M195325 FARAI NYAKUDANGA DATA COMMS AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

QUESTION 1

a) Give an overview of the distance vector method of updating routing table information.
In particular, explain using an example how information about a node failure propagates
using this algorithm. What problem is encountered in deciding whether a host has
become unreachable? In what circumstances is it impossible to resolve this problem?
[12]
Solution

Distance vector routing uses a distance metric, (round trip time physical distance
number of network hops) to select the best current path to each reachable destination in
the network.

To compute its routing table a host computes the value of the chosen metric with respect
to al l its neighbours, and also obtains the routing vectors of all its neighbours. It then
computes the distance metric to a destination A for each (neighbour, destination) pair.
The host then chooses the neighbour with the minimum distance value to be used to
forward messages to the destination A. This process is repeated for al l destinations in
the network.

When a host fails in the network this information propagates very slowly, since each
host updates its vector to be the minimum of its neighbours’ vector entries plus its delay
to that neighbour. How do we decide that the delay vector entry has become high
enough to register the host as unreachable? This is called the count to infinity problem.

b) What are the different types of networks? Explain in detail.

Solution

Personal Area Network (PAN)

A personal area network (PAN) is the interconnection of information technology devices

within the range of an individual person, typically within a range of 10 meters.
M195325 FARAI NYAKUDANGA DATA COMMS AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

For example, a person traveling with a laptop, a personal digital assistant (PDA), and a
portable printer could interconnect them without having to plug anything in, using some form
of wireless technology.

Typically, this kind of personal area network could also be interconnected without wires to
the Internet or other networks.

PANs can be used for communication among the personal devices themselves (intrapersonal
communication), or for connecting to a higher-level network and the Internet (an uplink).
However, it is possible to have multiple individuals using this same network within a
residence.

If this is the case, we can refer to the network as Home Area network (HAN). In this type of
setup, all the devices are connected together using both wired and/or wireless.

All networked devices can be connected to a single modem as a gateway to the Internet.

Local Area Network (LAN)

A LAN normally covers an area less than 2 mi; a WAN can be worldwide. Networks of a size
in

between are normally referred to as metropolitan area networks and span tens of miles.

A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and links the devices in a single
office, building, or campus. LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared between
personal computers or workstations.

The resources to be shared can include hardware (e.g., a printer), software (e.g., an
application program), or data.

A common example of a LAN, found in many business environments, links a work group of
task-related computers, for example, engineering workstations or accounting PCs.
M195325 FARAI NYAKUDANGA DATA COMMS AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

Wide Area Network (WAN)

A wide area network (WAN) provides long-distance transmission of data, image, audio, and
video information over large geographic areas that may comprise a country, a continent, or
even the whole world.

A WAN can be as complex as the backbones that connect the Internet or as simple as a dial-
up line that connects a home computer to the internet.

We normally refer to the first one as a switched WAN and to the second as a point-to-point
WAN.

The switched WAN connects the end systems, which usually comprise a router (inter
networking connecting device) that connects to another LAN or WAN.

The point-to-point WAN is normally a line leased from a telephone or cable TV provider that
connects a home computer or a small LAN to an internet service provider (ISP).

A good example of a switched WAN is X.25, the asynchronous transfer mode (ATM)
network.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size between a LAN and a WAN.

It normally covers the area inside a town or a city.

It is designed for customers who need a high-speed connectivity, normally to the Internet, and
have endpoints spread over a city or part of city.

A good example of a MAN is the part of the telephone company network that can provide a
high-speed DSL line to the customer.
M195325 FARAI NYAKUDANGA DATA COMMS AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

QUESTION 2

a) Consider the problem of managing traffic in a TCP connection that consist of a

wireless and optical fibre section. Discuss how the characteristics of the different
sections of the network affect the interpretation of metrics that are used to measure
congestion. Describe two approaches to resolving the issues that arise in this situation
and comment on their elegance and efficiency.
[10]
Solution

There are problems when managing traffic in a TCP connection thus the flow control
mechanism uses a sliding-window protocol for end-to-end flow control. This protocol is
implemented by making the receiver advertise in its acknowledgement the amount of bytes it
is willing to receive in the future, called the advertised window to avoid the receiver’s buffer
from overflow. By looking at the advertised window, the sender will resist transmitting data
that exceeds the amount that is specified in the advertised window.

