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SUMMARY

LO1 The Avogadro constant (NA =

6.022 ✕ 1023 particles) and the mole
(the amount of a material that
contains this many particles) can be
used to convert among grams of a
substance, moles of a substance, and
number of particles. One mole of
any substance has a mass equal to
the sum of the molar masses of the elements in its
formula. (Section 3.2)
LO2 Balanced chemical equations are essential tools to
describe chemical reactions. Correct equations indicate
the quantitative relationship in terms of moles between
reactants, whose formulas appear first in the equation, and
products, whose formulas appear a er the reaction arrow.
In a balanced chemical equation, the number of atoms of
each element is the same on the reactant side and on the
product side. (Sections 3.1–3.4)
LO3 Mole ratios from balanced chemical equations can be
used to relate the masses of reactants consumed and the
masses of products formed in a chemical reaction.
(Section 3.5)
LO4 Balanced equations and stoichiometric calculations
can be used to determine which substances are limiting
reactants. (Section 3.6)
LO5 The actual yield (o en expressed as percent yield) of
a chemical reaction is frequently less than the theoretical
yield predicted by the stoichiometry of the balanced
chemical equation. If we know the amounts of reactants
consumed and products formed in a chemical reaction, we
can calculate the percent yield as the ratio of actual yield
to theoretical yield, expressed as a percentage. (Section
3.6)
LO6 Writing balanced chemical equations requires
knowing the correct formulas for substances. Empirical
formulas for substances can be determined from their
percent composition by mass. (Section 3.7)
LO7 The molecular formula of a
compound may or may not be the
same as the empirical formula. The
molecular formula can be
determined from the empirical
formula and the molecular mass of
the compound. (Section 3.8)
LO8 Empirical formulas of organic
compounds can be determined from
the combustion analysis. Production
of CO2, H2O, and other oxides can
provide the percent by mass of all
elements in the compound except
oxygen, which can be determined by applying the law of
conservation of mass. (Sections 3.8 and 3.9)

PARTICULATE PREVIEW WRAP-UP

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Ten oxygen molecules will

completely combust the five
methane molecules to produce five
carbon dioxide molecules and ten
water molecules.

PROBLEM-SOLVING

SUMMARY

Type of Concepts and Equations Sample

Problem Exercises

Convert Convert number of particles to moles by dividing by the 3.1, 3.2,

number of Avogadro constant (NA = 6.022 ✕ 1023

particles/mol). 3.6

particles Convert number of moles to particles by multiplying by the

into number Avogadro constant (NA = 6.022 ✕ 1023

particles/mol).

of moles (or

vice versa)

Convert Convert mass of substance to moles by dividing by the 3.3, 3.4,

mass of a molar mass ( ℳ) of the substance. 3.6, 3.7

substance Convert moles of substance to mass by multiplying by the

into number molar mass ( ℳ) of the substance.

of moles (or

vice versa)

Calculate Multiply the molar mass of each element by its subscript 3.5, 3.6,

molar mass in the compound’s formula, then sum the resulting values. 3.7

of a

compound

Write a Change the coefficients in the equation so that the 3.8, 3.9,

balanced numbers of atoms of each element are the same on both 3.10

chemical sides of the reaction arrow.

equation

Write a The C and H in organic compounds react with O2 to form 3.11

balanced CO2 and H2O, for example:

chemical CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g)

equation for Balance moles of C first, then H, then O.

combustion

reaction

Calculate Use ℳreactant

to convert mass of reactant into moles of 3.12,

mass of a reactant, use reaction stoichiometry to calculate moles of 3.13

product product, and then use ℳ product

to calculate mass of

from mass product.

of a

reactant

Identify the Method 1: Calculate how much product each reactant 3.14,

limiting could make; the reactant making the least amount of 3.15

reactant product is the limiting reactant.

Method 2: Convert given masses of reactants into moles.

Compare the mole ratio of reactants to the corresponding

mole ratio in the stoichiometric equation. If

then B is the limiting reactant. If

then A is the limiting reactant.

Calculate Calculate the theoretical yield of product using the mass 3.16,

percent of limiting reactant. Divide actual yield (given) by 3.17

yield theoretical yield:

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Type of Concepts and Equations Sample

Problem Exercises

Calculate Calculate the molar mass of the compound represented 3.18

percent by the chemical formula and divide it into the mass of

composition each element in 1 mole of the compound:

from a

chemical

formula

Determine Assuming a 100.00-g sample, assign the mass (g) of each 3.19,

an empirical element to equal its percentage. Divide the mass of each 3.20

formula element by its molar mass to get moles. Simplify mole

from ratios to lowest whole numbers and use those numbers as

percent subscripts in the empirical formula of the compound.

composition

Relate Calculate the multiplier n by dividing the compound’s 3.21

empirical molecular mass by its empirical formula mass. Multiply

and the subscripts in the empirical formula by this conversion

molecular factor.

formulas

Determine For hydrocarbons, convert given masses of CO2 and H2O 3.22,

an empirical into moles of CO2 and H2O, and then to moles of C and H. 3.23

formula For compounds containing O, convert moles of C and H

from into masses of C and H and subtract the sum of these

combustion values from the sample mass to calculate mass of O.

analysis Convert mass of O to moles of O. Simplify the mole ratio

of C to H to O.

VISUAL PROBLEMS

3.1. Each of the pairs of containers pictured in Figure P3.1

contains substances composed of elements X (red
spheres) and Y (blue spheres). For each pair, write a
balanced chemical equation describing the reaction
that takes place. Be sure to indicate the physical states
of the reactants and products, using the appropriate
symbols in parentheses.

FIGURE P3.1

3.2. Identify the limiting reactant in each of the pairs of

containers pictured in Figure P3.2. The red spheres
represent atoms of element X, whereas the blue
spheres represent atoms of element Y. Each question
mark means that there is unreacted reactant le over.
Identify which reactant is represented by the question
mark.
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mark. Summary

FIGURE P3.2

3.3. Which of the drawings in Figure P3.3 best illustrates

the 100% reaction between N2 and O2 to produce
N2O? The red spheres represent atoms of oxygen,
whereas the blue spheres represent atoms of nitrogen.

FIGURE P3.3

3.4. Is there a limiting reactant in any of the reactions

depicted in Figure P3.3? If so, what is it, and how
much of the excess reactant remains?
3.5. Which of the molecules in Figure P3.5 have the same
empirical formulas?

