified
temperature with stirring for 30 min.

Hardware:
1 Start (NO), Stop (NC),
2 Limit switches have NO and NC.

Event:
1 Fill tank,
2 Heat and stir for 30 min.,
3 Empty tank,
4 Repeat.

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Solution
• The physical ladder diagram is as shown below

Fill tank

Heat, stir 30 min.

Empty tank

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Solution...
 Rung 2 opens the input valve, provided the output valve
is not open, until the full level is reached.
 When the full level is reached, rung 3 turns on the stir,
provided the output valve is not open.
 Rung 4 starts a 30-min timer.
 The heater is controlled by rung 5. the rung is energized
and de-energized as the temperature goes below and
above the limit.
 When the timer times out, the rung is de-energized, and
rung 6 is energized to open the output valve.

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Solution...
The output valve remains open until the
empty limit switch opens.
The output valve cannot be opened as long
as the input valve is open.
The programmed ladder diagram is shown in
the next slide.

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Solution...

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 Q&A

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