However, the advertised window does not prevent the buffers in the intermediate routers from
overflowing due to which routers get overloaded. Because IP does not provide any
mechanism to control congestion, it is up to the higher layer to detect congestion and take
proper action. It turns out that TCP window mechanism can also be used to control
congestion in the network. The protocols designers have to see that the network should be
utilized very efficiently. If the senders are too aggressive and send too many packets, the
network will experience congestion.

On the other hand, if TCP senders are too conservative, the network will be underutilized.
The maximum amount of bytes that a TCP sender can transmit without congesting the
network is specified by another window called the congestion window. To avoid network
congestion and receiver buffer overflow, the maximum amount of data that the TCP sender
M195325 FARAI NYAKUDANGA DATA COMMS AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

can transmit at any time is the minimum of the advertised window (receiver window) and the
congestion window.

The TCP slow start works when the transmission of data from sender to receiver begins in a
network, there may be unknown conditions as to what the network can handle. Slow start
helps to mitigate the pitfalls of this unknown by implementing the following functionality.

 A sender begins transmissions to a receiver by slowly probing the network with a

packet that contains its initial congestion window (cwnd).
 The client receives the packet and replies with its maximum buffer size, also known
as the receiver's advertised window (rwnd).
 If the sender receives an acknowledgement from the client, it then doubles the amount
of packets to send to the client.
 Step 3 is repeated until the sender no longer receives acknowledgment from the
receiver which means either congestion is detected, or the client's window limit has
been reached.

b) Describe the operation of the Slow Start Algorithm. Explain how the algorithm works
and draw a graph which explains how the algorithm behaves over time in response to
changes in network. What enhancements can be made to the standard algorithm to
make it more responsive?

Solution

Description

Slow start algorithm is an algorithm which balances the speed of a network

connection. Slow start gradually increases the amount of data transmitted until it finds
the network’s maximum carrying capacity.
M195325 FARAI NYAKUDANGA DATA COMMS AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

Slow start prevents a network from becoming congested by regulating the amount of
data that’s sent over it. It negotiates the connection between a sender and receiver by
defining the amount of data that can be transmitted with each packet, and slowly
increases the amount of data until the network’s capacity is reached. This ensures that
as much data is transmitted as possible without clogging the network.

Operation

TCP slow start is one of the first steps in the congestion control process. It balances
the amount of data a sender can transmit (known as the congestion window) with the
amount of data the receiver can accept (known as the receiver window). The lower of
the two values becomes the maximum amount of data that the sender is allowed to
transmit before receiving an acknowledgment from the receiver.

how slow start algorithm works Step-by-step:

 A sender attempts to communicate to a receiver. The sender’s initial packet
contains a small congestion window, which is determined based on the
sender’s maximum window.
 The receiver acknowledges the packet and responds with its own window size.
If the receiver fails to respond, the sender knows not to continue sending data.
 After receiving the acknowledgement, the sender increases the next packet’s
window size. The window size gradually increases until the receiver can no
longer acknowledge each packet, or until either the sender or the receiver’s
window limit is reached.
 Once a limit has been determined, slow start’s job is done. Other congestion
control algorithms take over to maintain the speed of the connection.
M195325 FARAI NYAKUDANGA DATA COMMS AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

QUESTION 3

a) Write a paragraph on each of the following topics concerning the implementation and
operation of mobile IP
i. List four important limitations requirements that are to be taken into
consideration when implementing mobile IP.