FIGURE P3.5

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3.6. Which of the pairs of particulate images in Figure

P3.6 represent balanced chemical equations? Write
balanced chemical equations for any pairs of
particulate images that are unbalanced as drawn. The
red spheres represent oxygen, black represent carbon,
blue represent nitrogen, and yellow represent sulfur.

FIGURE P3.6

3.7. The two major products of combustion are CO2 and

H2O. Figure P3.7 shows two mass spectra. Which
belongs to water, and which belongs to carbon
dioxide?

FIGURE P3.7

3.8. Figure P3.8 shows the mass spectrum of a simple

hydrocarbon that is a widely used fuel for heating and
electricity generation. What is the molecular formula
of this hydrocarbon?

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FIGURE P3.8

3.9. What is the percent yield of NH3 for the reaction

depicted in Figure P3.9? The blue spheres represent
nitrogen, whereas the white spheres are hydrogen.

FIGURE P3.9

3.10. Use representations [A] through [I] in Figure P3.10 to

answer questions (a)–(f).
a. Which two different compounds have the same
empirical formula?
b. Which compound has a molecular mass of 180 u?
c. Which compound might have a molar mass of 180
g?
d. Which compound has the largest percent oxygen
by mass?
e. The mass of one gold bar in [D] is 12.4 kg. The
mass of one silver bar in [E] is 31 kg. Which
contains more atoms—the gold bar or the silver
bar?
f. When completely combusted, which compound
will produce more moles of carbon dioxide—
benzene [A] or table sugar [C]?

FIGURE P3.10
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QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

Air, Life, and Molecules

Concept Review

3.11. In a combination reaction, can the reactants be two

elements? Two compounds? One compound and
one element?
3.12. Based on the compositions and physical states of
Earth’s various layers (Figure 3.3), does Al2O3 or Ni
have the higher melting point?
3.13. Based on the distribution of the elements in Earth’s
layers (see Figure 3.3), which of the following
substances should be the densest? (a) SiO2(s); (b)
Al2O3(s); (c) Fe( )
𝓁

*3.14. The proportions of the elements that make up the

asteroid 433 Eros are like those that make up Earth.
Scientists believe that this similarity means that 433
Eros and Earth formed around the same time. If
another asteroid formed a er Earth formed a solid
crust, and if this asteroid was the product of a
collision between Earth and an even larger asteroid,
how would the new asteroid’s composition differ
from that of 433 Eros?
The Mole

Concept Review

3.15. In principle we could use the more familiar unit

dozen in place of mole when expressing the
quantities of particles (atoms, ions, or molecules) in
chemical reactions. What would be the disadvantage
in doing so?
3.16. In what way are the molar mass of an ionic
compound and its formula mass the same, and in
what ways are they different?
3.17. Do molecular compounds containing three atoms
per molecule always have a molar mass greater than
that of molecular compounds containing two atoms
per molecule? Explain.
3.18. Without calculating their molar masses (though you
may consult the periodic table), predict whether NO2
or N2O has the larger molar mass.
Problems

3.19. Earth’s atmosphere contains many volatile

substances that are present in trace amounts. The
following quantities of these trace gases were found
in a 1.0 mL sample of air. Calculate the number of
moles of each gas in the sample.
a. 4.4 ✕ 1014 atoms of Ne(g)
b. 4.2 ✕ 1013 molecules of CH4(g)
c. 2.5 ✕ 1012 molecules of O3(g)
d. 4.9 ✕ 109 molecules of NO2(g)
3.20. The following quantities of trace gases were found
in a 1.0 mL sample of air. Calculate the number of
moles of each compound in the sample.
a. 1.4 ✕ 1013 molecules of H2(g)
b. 1.5 ✕ 1014 atoms of He(g)
c. 7.7 ✕ 1012 molecules of N2O(g)
d. 3.0 ✕ 1012 molecules of CO(g)

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3.21. How many atoms of titanium are there in 0.125 mol

of each of the following?
a. ilmenite, FeTiO3
b. titanium(IV) chloride
c. Ti2O3
d. Ti3O5
3.22. How many atoms of iron are there in 2.5 moles of
each of the following?
a. wolframite, FeWO4
b. pyrite, FeS2
c. magnetite, Fe3O4
d. hematite, Fe2O3

3.23. Which substance in each of the following pairs of

quantities contains more moles of sulfur?
a. 3 moles of Al2S3 or 4 moles of Fe2S3
b. 3 moles of Li2SO4 or 4 moles of CaS
c. 2 moles of SO3 or 2 moles of SO2
3.24. Which substance in each of the following pairs of
quantities contains more moles of nitrogen?
a. 2 moles of Li3N or 0.5 mole of Ca(NO3)2
b. 1 mole of NO or 0.4 mole of NO2
c. 3 moles of NF3 or 1 mole of N2O5

3.25. Elemental Composition of Amino Acids Carbon,

hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen are the most
prevalent components of amino acids, the
fundamental building blocks of proteins in living
systems. How many moles of oxygen atoms are in
1.50 moles of the following compounds?
a. Glycine, the smallest amino acid: C2H5NO2
b. Lysine, essential in the diet of humans: C6H14N2O2
c. Asparagine, produced in our bodies: C4H8N2O3
3.26. Composition of Uranium OresThe uranium used for
nuclear fuel exists in nature in several minerals.
Calculate how many moles of uranium are in 1 mole
of the following:
a. carnotite, K2(UO2)2(VO4)2
b. uranophane, CaU2Si2O11
c. autunite, Ca(UO2)2(PO4)2

3.27. How many moles of carbon are there in 500.0 g of

carbon?
3.28. How many moles of gold are there in 2.00 ounces of
gold?

3.29. When iridium-192 is

Cancer Therapy with Iridium Metal

used in cancer treatment, a small cylindrical piece of

192Ir, 0.6 mm in diameter and 3.5 mm long, is
surgically inserted into the tumor. If the density of
iridium is 22.42 g/cm3, how many iridium atoms are
present in the sample?
*3.30. Gold NanoparticlesThe product shown in Figure
P3.30 contains gold nanoparticles in water. The
manufacturer claims that drinking this beverage
improves human health. How many gold atoms are
in a gold nanoparticle with a diameter of 2.00 nm (d
= 19.3 g/mL, 1 u = 1.66054 ✕ 10−24 g)?

