Cell Structures: The Basics

The Plasma Membrane—A Cell's Protective Coat

The outer lining of a eukaryotic cell is called the plasma

membrane. This membrane serves to separate and protect a cell
from its surrounding environment and is made mostly from a
double layer of proteins and lipids, fat-like molecules. Embedded
within this membrane are a variety of other molecules that act as
channels and pumps, moving different molecules into and out of
the cell. A form of plasma membrane is also found in prokaryotes,
but in this organism it is usually referred to as the cell membrane.
 
 
The Cytoskeleton—A Cell's Scaffold

The cytoskeleton is an important, complex, and dynamic cell

component. It acts to organize and maintain the cell's shape;
anchors organelles in place; helps during endocytosis, the
uptake of external materials by a cell; and moves parts of the cell
in processes of growth and motility. There are a great number of
proteins associated with the cytoskeleton, each controlling a cell’s
structure by directing, bundling, and aligning filaments.
 
 
The Cytoplasm—A Cell's Inner Space

Inside the cell there is a large fluid-filled space called

thecytoplasm, sometimes called the cytosol. In prokaryotes, this
space is relatively free of compartments. In eukaryotes,
the cytosolis the "soup" within which all of the cell's organelles
reside. It is also the home of the cytoskeleton. The cytosol
contains dissolved nutrients, helps break down waste products,
and moves material around the cell through a process
called cytoplasmic streaming. The nucleus often flows with the
cytoplasm changing its shape as it moves. The cytoplasm also
contains many salts and is an excellent conductor of electricity,
creating the perfect environment for the mechanics of the cell. The
function of the cytoplasm, and the organelles which reside in it,
are critical for a cell's survival.
 

Genetic Material

Two different kinds of genetic material exist: deoxyribonucleic

acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Most organisms are
made of DNA, but a few viruses have RNA as their genetic
material. The biological information contained in an organism is
encoded in its DNA or RNA sequence.
The Ribosome—The Protein Production Machine

Ribosomes are found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Theribosome

complex composed of many molecules, including RNAs and proteins, and is
responsible for processing the genetic instructions carried by an mRNA. The process
of converting an mRNA's genetic code into the exact sequence of amino acids that
make up a protein is called translation. Protein synthesis is extremely important to all
cells, and therefore a large number of ribosomes—sometimes hundreds or even
thousands—can be found throughout a cell.

Ribosomes float freely in the cytoplasm or sometimes bind to another organelle called
the endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes are composed of one large and one small
subunit, each having a different function during protein synthesis.
 

Mitochondria and Chloroplasts—The Power Generators

Mitochondria are self-replicating organelles that occur in various numbers, shapes,

and sizes in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. As mentioned earlier, mitochondria
contain their own genome that is separate and distinct from the nuclear genome of a
cell. Mitochondria have two functionally distinct membrane systems separated by a
space: the outer membrane, which surrounds the whole organelle; and the inner
membrane, which is thrown into folds or shelves that project inward. These inward
folds are calledcristae. The number and shape of cristae in mitochondria differ,
depending on the tissue and organism in which they are found, and serve to increase
the surface area of the membrane.

Mitochondria play a critical role in generating energy in the eukaryotic cell, and this
process involves a number of complex pathways. Let's break down each of these steps
so that you can better understand how food and nutrients are turned into energy
packets and water. Some of the best energy-supplying foods that we eat contain
complex sugars. These complex sugars can be broken down into a less chemically
complex sugar molecule calledglucose. Glucose can then enter the cell through
special molecules found in the membrane, called glucose transporters
the cell, glucose is broken down to make adenosine triphosphate (
energy, via two different pathways.

The first pathway, glycolysis, requires no oxygen and is referred to as

metabolism. Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm outside the mitochondria. During
 glycolysis, glucose is broken down into a molecule called pyruvate
designed to produce some hydrogen ions that can then be used to make energy
packets (ATP). However, only four ATP molecules can be made from one molecule of
glucose in this pathway. In prokaryotes, glycolysis is the only method used for
converting energy.
Prokaryotic genetic material is organized in a simple circular
structure that rests in the cytoplasm. Eukaryotic genetic material is
more complex and is divided into discrete units called genes.
Human genetic material is made up of two distinct components:
the nuclear genome and the mitochondrial genome. The
nuclear genome is divided into 24 linear DNA molecules, each
contained in a different chromosome. Themitochondrial
genome is a circular DNA molecule separate from the nuclear
DNA. Although the mitochondrial genome is very small, it codes
for some very important proteins.
 
 
Organelles

The human body contains many different organs, such as the

heart, lung, and kidney, with each organ performing a different
function. Cells also have a set of "little organs", called organelles,
that are adapted and/or specialized for carrying out one or more
vital functions. Organelles are found only in eukaryotes and are
always surrounded by a protective membrane. It is important to
know some basic facts about the following organelles.
 
 
The Nucleus—A Cell's Center

The nucleus is the most conspicuous organelle found in a

eukaryotic cell. It houses the cell's chromosomes and is the place
where almost all DNA replication and RNA synthesis occur. The
nucleus is spheroid in shape and separated from the cytoplasm by
a membrane called the nuclear envelope. The nuclear envelope
isolates and protects a cell's DNA from various molecules that
could accidentally damage its structure or interfere with its
processing. During processing, DNA is transcribed, or
synthesized, into a special RNA, called mRNA. This mRNA is then
transported out of the nucleus, where it is translated into a specific
protein molecule. In prokaryotes, DNA processing takes place in
the cytoplasm.
 

The Endoplasmic Reticulum and the Golgi Apparatus—

Macromolecule Managers

The Golgi apparatus was

first described in 1898 by
an Italian anatomist
named Camillo olgi.

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the transport network for

molecules targeted for certain modifications and specific
destinations, as compared to molecules that will float freely in the
cytoplasm. The ER has two forms: the rough ER and thesmooth
ER. The rough ER is labeled as such because it has ribosomes
adhering to its outer surface, whereas the smooth ER does not.
Translation of the mRNA for those proteins that will either stay in
the ER or be exported (moved out of the cell) occurs at the
ribosomes attached to the rough ER. The smooth ER serves as
the recipient for those proteins synthesized in the rough ER.
Proteins to be exported are passed to the Golgi apparatus,
sometimes called a Golgi body or Golgi complex, for further
processing, packaging, and transport to a variety of other cellular
locations.

Lysosomes and Peroxisomes—The Cellular Digestive System

Lysosomes and peroxisomes are often referred to as the

garbage disposal system of a cell. Both organelles are somewhat
spherical, bound by a single membrane, and rich in
digestiveenzymes, naturally occurring proteins that speed up
biochemical processes. For example, lysosomes can contain
more than three dozen enzymes for degrading proteins, nucleic
acids, and certain sugars called polysaccharides. All of these
enzymes work best at alow pH, reducing the risk that these
enzymes will digest their own cell should they somehow escape
from the lysosome. Here we can see the importance behind
compartmentalization of the eukaryotic cell. The cell could not
house such destructive enzymes if they were not contained in a
membrane-bound system.