Solution

-"Triangle routing" Problem

-Handoff Problem
-Problem of Intra-Domain Movement
-QoS Problem
M195325 FARAI NYAKUDANGA DATA COMMS AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

ii. What are Foreign and Local Agents? Outline the services they provide to a
mobile host.
[2]

Solution

Local agents (LA) implements level of indirection between the mobile host
and correspondents
– Accepts traffic sent to home address
– Tunnels traffic to the mobile host (using care-of address) – And vice versa,
correspondent none the wiser

Foreign agents (FA) represents mobile in foreign network

 Foreign agent can be care-of address
 Mobile host does not need its own address in foreign network
 deal with local mobility locally

iii. How does traffic destined to a mobile host in a remote location get to the correct
destination network without detours? [6]

Solution

 Firstly, in order to determine whether the mobile host is in remote the

traffic has to go through the ending process. When a mobile host shows up
at a foreign site, it obtains a new IP address (called a care-of address) at the
foreign site. The mobile then tells the home agent where it is now by giving
it the care-of address.
 When a packet for the mobile arrives at the home site and the mobile is
elsewhere, the home agent grabs the packet and tunnels it to the mobile at
the current care-of address.
M195325 FARAI NYAKUDANGA DATA COMMS AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

 The mobile can send reply packets directly to whoever it is communicating

with, but still using its home address as the source address. This solution
meets all the requirements stated above except that packets for mobile hosts
do make detours.

b) Explain what framing is and describe two framing methods. Give the advantages and
disadvantages of these methods. Framing is used in conjunction with payload stuffing. What
is stuffing? Give an example of character and bit stuffing and comment on their relative
efficiencies in terms of data transmission overhead. [6]

Solution

Framing is a point to point connection between two computers or devices which consists of a
wire in which data is transmitted as a stream of bits. However, these bits must be framed into
discernible blocks of information. It is a function of data link layer. Two framing methods are
fixed size framing and variable sized framing.
Fixed sized framing is when the size of the frame is fixed and so the frame length acts as
delimiter of the frame. There is no need for defining the boundaries of the frames i.e. where it
starts and were it ends. An example, ATM wide area network uses frames of fixed size called
cells but it has got its drawback which is it suffers from internal fragmentation if data size is
less than frame size.
There is no need for defining the boundaries of the frames; the size itself can be used as a
delimiter. An example of this type of framing is the ATM wide-area network, which uses
frames of fixed size called cells.

Variable sized framing is prevalent in local area networks. In variable-size framing, there is
need to define the end of the frame and the beginning of the next frame to distinguish. As it
can be solved it has got its disadvantage that it is costly and obsolete method. Historically, two
approaches were used for this purpose a character-oriented approach and a bit-oriented
approach.
In variable sized frames the size of each frame to be transmitted may be different or varying.
So additional mechanisms are kept to mark the end of frame and the beginning of the next
frame.

Stuffing
M195325 FARAI NYAKUDANGA DATA COMMS AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

Stuffing is the mechanism of inserting one or more non-information bits into a message to be
transmitted, to break up the message sequence, for synchronization purpose.

character stuffing:

example: sender stuffs an extra DLE into the data stream just before each occurrence of
an ‘accidental’ DLE in the data stream. The data link layer on the receiving end unstuffs
the DLE before giving the data to the network layer.

Bit stuffing:

Each frame begins and ends with a special bit pattern called a flag byte [01111110]. {Note this
is 7E in hex} • Whenever sender data link layer encounters five consecutive ones in the data
stream, it automatically stuffs a 0 bit into the outgoing stream. • When the receiver sees five
consecutive incoming ones followed by a 0 bit, it automatically destuffs the 0 bit before sending
the data to the network layer.
M195325 FARAI NYAKUDANGA DATA COMMS AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