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FIGURE P3.30

3.31. Calculate the molar masses of the following

molecules found in Earth’s atmosphere: (a) SO2; (b)
O3; (c) CO2; (d) N2O5.
3.32. Determine the molar masses of the following
minerals:
a. rhodonite, MnSiO3
b. scheelite, CaWO4
c. ilmenite, FeTiO3
d. magnesite, MgCO3

3.33. Flavoring AdditivesCalculate the molar masses of the

following common flavors in food:
a. vanillin, C8H8O3
b. oil of cloves, C10H12O2
c. anise oil, C10H12O
d. oil of cinnamon, C9H8O
3.34. Sweeteners Calculate the molar masses of the
following common sweeteners:
a. sucrose, C12H22O11
b. saccharin, C7H5NO3S
c. aspartame, C14H18N2O5
d. fructose, C6H12O6

3.35. How many grams of iron are there in 1 mole of the

following compounds? (a) FeO; (b) Fe2O3; (c)
Fe(OH)3; (d) Fe3O4
3.36. How many grams of sodium are there in 1 mole of
the following compounds? (a) NaCl; (b) Na2SO4; (c)
Na3PO4; (d) NaNO3

3.37. How many moles of SiO2 are there in a quartz

crystal (SiO2) that has a mass of 45.2 g?
3.38. How many moles of NaCl are there in a crystal of
halite that has a mass of 6.82 g?

3.39. Early Atmosphere I In Urey and Miller’s experiments,

some of the gases they reacted were H2O, H2S, SO2,
and SO3. Suppose four balloons are each filled with
10.0 g of one of these gases. Which balloon contains
the most molecules?
3.40. Which contains more atoms? (a)
Early Atmosphere II

0.1 mol H2O or 0.1 mol H2S; (b) 0.1 mol SO3 or 0.2
mol SO2

3.41. What is the mass of 0.122 mol MgCO3?

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3.42. What is the volume of 1.00 mol benzene (C6H6) at

20°C? The density of benzene is 0.879 g/mL.

*3.43. The density of uranium (U; 19.05 g/cm3) is more

than five times greater than that of diamond (C;
3.514 g/cm3). If you have a cube (1 cm on a side) of
each element, which cube contains more atoms?
*3.44. Aluminum (d = 2.70 g/mL) and strontium (d = 2.64
g/mL) have nearly the same density. If we
manufacture two cubes, each containing 1 mole of
one element or the other, which cube will be
smaller? What are the dimensions of this cube?
Writing Balanced Chemical Equations

Concept Review

3.45. In a balanced chemical equation, does the number

of moles of reactants always equal the number of
moles of products?
3.46. In a balanced chemical equation, does the sum of
the coefficients for the reactants always equal the
sum of the coefficients for the products?
3.47. In a balanced chemical equation, must the sum of
the masses of all the gaseous reactants always equal
the sum of the masses of the gaseous products?
3.48. In an unbalanced chemical equation, can the
equation be balanced by changing subscripts in
formulas rather than changing coefficients?
Problems

3.49. Using different-colored spheres to represent C and

O, sketch the reaction between four C atoms and the
necessary number of O2 molecules that forms an
equal number of CO and CO2 molecules.
3.50. Using different-colored spheres to represent N and
O, sketch the reaction between three molecules of N2
and sufficient O2 to produce a mixture in which
there are an equal number of NO2 and N2O4
molecules.

3.51. Ammonia (NH3) can be formed by the reaction of

two elements. What is the coefficient of NH3(g) in the
balanced chemical equation?
3.52. Aluminum reacts with elemental oxygen at high
temperatures to give pure aluminum oxide. What is
the coefficient of O2(g) in the balanced chemical
equation?

*3.53. Chemical Weathering of Rocks and Minerals Write

balanced chemical equations for the following
chemical reactions, which contribute to weathering
of the iron–silicate minerals ferrosilite (FeSiO3),
fayalite (Fe2SiO4), and greenalite [Fe3Si2O5(OH)4]:
a. FeSiO3(s) + H2O( ) → Fe3Si2O5(OH)4(s) +
𝓁

H4SiO4(aq)
b. Fe2SiO4(s) + CO2(g) + H2O( ) → FeCO3(s) +
𝓁

H4SiO4(aq)
c. Fe3Si2O5(OH)4(s) + CO2(g) + H2O( ) → FeCO3(s) +
𝓁

H4SiO4(aq)
3.54. Chemistry of Geothermal Vents Some scientists believe
that life on Earth may have originated near deep-
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ocean vents. Write balanced chemical equations
describing the following reactions, which are among
those taking place near such vents:
a. CH3SH(aq) + CO(aq) → CH3COSCH3(aq) + H2S(aq)
b. H2S(aq) + CO(aq) → CH3CO2H(aq) + S8(s)

3.55. The oxides of

Physiologically Active Nitrogen Oxides

nitrogen are biologically reactive substances. NO is a

powerful agent for dilating blood vessels; N2O is the
anesthetic known as laughing gas; NO2 has an acrid
odor and is corrosive to lung tissue. Write balanced
chemical equations describing the following
reactions for the formation of nitrogen oxides:
a. N2(g) + O2(g) → NO(g)
b. NO(g) + O2(g) → NO2(g)
c. NO(g) + NO3(g) → NO2(g)
d. N2(g) + O2(g) → N2O(g)
3.56. Purifying Natural GasIf natural gas contains significant
amounts of sulfur as H2S, it is called sour natural gas.
For the gas to be commercially useful as a fuel, the
H2S must be removed. Once it is separated from the
natural gas, it is reacted with oxygen in two different
processes to yield either elemental sulfur (S8), a
commercial material that can be sold, or sulfur
dioxide (SO2). This sulfur dioxide product can be
reacted with more H2S to make additional elemental
sulfur. Write balanced chemical equations describing
the following reactions linked to the production of
elemental sulfur.
a. H2S(g) + O2(g) → S8(s) + H2O(g)
b. H2S(g) + O2(g) → SO2(g) + H2O(g)
*c. H2S(g) + SO2(g) → S8(s) + H2O(g)

*3.57. Write a balanced chemical equation for each of the

following reactions:
a. Dinitrogen pentoxide reacts with sodium metal to
produce sodium nitrate and nitrogen dioxide.
b. A mixture of nitric acid and nitrous acid is
formed when water reacts with dinitrogen
tetroxide.
c. At high pressure, nitrogen monoxide reacts to
form dinitrogen monoxide and nitrogen dioxide.
d. Acetylene (C2H2) burns and becomes carbon
dioxide and water vapor.
3.58. Write a balanced chemical equation for each of the
following reactions:
a. Carbon dioxide reacts with carbon to form carbon
monoxide.
b. Potassium reacts with water to give potassium
hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
c. Phosphorus (P4) burns in air to give diphosphorus
pentoxide.
d. Octane (C8H18) burns and becomes carbon dioxide
and water vapor.
Combustion Reactions; Stoichiometric

Calculations and the Carbon Cycle

Concept Review

3.59. Does the sum of the masses of the products always

equal the sum of the masses of the reactants in a
balanced chemical equation?
*3.60. There are two ways to write the equation for the
combustion of ethane:

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Do these two different ways of writing the equation

affect the calculation of how much CO2 is produced
from a known quantity of C2H6?
Problems

3.61. The manufacture of aluminum includes the

production of cryolite (Na3AlF6) from the following
reaction:
6 HF(g) + 3 NaAlO2(s) → Na3AlF6(s) + 3 H2O( ) + Al2O3(s)
𝓁

How much NaAlO2 (sodium aluminate) is required

to produce 1.00 kg of Na3AlF6?
3.62. Chromium metal can be produced from the high-
temperature reaction of Cr2O3 [chromium(III)
oxide] with silicon or aluminum by each of the
following reactions:
Cr2O3(s) + 2 Al( ) → 2 Cr( ) + Al2O3(s)
𝓁 𝓁

2 Cr2O3(s) + 3 Si( ) → 4 Cr( ) + 3 SiO2(s)

𝓁 𝓁

a. Calculate the number of grams of aluminum

required to prepare 400.0 g of chromium metal by
the first reaction.
b. Calculate the number of grams of silicon required
to prepare 400.0 g of chromium metal by the
second reaction.

3.63. When NaHCO3 is heated above 80°C, it decomposes

as described by this chemical equation:
2 NaHCO3(s) → Na2CO3(s) + H2O(g) + CO2(g)
How many grams of Na2CO3 are produced from the
decomposition of 50.0 g NaHCO3?
3.64. Pb(OH)Cl, one of the lead
Egyptian Cosmetics

compounds used in ancient Egyptian cosmetics, was

prepared from PbO according to the following
recipe:
PbO(s) + NaCl(aq) + H2O( )→ Pb(OH)Cl(s) + NaOH(aq)
𝓁

How many grams of PbO and how many grams of

NaCl would be required to produce 10.0 g of
Pb(OH)Cl?

*3.65. Suppose the fuel for an electric power plant is coal

that contains 3.0% sulfur by mass. During
combustion, the sulfur is converted into sulfur
dioxide. How many grams of sulfur dioxide are
produced for every kilogram of coal that is burned
to produce electricity?
*3.66. The uranium minerals found in nature must be
refined and enriched in 235U before the uranium
can be used as a fuel in nuclear reactors. One
procedure for enriching uranium relies on the
reaction of UO2 with HF to form UF4, which is then
converted into UF6 by reaction with fluorine:
UO2(g) + 4 HF(aq) → UF4(g) + 2 H2O( ) 𝓁

UF4(g) + F2(g) → UF6(g)

a. How many kilograms of HF are needed to
completely react with 5.00 kg of UO2?
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completely react with 5.00 kg of UO2?
Summary

b. How much UF6 can be produced from 850.0 g of

UO2?

3.67. In Brazil automobiles use ethanol (C2H6O) as fuel,

whereas in the United States we rely on gasoline.
Using C8H18 (octane) to represent gasoline, write
balanced chemical equations for the complete
combustion of ethanol and octane. Which fuel
produces more CO2 per gram of fuel?
3.68. Driving 1000 miles a month is not unusual for a
short-distance commuter. If your vehicle gets 25
mpg, you would use 40 gallons (͌150 L) of gasoline
every month. If gasoline is approximated as C8H18 (d
= 0.703 g/mL), how much carbon dioxide does your
vehicle emit every month?

3.69. Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) is an abundant copper

mineral that can be converted into elemental copper.
How much Cu could be produced from 1.00 kg of
CuFeS2?
*3.70. Mining for Gold Unlike most metals, gold is found in
nature as the pure element. Miners in California in
1849 searched for gold nuggets and gold dust in
streambeds, where the denser gold could be easily
separated from sand and gravel. However, larger
deposits of gold are found in veins of rock and can
be separated chemically in a two-step process:
(1) 4 Au(s) + 8 NaCN(aq) + O2(g) + 2 H2O( ) → 4
𝓁

NaAu(CN)2(aq) + 4 NaOH(aq)
(2) 2 NaAu(CN)2(aq) + Zn(s) → 2 Au(s) +
Na2[Zn(CN)4](aq)
If a 1.0 ✕ 103 kg sample of rock is 0.019% gold by
mass, how much Zn is needed to react with the gold
extracted from the rock? Assume that reactions (1)
and (2) are 100% efficient.
Limiting Reactants and Percent Yield

Concept Review

3.71. If a reaction vessel contains equal masses of Fe and S,

a mass of FeS corresponding to which of the
following could theoretically be produced?
a. the sum of the masses of Fe and S
b. more than the sum of the masses of Fe and S
c. less than the sum of the masses of Fe and S
3.72. Can the percent yield of a chemical reaction ever
exceed 100%?
3.73. Give two reasons that the actual yield from a
chemical reaction is usually less than the theoretical
yield.
3.74. A chemical reaction produces less than the expected
amount of product. Is this result a violation of the
law of conservation of mass?
3.75. Laboratory Errors A student conducting an experiment
based on the thermal decomposition of NaHCO3
(see Problem 3.63) accidentally spills some of the
reactant a er determining its mass and before
placing it in an oven set at 110°C. The student
decides to carry out the decomposition reaction on
what is le . How will the lost NaHCO3 affect the
results of the experiment, including the mass of the
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decomposed sample and the calculated values of the

actual yield and percent yield?
3.76. Consider the reaction of 10 g A with 10 g B in the
combination reaction A + B → C. How do the
theoretical yield, actual yield, and percent yield
change (or not change) if 20 g A are reacted with 20
g B?
Problems

3.77. Making Hollandaise Sauce A recipe for 1 cup of

hollandaise sauce calls for cup of butter, cup of
hot water, 4 egg yolks, and the juice of a medium-
sized lemon. How many cups of this sauce can be
made from a pound (2 cups) of butter, a dozen eggs,
4 medium lemons, and an unlimited supply of hot
water?
3.78. A factory making toy wagons has 13,466 wheels,
3360 handles, and 2400 wagon beds in stock. What
is the maximum number of wagons the factory can
make?