QUESTION 4

a) Bring out the difference between Synchronous, Asynchronous and Isochronous

transmission. [3]
Solution

 Synchronous:
this is continuous transmission with no gaps between transmission of successive
data items.
Using synchronous transmission, a sender transmits bits continually with no idle
time between successive bits. synchronous transmission is like sending an Ethernet
frame. the clock rate has already been established by the protocol. There is a start
or ag byte at the start of the frame for synchronization.
 Asynchronous
the system allows the physical medium to be idle for an arbitrary time between
successive data transmissions. When transmitting data, usually the sender starts
with extra bits called starts bits or preamble before sending the data. Asynchronous
is like the rs232 transmissions on the console cable. The sender will transmit a bit
M195325 FARAI NYAKUDANGA DATA COMMS AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

with a start bit at the front and a stop bit at the end. When the receiver reads a start
bit it will start reading the byte at its clock rate till it reads the stop bit.
 Isochronous
is designed to provide a steady bit flow for multimedia applications. An
isochronous network is designed to accept and send data at a fixed rate. As an
example, an isochronous mechanism designed to transfer voice operates at 64,000
bits/s. The sender must generate digitized audio continuously at exactly 64000
bit/s. A receiver must be able to accept and play the stream. So, isochronous, not
only is the clock rate synchronous but so is the data rate.

b) Explain the following in detail.

i. Parity bit technique of error detection. [4]

Solution

 It is the simplest technique for detecting and correcting errors. The MSB of
an 8-bits word is used as the parity bit and the remaining 7 bits are used as
data or message bits. The parity of 8-bits transmitted word can be either even
parity or odd parity.
 Even parity-- Even parity means the number of 1's in the given word
including the parity bit should be even.
 Odd parity -- Odd parity means the number of 1's in the given word including
the parity bit should be odd.
 Parity checking at the receiver can detect the presence of an error if the parity
of the receiver signal is different from the expected parity. That means, if it is
known that the parity of the transmitted signal is always going to be "even"
and if the received signal has an odd parity, then the receiver can conclude
that the received signal is not correct.

ii. Longitudinal Redundancy Check technique of error detection. [4]

M195325 FARAI NYAKUDANGA DATA COMMS AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

Solution

In this error detection method, a block of bits is organized in a table with rows and
columns. Then the parity bit for each column is calculated and a new row of eight
bits, which are the parity bits for the whole block, is created. After that the new
calculated parity bits are attached to the original data and sends to the receiver.

 In longitudinal redundancy method, a Block of bits are arranged in a table

format (in rows and columns) and we will calculate the parity bit for each
column separately. The set of these parity bits are also sent along with our
original data bits.
 Longitudinal redundancy check is a bit-by-bit parity computation, as we
calculate the parity of each column individually. This method can easily detect
burst errors and single bit errors and it fails to detect the 2bit errors occurred
in same vertical slice. In order to detect an error, a redundant bit is added to the
whole block and this block is transmitted to receiver.
 The receiver uses this redundant row to detect error. After checking the data
for errors, receiver accepts the data and discards the redundant row of bits.
 For example, if a block of 32 bits is to be transmitted, it is divided into matrix
of four rows and eight columns which as shown in the following figure:
M195325 FARAI NYAKUDANGA DATA COMMS AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

 In this matrix of bits, a parity bit (odd or even) is calculated for each column. It
means 32 bits data plus 8 redundant bits are transmitted to receiver. Whenever
data reaches at the destination, receiver uses LRC to detect error in data.

iii. Discuss Cyclic Redundancy Check technique of error detection [4]

Solution
Cyclic Redundancy Check is the most powerful and easy to implement technique.
Unlike checksum scheme, which is based on addition, CRC is based on binary division.

In CRC, a sequence of redundant bits, called cyclic redundancy check bits, are
appended to the end of data unit so that the resulting data unit becomes exactly divisible
by a second, predetermined binary number.

At the destination, the incoming data unit is divided by the same number. If at this step
there is no remainder, the data unit is assumed to be correct and is therefore accepted.
A remainder indicates that the data unit has been damaged in transit and therefore must
be rejected.

 Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) technique. An error detection mechanism

in which a special number is appended to a block of data in order to detect any
changes introduced during storage (or transmission). The CRC is recalculated
on retrieval (or reception) and compared to the value originally transmitted,
which can reveal certain types of error.
 For example, a single corrupted bit in the data results in a one-bit change in
the calculated CRC, but multiple corrupt bits may cancel each other out. One
of the most common, and one of the most powerful, error-detecting codes is
the cyclic redundancy check (CRC), s. Given a k-bit block of bits, or message,
the transmitter generates a sequence, known as a frame check sequence (FCS),
M195325 FARAI NYAKUDANGA DATA COMMS AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

such that the resulting frame, consisting of n bits, is exactly divisible by some
predetermined number.
 The receiver then divides the incoming frame by that number and, if there is
no remainder, assumes there was no error. Polynomial codes treat bit strings
as representative of polynomials with coefficients of 0 and 1 only. A cyclic
redundancy check is an error detection code commonly used in digital
networks and storage devices to detect accidental changes to raw data.

c) Explain the working principle of Wireless LAN’s.

Solution

 A wireless local area network (WLAN) provides access to the Internet without the
need for cables or other wires hooking directly into a computer.

 Instead, an access point (AP) connects other wireless devices to a local area network
(LAN). Then high-frequency radio waves transmit the signal from the LAN to a
mobile computer.
M195325 FARAI NYAKUDANGA DATA COMMS AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

 Wireless LANs consist of components similar to traditional Ethernet-wired LANs. In

fact, wireless LAN protocols are similar to Ethernet and comply with the same form
factors. The big difference, however, is that wireless LANs don't require wires.
 Users of wireless LANs operate a multitude of devices, such as PCs, laptops, and
PDAs. The use of wireless LANs to network stationary PCs is beneficial because of
limited needs for wiring.
 A major part of a wireless LAN includes a radio NIC that operates within the
computer device and provides wireless connectivity. A wireless LAN radio NIC,
sometimes referred to as a radio card, often implements the 802.11 standard. Wireless
LAN radio cards that implement multiple versions of the standard and provide
better interoperability are becoming more common.
 An access point contains a radio card that communicates with individual user devices
on the wireless LAN, as well as a wired NIC that interfaces to a distribution system,
M195325 FARAI NYAKUDANGA DATA COMMS AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

such as Ethernet. System software within the access point bridges together the
wireless LAN and distribution sides of the access point.
 The wireless LAN’s require network interface cards and adapter cards to function.
Wireless networks can be configured to provide the same network functionality as
wired networks, ranging from simple peer-to-peer configurations to large-scale
networks accommodating hundreds of users.

Question 5

a. Describe the OSI seven-layer model. Name each of the layers in the model and
draw a diagram that shows the ordering of these layer. Write a paragraph
describing the areas of function that each layer is responsible for.

Solution

The OSI Model is a logical and conceptual model that defines network
communication used by systems open to interconnection and communication with
other systems. The Open System Interconnection (OSI Model) also defines a logical
network and effectively describes computer packet transfer by using various layers of
protocols. It sets guidelines and specifications that assist in the transfer of data
between dissimilar hosts or network environments - meaning, for example, that they
enable us to transfer data between a UNIX system (or environment) to a Microsoft or
M195325 FARAI NYAKUDANGA DATA COMMS AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

a MAC system. OSI model is a layered server architecture system in which each layer
is defined according to a specific function to perform. All these seven layers work
collaboratively to transmit the data from one layer to another. The seven layers
include physical layer, data link layer, network layer, transport layer, session layer,
presentation layer and application layer in descending order.