3.79. Given the amounts of reactants shown, calculate the

theoretical yield in grams of the product of each of
these unbalanced descriptions of chemical reactions.
a. Li(s) + N2(g) → Li3N(s)
5.0 g 2.0 g ? g
b. P2O5(s) + H2O( ) → H3PO4(aq)
𝓁

25.0 g 36.0 g ? g
c. SO2(g) + O2(g) → SO3(g)
6.4 g 4.0 g ? g
3.80. Given the amounts of reactants shown, calculate the
theoretical yield in grams of the product indicated
by the question mark for each of these unbalanced
descriptions of chemical reactions.
a. Cu2O(s) + H2(g) → Cu(s) + H2O( ) 𝓁

30.0 g 12.0 g ? g
b. Mg(s) + HCl(g) → MgCl2(s) + H2(g)
24.3 g 10.0 g ? g
c. CuCl2(aq) + Zn(s) → Cu(s) + ZnCl2(aq)
11.6 g 10.0 g ? g

3.81. Ammonia rapidly reacts with hydrogen chloride,

making ammonium chloride. Write a balanced
chemical equation for the reaction and calculate the
number of grams of excess reactant when 3.0 g of
NH3 reacts with 5.0 g of HCl.
3.82. Sulfur trioxide dissolves in water, producing H2SO4.
How much sulfuric acid can be produced from 10.0
mL of water (d = 1.00 g/mL) and 25.6 g of SO3?

*3.83. Phosgenite, a lead compound with the formula

Pb2Cl2CO3, is found in ancient Egyptian cosmetics.
Phosgenite was prepared by the reaction of PbO,
NaCl, H2O, and CO2. An unbalanced description of
the reaction is
PbO(s) + NaCl(aq) + H2O( ) + CO2(g) → Pb2Cl2CO3(s) +
𝓁

NaOH(aq)
a. Write a balanced chemical equation describing
the reaction.
b. How many grams of phosgenite can be obtained
from 10.0 g of PbO and 10.0 g of NaCl in the
presence of excess water and CO2?
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presence of excess waterSummary
and CO2?
c. If 2.72 g of phosgenite is produced in the
laboratory from the amounts of starting materials
stated in part (b), what is the percent yield of the
reaction?
3.84. Potassium superoxide (KO2) reacts with carbon
dioxide to form potassium carbonate and oxygen:
4 KO2(s) + 2 CO2(g) → 2 K2CO3(s) + 3 O2(g)
This reaction makes potassium superoxide useful in
a self-contained breathing apparatus. How much O2
could be produced from 2.50 g of KO2 and 4.50 g of
CO2?

3.85. The reaction of 5.0 g of pentane (C5H12) with 5.0 g of

oxygen gas produces 20.4 g of CO2. What is the
percent yield of this reaction?
3.86. Baking soda (NaHCO3) can be made in large
quantities by the following reaction:
NaCl(aq) + NH3(aq) + CO2(aq) + H2O( ) → NaHCO3(s) +
𝓁

NH4Cl(aq)
If 10.0 g of NaCl reacts with excesses of the other
reactants and 4.2 g of NaHCO3 is isolated, what is the
percent yield of the reaction?

3.87. Chemistry of FermentationYeast converts glucose

(C6H12O6) into ethanol (d = 0.789 g/mL) in a process
called fermentation. An equation for the reaction
can be written as follows:
C6H12O6(aq) → C2H5OH( ) + CO2(g)
𝓁

a. Write a balanced chemical equation for this

fermentation reaction.
b. If 100.0 g of glucose yields 50.0 mL of ethanol,
what is the percent yield for the reaction?
*3.88. Composition of Seawater A 1 liter sample of seawater
contains 19.4 g of Cl−, 10.8 g of Na+, and 1.29 g of
Mg2+.
a. How many moles of each ion are present?
b. If we evaporated the seawater, would there be
enough Cl− present to form the chloride salts of
all the sodium and magnesium present?
Determining Empirical Formulas from Percent

Composition; Comparing Empirical and

Molecular Formulas

Concept Review

3.89. What is the difference between an empirical

formula and a molecular formula?
3.90. Why is the empirical formula of an ionic compound
represented by a formula unit? Why is the term
molecular formula inappropriate to use when
describing ionic compounds?
3.91. Do the empirical and molecular formulas of a
compound always have the same percent
composition values? Explain your answer.
3.92. Is the element with the largest atomic mass always
the element present in the highest percentage by
mass in a compound? Explain your answer.
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3.93. Among the naturally occurring hydrocarbons

emitted by plants are three compounds named
camphene, carene, and thujene. If all three of these
compounds have the same percent composition and
the same molar mass, do they have the same
empirical formula? Do they have the same
molecular formula? Are they isomers?
*3.94. How might the compounds in Problem 3.93 differ
from each other if they have the same molar mass
and percent composition?
Problems

3.95. Gasoline consists primarily of a mixture of the

hydrocarbons C6H14, C7H16, C8H18, and C9H20. What
is the empirical formula of each compound?
3.96. The biosynthesis of carbohydrate includes the
molecules shown below. What is the empirical
formula of each compound shown in Figure P3.96?

FIGURE P3.96

3.97. Calculate the percent composition of (a) Na2O, (b)

NaOH, (c) NaHCO3, and (d) Na2CO3.
3.98. Calculate the percent composition of (a) sodium
sulfate, (b) dinitrogen tetroxide, (c) strontium nitrate,
and (d) aluminum sulfide.

3.99. Organic Compounds in SpaceThe following

compounds have been detected in space. Which of
them contains the greatest percentage of carbon by
mass? Do any two of the following compounds have
the same empirical formula?
a. naphthalene, C10H8
b. chrysene, C18H12
c. pentacene, C22H14
d. pyrene, C16H10
3.100. Of the nitrogen oxides—N2O, NO, N2O3, N2O2,
NO2, and N2O4—which are more than 50% oxygen
by mass? Which, if any, have the same empirical
formula?

3.101. Methane (CH4) and tetrafluoromethane (CF4) both

contain 20% carbon per mole. Which one has the
greater percent C by mass?
3.102. Silane (SiH4) is used in the electronics industry to
manufacture thin films of silicon. What is the
percent Si by mass in SiH4? Does silane have the
same percent Si by mass as disilane (Si2H6)?

3.103. Surgical-Grade TitaniumMedical implants and high-

quality jewelry items for body piercings are
frequently made of a material known as G23Ti, or
surgical-grade titanium. The percent composition
of the material is 64.39% titanium, 24.19%
aluminum, and 11.42% vanadium. What is the
empirical formula for surgical-grade titanium?
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3.104. A sample of an iron-containing compound is 22.0%

iron, 50.2% oxygen, and 27.8% chlorine by mass.
What is the empirical formula of this compound?

3.105. Sour CandyTartaric acid (C4H6O6) and citric acid

(C6H8O7) are both used commercially to give sour
candies (Figure P3.105) their characteristic sour
taste. Which compound has the larger percent C
by mass?

FIGURE P3.105

3.106. ChlorofluorocarbonsCFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) are

molecules used as refrigerants, but they also
contribute to the destruction of the ozone layer.
One CFC consists of two carbon atoms, two
fluorine atoms, and four chlorine atoms. What is
the empirical formula of this CFC? What is its
molecular formula?

3.107. Asbestosis Asbestosis is a lung disease caused by

inhaling asbestos fibers. In addition, fiber from a
form of asbestos called chrysotile is considered to
be a human carcinogen by the U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services. Chrysotile’s
composition is 26.31% magnesium, 20.20% silicon,
and 1.45% hydrogen, with the remainder of the
mass as oxygen. Determine the empirical formula
of chrysotile.
3.108. Chemistry of SootA candle flame produces easily
seen specks of soot near the edges of the flame,
especially when the candle is moved. A piece of
glass held over a candle flame will become coated
with soot, which is the result of the incomplete
combustion of candle wax. Elemental analysis of a
compound extracted from a sample of this soot
gave these results: 92.26% C and 7.74% H by mass.
Calculate the empirical formula of the compound.

3.109. Making the DNA Bases Adenine (135.14 g/mol; 44.44%

C, 3.73% H, and 51.84% N) was detected in mixtures
of HCN, ammonia, and water under conditions
that simulate early Earth. This observation suggests
a possible origin for one of the bases found in
DNA. What are the empirical and molecular
formulas for adenine?
3.110. Making Sugars for RNARibose, the sugar found in
RNA, has been detected in experiments designed
to mimic the conditions of early Earth. If ribose
contains 40.00% C, 6.71% H, and 53.28% O, with a
molar mass of 150.13 g/mol, what are the empirical
and molecular formulas for ribose?
Combustion Analysis

Concept Review

3.111. Explain why it is important for combustion analysis

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to be carried out in an excess of oxygen.

3.112. Why is the quantity of CO2 obtained in a
combustion analysis not a direct measure of the
oxygen content of the starting compound?
3.113. What additional information is needed to
determine a molecular formula from the results of
an elemental analysis of an organic compound?
*3.114. If a compound containing sulfur is subjected to
combustion analysis in excess oxygen, what is the
most likely molecular formula for the sulfur-
containing product?
*3.115. If a compound containing nitrogen is subjected to
combustion analysis in excess oxygen, what is the
most likely molecular formula for the nitrogen-
containing product?
*3.116. Suppose an insufficient amount of oxygen is used
for a combustion analysis of a hydrocarbon, and
some of the carbon is converted to CO rather than
to CO2. Will the empirical formula determined
from the results of this analysis be too low or too
high in carbon?
Problems

3.117. The combustion of 135.0 mg of a hydrocarbon

produces 440.0 mg of CO2 and 135.0 mg of H2O.
The molar mass of the hydrocarbon is 270 g/mol.
Determine the empirical and molecular formulas
of this compound.
3.118. A 0.100-g sample of a compound containing C, H,
and O is burned in oxygen, producing 0.1783 g of
CO2 and 0.0734 g of H2O. Determine the empirical
formula of the compound.

3.119. GRAS List for Food AdditivesThe compound geraniol

(ℳ = 154.25 g/mol) is on the Food and Drug
Administration’s GRAS (generally recognized as
safe) list and can be used in foods and personal
care products. By itself, geraniol smells like roses,
but it is frequently blended with other fragrances
on the GRAS list and then added to products to
produce a pleasant peachlike or lemonlike aroma.
In an analysis, the complete combustion of 175 mg
of geraniol produced 499 mg of CO2 and 184 mg of
H2O. What are the empirical and molecular
formulas of geraniol?
*3.120. The combustion of 40.5 mg of a compound
containing C, H, and O, and extracted from the
bark of the sassafras tree, produces 110.0 mg of
CO2 and 22.5 mg of H2O. The molar mass of the
compound is 162 g/mol. Determine its empirical
and molecular formulas.

3.121. Ethnobotany One of the ingredients in the Native

American stomachache remedy derived from
common chokecherry is caffeic acid (ℳ = 180.16
g/mol). Combustion of 1.00 ✕ 102 mg of caffeic
acid yielded 220 mg of CO2 and 40.3 mg of H2O.
What are the empirical and molecular formulas of
caffeic acid?
3.122. Coniine (ℳ = 127.23 g/mol), a substance isolated
from poison hemlock, contains only carbon,
hydrogen, and nitrogen. Combustion of 5.024 mg
of coniine yields 13 90 mg CO2 and 6 048 mg of
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of coniine yields 13.90 mgSummary
CO2 and 6.048 mg of
H2O. What are the empirical and molecular
formulas of coniine?
Additional Problems

*3.123. As a solution of copper sulfate slowly evaporates,

beautiful blue crystals made of copper(II) and
sulfate ions form such that water molecules are
trapped inside the crystals. The overall formula of
the compound is CuSO4 · 5H2O.
a. What is the percent by mass of water in this
compound?
b. At high temperatures, the water in the
compound is driven off as steam. What mass
percentage of the original sample of the blue
solid is lost as a result?
3.124. Production of Aluminum Aluminum is mined as the
mineral bauxite, which consists primarily of Al2O3
(alumina).
a. How much aluminum is produced from 1 metric
ton (1 metric ton = 103 kg) of Al2O3?
2 Al2O3(s) → 4 Al(s) + 3 O2(g)
b. The oxygen produced in part (a) can react with
carbon to produce carbon monoxide:
O2(g) + 2 C(s) → 2 CO(g)
Write a balanced chemical equation describing
the reaction involving the following reactants
and products:
Al2O3(s) + C(s) → Al(s) + CO(g)
c. How much CO can be produced from the O2
made in part (a)?
*3.125. Chemistry of Copper Production “Native,” or
elemental, copper can be found in nature, but
most copper is mined as oxide or sulfide minerals.
Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) is one copper mineral that
can be converted to elemental copper in a series of
chemical steps. Reacting chalcopyrite with oxygen
at high temperature produces a mixture of copper
sulfide and iron oxide. The iron oxide is separated
from CuS by reaction with sand. CuS is converted
to Cu2S, and the Cu2S is then burned in air to
produce Cu and SO2:
(1) 2 CuFeS2(s) + 3 O2(g) → 2 CuS(s) + 2 FeO(s) + 2
SO2(g)
(2) FeO(s) + SiO2(s) → FeSiO3(s)
(3) 2 CuS(s) → Cu2S(s) + S8(s)
(4) Cu2S(s) + O2(g) → 2 Cu(s) + SO2(g)
An average copper penny minted in the 1960s has
a mass of about 3.0 g.
a. How much chalcopyrite had to be mined to
produce one dollar’s worth of pennies?
b. How much chalcopyrite had to be mined to
produce one dollar’s worth of pennies if reaction
1 above had a percent yield of 85% and reactions
2, 3, and 4 had percent yields of essentially
100%?
c. How much chalcopyrite had to be mined to
produce one dollar’s worth of pennies if each
reaction involving copper proceeded with an
85% yield?
*3.126. Gold can be extracted from the
Mining for Gold