Application layer interacts with an application program, which is the highest level of
OSI model. The application layer is the OSI layer, which is closest to the end-user. It
means OSI application layer allows users to interact with other software application.
Application layer interacts with software applications to implement a communicating
component. The interpretation of data by the application program is always outside
M195325 FARAI NYAKUDANGA DATA COMMS AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

the scope of the OSI model. Example of the application layer is an application such as
file transfer, email, remote login, etc.
Presentation layer allows you to define the form in which the data is to exchange
between the two communicating entities. It also helps you to handles data
compression and data encryption. This layer transforms data into the form which is
accepted by the application. It also formats and encrypts data which should be sent
across all the networks. This layer is also known as a syntax layer. It provides a user
interface and support for services like email and file transfer.

Session Layer controls the dialogues between computers. It helps you to establish
starting and terminating the connections between the local and remote application.
Session layer enables two systems to enter into a dialog and It also allows a process to
add a checkpoint to steam of data.

The transport layer builds on the network layer to provide data transport from a
process on a source machine to a process on a destination machine. It is hosted using
single or multiple networks, and also maintains the quality-of-service functions.
Transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process on the
destination machine. It also makes sure that the entire message arrives without any
error else it should be retransmitted.

The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring
variable length data sequences from one node to another connected in "different
networks". Message delivery at the network layer does not give any guaranteed to be
reliable network layer protocol.

Data link layer corrects errors which can occur at the physical layer. The layer
allows you to define the protocol to establish and terminates a connection between
two connected network devices. Allows you to add header to the frame to define the
physical address of the source and the destination machine. Datalink layer also
provides a mechanism to transmit data over independent networks which are linked
together.
M195325 FARAI NYAKUDANGA DATA COMMS AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

The physical layer helps you to define the electrical and physical specifications of
the data connection. This level establishes the relationship between a device and a
physical transmission medium. The physical layer is not concerned with protocols or
other such higher-layer items. Examples of hardware in the physical layer are network
adapters, Ethernet, repeaters, networking hubs, etc.

b. Contrast the OSI model you have just described with the TCP/IP reference model.
Using a diagram show the correspondence between relevant protocol layers in the
two models.

Solution

TCP/IP and OSI are the two most widely used networking models for
communication. There are some similarities and dissimilarities between them.

One of the major difference is that OSI is a conceptual model which is not
practically used for communication, whereas, TCP/IP is used for establishing a
connection and communicating through the network.

The OSI model mainly emphasis on the services, interfaces and protocols; make a
clear distinction between these concepts. Conversely, the TCP model is not able to
distinctly describe these concepts. Furthermore, the TCP/IP enables only
connectionless communication mode in the network layer but both modes
(Connectionless and connection-oriented) in the transport layer.

When it comes to the OSI model, it supports connectionless and connection-

oriented communication over the network layer but in the transport layer,
connection-oriented communication is merely allowed.
M195325 FARAI NYAKUDANGA DATA COMMS AND COMPUTER NETWORKS
M195325 FARAI NYAKUDANGA DATA COMMS AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

c. Discuss the relative merits of each of these models in the context of modern computer
networking.

Solution
M195325 FARAI NYAKUDANGA DATA COMMS AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

 Political influence on the OSI model thus the OSI protocol stack represents a design
philosophy created by committee. The OSI model is hierarchical, and the same
benefits and merits can apply to any layered model. The primary purposes all such
models, especially the OSI model, is to allow different manufacturers network devices
to interoperate (work harmoniously together). Where we have several computer
networks in the modern computer networking. OSI, it divides the network
communication process into smaller and simpler components, thus aiding component
development, design and troubleshooting.
 TCP/IP model is in very wide use and is well understood. TCP/IP has proven very
robust and well-engineered. The internet being a packet switching network, data is
transmitted by converting it into small packets. The software or protocol that is
responsible for making the internet function efficiently is TCP/IP, which stands for
Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol.
 OSI provides a much better model of layering and clearly defines and separates
protocols, interfaces and services. This allows for greater flexibility and allows the
layers to be viewed and implemented independently of each other.
 OSI failed to gain wide acceptance in the industry and consequently is largely of
academic interest, and the issue of TCP/IP describes a protocol, it is not really a
standard.