surrounding rock by using a solution of sodium

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cyanide. Although effective for isolating gold, toxic

cyanide finds its way into watersheds, causing
environmental damage and harming human
health.
4 Au(s) + 8 NaCN(aq) + O2(g) + 2 H2O( ) → 4 NaAu(CN)2(aq)
𝓁

+ 4 NaOH(aq)
2 NaAu(CN)2(aq) + Zn(s) → 2 Au(s) + Na2[Zn(CN)4](aq)
a. If a sample of rock contains 0.009% gold by
mass, how much NaCN is needed to extract the
gold from 1 metric ton (1 metric ton = 103 kg) of
rock as NaAu(CN)2?
b. How much zinc is needed to convert the
NaAu(CN)2 from part (a) to metallic gold?
c. The gold recovered in part (b) is manufactured
into a gold ingot in the shape of a cube. The
density of gold is 19.3 g/cm3. How big is the cube
of gold?
*3.127. Preparing Nuclear Reactor Fuel Uranium oxides used
in the preparation of fuel for nuclear reactors are
separated from other metals in minerals by
converting the uranium to UOx(NO3)y(H2O)z,
where uranium has a positive charge ranging from
3+ to 6+.
a. Roasting UOx(NO3)y(H2O)z at 400°C leads to loss
of water and decomposition of the nitrate ion to
nitrogen oxides, leaving behind a product with
the formula UaOb that is 83.22% U by mass. What
are the values of a and b? What is the charge on
U in UaOb?
b. Higher temperatures produce a different
uranium oxide, UcOd, with a higher uranium
content, 84.8% U. What are the values of c and d?
What is the charge on U in UcOd?
c. The values of x, y, and z in UOx(NO3)y(H2O)z are
found by gently heating the compound to
remove all the water. In a laboratory
experiment, 1.328 g of UOx(NO3)y(H2O)z
produced 1.042 g of UOx(NO3)y. Continued
heating generated 0.742 g of UnOm. Using the
information in parts (a) and (b), calculate x, y,
and z.
*3.128. Large quantities of fertilizer are
Fate of Fertilizer

washed into the Mississippi River from

agricultural land in the Midwest. The excess
nutrients collect in the Gulf of Mexico, promoting
the growth of algae and endangering other aquatic
life.
a. One commonly used fertilizer is ammonium
nitrate. What is the chemical formula of
ammonium nitrate?
b. Corn farmers typically use 5.0 ✕ 103 kg of
ammonium nitrate per square kilometer of
cornfield per year. Ammonium nitrate can be
prepared by the following reaction:
NH3(aq) + HNO3(aq) → NH4NO3(aq)
How much nitric acid would be required to
make the fertilizer needed for 1 km2 of cornfield
per year?
c. The ammonium ions can be converted into
NO3– by bacterial action.
NH4+(aq) + 2 O2(g) → NO3−(aq) + H2O( ) + 2 H+
𝓁

(aq)

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If 10% of the ammonium component of 5.0 ✕ 102

kg of fertilizer ends up as nitrate, how much
oxygen would be consumed?
3.129. Composition of Over-the-Counter Medicines Calculate
the number of molecules or formula units of
compound in each of the following common, over-
the-counter medications:
a. ibuprofen, a pain reliever and fever reducer that
contains 200.0 mg of the active ingredient,
C13H18O2
b. an antacid containing 500.0 mg of calcium
carbonate
c. an allergy tablet containing 4 mg of
chlorpheniramine (C16H19ClN2)
3.130. Chemistry of Pain RelieversThe common pain
relievers aspirin (C9H8O4), acetaminophen
(C8H9NO2), and naproxen sodium (C14H13O3Na)
are all available in tablets containing 200.0 mg of
the active ingredient. Which compound contains
the greatest number of molecules per tablet? How
many molecules of the active ingredient are
present in each tablet?
3.131. Some catalytic converters in automobiles contain
the manganese oxides Mn2O3 and MnO2.
a. What are the names of Mn2O3 and MnO2?
b. Calculate the percent manganese by mass in
Mn2O3 and MnO2.
c. Explain how Mn2O3 and MnO2 are consistent
with the law of multiple proportions.
*3.132. Several chemical reactions have been proposed for
the formation of organic compounds from
inorganic precursors. Here is one of them:
H2S(g) + FeS(s) + CO2(g) → FeS2(s) + HCO2H( ) 𝓁

a. Identify the ions in FeS and FeS2. Give correct

names for each compound.
*b. How much HCO2H is obtained by reacting 1.00
g of FeS, 0.50 g of H2S, and 0.50 g of CO2 if the
reaction results in a 50.0% yield?
*3.133. The formation of organic compounds by the
reaction of iron(II) sulfide with carbonic acid is
described by the following chemical equation:
2 FeS(s) + H2CO3(aq) → 2 FeO(s) + 1/n (CH2O)n(s) + 2 S(s)
a. How much FeO is produced starting with 1.50 g
of FeS and 0.525 mol of H2CO3 if the reaction
results in a 78.5% yield?
*b. If the carbon-containing product has a molar
mass of 3.00 ✕ 102 g/mol, what is the chemical
formula of the product?
3.134. On the seafloor, iron(II)
Marine Chemistry of Iron

oxide reacts with water to form Fe3O4 and

hydrogen in a process called serpentization.
a. Write a balanced chemical equation describing
serpentization using these reactants and
products:
FeO(s) + H2O( ) → Fe3O4(s) + H2(g)
𝓁

b. When CO2 is present, the product is methane,

not hydrogen. Write a balanced chemical
equation based on these reactants and products:
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FeO(s) + H2O( ) + CO2(g) → Fe3O4(s) + CH4(g)

𝓁

3.135. The solar wind is made up

Composition of Solar Wind

of ions, mostly protons, flowing out from the Sun

at about 400 km/s. Near Earth, each cubic
kilometer of interplanetary space contains, on
average, 6 ✕ 1015 solar-wind ions. How many moles
of ions are in a cubic kilometer of near-Earth
space?
3.136. The Hope Diamond at the Smithsonian National
Museum of Natural History has a mass of 45.52
carats (Figure P3.136). Diamond is a crystalline
form of carbon.
a. How many moles of carbon are in the Hope
Diamond (1 carat = 200.0 mg)?
b. How many carbon atoms are in the diamond?

FIGURE P3.136

*3.137. E-85 is an alternative fuel for automobiles and

light trucks that consists of 85% (by volume)
ethanol (CH3CH2OH) and 15% gasoline. The
density of ethanol is 0.79 g/mL. How many moles
of ethanol are in a gallon of E-85?
*3.138. A 100.00-g sample of white powder A is heated to
550°C. At that temperature the powder
decomposes, giving off colorless gas B, which is
denser than air and is neither flammable nor does
it support combustion. The products also include
56 g of a second white powder C. When gas B is
bubbled through a solution of calcium hydroxide,
substance A reforms. What are the identities of
substances A, B, and C?
*3.139. You are given a 0.6240-g sample of a substance
with the generic formula MCl2(H2O)2. A er
complete drying of the sample (which means
removing the 2 moles of H2O per mole of MCl2),
the sample has a mass of 0.5471 g. What is the
identity of element M?
3.140. A compound found in crude oil consists of 93.71% C
and 6.29% H by mass. The molar mass of the
compound is 128 g/mol. What is its molecular
formula?
3.141. A reaction vessel for synthesizing ammonia by
reacting nitrogen and hydrogen is charged with
6.04 kg of H2 and excess N2. A total of 28.0 kg of
NH3 is produced. What is the percent yield of the
reaction?
3.142. If a cube of table sugar, which is made of sucrose
(C12H22O11) is added to concentrated sulfuric acid,
the acid “dehydrates” the sugar, removing the
hydrogen and oxygen from it and leaving behind a
lump of carbon. What percentage of the initial
mass of sugar is carbon?
*3.143. A power plant burns 1.0 ✕ 102 metric tons of coal
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that contains 3.0% (by mass) sulfur (1 metric ton =
103 kg). The sulfur is converted to SO2 during
combustion.
a. How many metric tons of SO2 are produced?
b. When SO2 escapes into the atmosphere, it may
combine with O2 and H2O, forming sulfuric acid
(H2SO4). Write a balanced chemical equation
describing this reaction.
c. How many metric tons of sulfuric acid, a
component of acid rain, could be produced
from the quantity of SO2 calculated in part (a)?
3.144. Reducing SO2 Emissions With respect to the previous
question, one way to reduce the formation of acid
rain involves trapping the SO2 by passing
smokestack gases through a spray of calcium oxide
and O2. The product of this reaction is calcium
sulfate.
a. Write a balanced chemical equation describing
this reaction.
b. How many metric tons of calcium sulfate would
be produced from each ton of SO2 that is
trapped?
3.145. In the early 20th century, Londoners suffered from
severe air pollution caused by burning high-sulfur
coal. The sulfur dioxide that was emitted into the
air mixed with London fog, forming sulfuric acid.
For every gram of sulfur that was burned, how
many grams of sulfuric acid could have formed?
*3.146. Gas Grill ReactionThe burner in a gas grill mixes 24
volumes of air for every one volume of propane
(C3H8) fuel. Like all gases, the volume that propane
occupies is directly proportional to the number of
moles of it at a given temperature and pressure.
Air is 21% (by volume) O2. Is the flame produced by
the burner fuel-rich (excess propane in the
reaction mixture), fuel-lean (not enough propane),
or stoichiometric ( just right)?
3.147. If you had equal masses of the substances in the
following pairs of compounds, which of the two
would contain the greater number of ions? (a) NaBr
or KCl; (b) NaCl or MgCl2; (c) BaCl2 or Li2CO3
*3.148. Ozone Generators Some indoor air-purification
systems work by converting a little of the oxygen
in the air to ozone, which oxidizes mold and
mildew spores and other biological air pollutants.
The chemical equation for the ozone generation
reaction is
3 O2(g) → 2 O3(g)
It is claimed that one such system generates 4.0 g
of O3 per hour from dry air passing through the
purifier at a flow of 5.0 L/min. If 1 liter of indoor
air contains 0.28 g of O2,
a. what fraction of the molecules of O2 is
converted to O3 by the air purifier?
b. what is the percent yield of the ozone
generation reaction?
3.149. Rebreathing DevicesIn the first episode of George
Lucas’s Star Wars series, Qui-Gon Jinn and Obi-
Wan Kenobi can visit the underwater world of the
Gungans only by using A99 Aquata Breathers,
which allow them to survive underwater for up to
two hours. Although the tiny devices may be from
the farfetched world of science fiction, current
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the farfetched world of science
Summary
fiction, current
technology exists for transforming carbon dioxide
to oxygen. These self-contained rebreathers are
used by a select group of underwater cave
explorers and can act as self-rescue devices. The
chemistry is based on the following chemical
reactions, using either potassium superoxide or
sodium peroxide:
4 KO2(s) + 2 CO2(g) → 2 K2CO3(s) + 3 O2(g)
2 Na2O2(s) + 2 CO2(g) → 2 Na2CO3(s) + O2(g)
a. The respiratory rate at rest for an average,
healthy adult is 12 breaths per minute. If the
average breath takes in 0.500 L of O2 (d = 1.429
g/L) into the lungs, how many grams of KO2 are
needed to produce enough oxygen for 2 hours
underwater?
b. Would you need more or less Na2O2 to produce
an equivalent amount of oxygen?
c. Given the densities of KO2 (d = 2.14 g/mL) and
Na2O2 (d = 2.805 g/mL), which solid material
would occupy less volume in a rebreather
device?
3.150. Smelly Socks Socks containing silver nanoparticles
embedded in the fabric are currently marketed as
an antidote to smelly socks. Silver is known to have
antimicrobial properties, and silver ions are toxic
to aquatic life. A study at Arizona State University
found that much of the silver particles are lost
upon laundering the socks in mild acid.
a. Each sock in the study began with 1360 μg of
silver. How many moles of silver are contained
in each sock?
b. As much as 650 μg of silver was lost a er four
washings. What percent of the silver was lost?

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