Welcome to

Thermodynamics II
ME 204

Dr. Awad Alquaity

 Thermodynamics II
What is Thermodynamics?
• Science of energy
• Deals with heat and work and relates it to properties of substances

1st steam (heat) engine is developed (18th Century)

• Led to the industrial revolution
• Resulted in the invention of cars, trains, airplanes, electricity thereby
creating huge demand for oil!

How it will prepare you as an engineer?

• Engineer develops (economic) solutions to technical problems
• Teaches you engineering analysis
• Thermodynamics II covers all major applications of Thermodynamics
Power Plants
Engines
Jet Engines
Refrigeration & Air Conditioning
Thermodynamics II
 Evaluation and Communication
Textbook: Principles of Engineering Thermodynamics 8th edition by Michael
Moran, Howard N. Shapiro, Daisie D. Boettner and Margaret B. Bailey.

Homework – 10% ; assigned from textbook

Quizzes – 5 (best 4 will be considered) ; will contribute 8%
Pop-quizzes – 6 (best 4 will be considered); will contribute 2%
Mid-term Exam – 25 %
Class Tests – 2; will contribute 10%
Group Project – 10%
Final Exam – 35%

All online Quizzes, exams and homework/project submissions through Blackboard

Communication through Blackboard announcements and/or emails – keep checking

Blackboard and email regularly (at least once a day!)

Office Hours: 9 – 10 am (UTR) and 2 – 3 pm (T) on Teams. Setup an appointment

via email to meet at other times.

Email: [email protected]
Quick Revision of ME 203
 Systems, Surroundings and Boundary
• System: A quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study.
• Surroundings: The mass or region outside the system
• Boundary: The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from
its surroundings.
• The boundary of a system can be fixed or movable.

Boundary fixed
Boundary

System Surroundings
movable
 Closed and Open Systems
•Systems may be considered to be closed or open.

Closed system (Control Mass):

A fixed amount of mass, and no mass can cross its boundary.

Boundary
Mass

Energy
 Closed and Open Systems
• Open system (control volume): A properly selected
region in space through which mass flows
• It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow
such as a compressor, turbine, or nozzle.
• Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a
control volume.

• Control surface: The boundaries of a control

volume. It can be real or imaginary, fixed or moving

An open system (a
control volume) with one
inlet and one exit.
 Properties of a System
• Property: Any characteristic of a
system.
• Some familiar properties are
pressure P, temperature T, volume
V, and mass m.
• Properties are considered to be
either intensive or extensive.
• Intensive properties: Those that
are independent of the mass of a
system, such as temperature,
pressure, and density.
• Extensive properties: Those
whose values depend on the size—
or extent—of the system.
• Specific properties: Extensive
properties per unit mass. Similar to
intensive properties. Example:
specific volume
 The STATE Postulate
• The number of properties required
to fix the state of a system is given
by the state postulate:
– The state of a simple
compressible system is
completely specified by two
independent, intensive
properties.

• Simple compressible system:

If a system involves no electrical,
magnetic, gravitational, motion,
and surface tension effects.
A system at two different states.
 Equilibrium State
• Thermodynamics deals with
equilibrium states.
• Equilibrium: A state of balance.
• In an equilibrium state there are no
unbalanced potentials (or driving
forces) within the system.
• Thermal equilibrium: If the
temperature is the same throughout
the entire system.
• Mechanical equilibrium: If there is
no change in pressure at any point
of the system with time.
• Phase equilibrium: If a system
involves two phases and when the
mass of each phase reaches an
equilibrium level and stays there.
• Chemical equilibrium: If the A closed system reaching thermal equilibrium.
chemical composition of a system
does not change with time, that is,
no chemical reactions occur.
 Process and Cycle
Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another.
Process diagrams plotted by employing The P-V diagram of a compression
thermodynamic properties as coordinates process.
are very useful in visualizing the
processes.

Some common properties that are used

as coordinates are temperature T,
pressure P, and volume V (or specific
volume v).

Path: The series of states through which

a system passes during a process

Cycle: A process during which the

initial and final states are identical.
 Process and Cycle
The prefix iso- is often used to designate a process for which a particular
property remains constant.

Isothermal process:
A process during which the temperature T remains constant.

Isobaric process:
A process during which the pressure P remains constant.

Isochoric (or isometric) process:

A process during which the specific volume v remains constant.

Adiabatic process:
A process during which heat transfer is zero.

Isentropic (Isoentropic) process:

A process during which the entropy remains constant.
 Contained Energy
Total Energy = Macroscopic forms + Microscopic forms
V2
Kinetic energy KE  m (kJ) Internal Energy U =
2
Sensible Energy + Latent Energy
Potential energy PE  mgz (kJ)

Total energy of a system

V2
E  U  KE  PE  U  m  mgz (kJ)
2
Energy per unit mass e = E/m (kJ/kg)

Kinetic energy per unit mass V2 Internal Energy per

ke  (kJ/ kg)
2 unit mass

Potential energy per unit mass pe  gz (kJ/ kg) u = U/m

Energy of a system per unit mass
V2
e  u  ke  pe  u   gz (kJ/ kg)
2
 Energy Transfer

Energy contained in a system (as U + KE + PE ) can be transferred at the

system boundary as Heat (Q) or Work (W) in general and also with mass flow
for open systems

Surroundings

U + KE + PE W (kJ)
Q (kJ)

Boundary

Heat and work are never contained in a system, they transfer (enter or leave) at
the system boundary by increasing or decreasing the internal energy (U )
 Energy Transfer by Heat
Heat: The form of energy that is transferred between two systems (or a system. and
its surroundings) by virtue of a temperature difference. [Q (kJ), q (kJ/kg), Q (kW)]
Net energy transfer by heat occurs only in the direction of decreasing temperature.

The larger the temperature difference, the higher is the rate of heat transfer.
Heat transfer into a system is taken as positive and heat transfer from a system is
taken as negative:
Q > 0: heat transfer to the system
Q < 0: heat transfer from the system
 Energy Transfer by Work
Work: The energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance.
– A rotating shaft, an electric wire crossing the system boundaries
and a moving piston, are all associated with work interactions.

Rotating shaft work Electrical work Moving boundary work

(Ws) (We) (Wb)

W > 0: Work done by the system

Spring Work is also encountered
in thermodynamic problems W < 0: Work done on the system
 Path functions and Point functions
Properties are point functions
they depend on
a) the end states of the process only
Heat and Work are path functions
they depend on
a) the end states of the process
b) the path followed during the process

Point functions have exact differentials

designated by the symbol d, eg. dV.
2

 dV  V 2  V1  V
1 Note:
Path functions have inexact differentials
designated by the symbol δ, eg. δQ and δW.  We never say work in a system in
state 1 or state 2: W2 – W1
2

 W
1
 W12 not W  We say work done in going from
state 1 to state 2 through a path: W12
Pure Substance
Pure substance:
 A substance that has a fixed chemical composition throughout.
 It may exist in more than one phase e.g. H2O
 Some mixture of gases behave like pure substance if no phase change occurs
e.g. air.
 A mixture of liquid and gaseous air is not a pure substance due to different
chemical composition of the two phases of air.
Phase change of a pure substance
Phase changes of a pure substance
– Water in piston cylinder arrangement (free moving piston).
– Initial water temperature is 20 ºC.
– The external pressure is fixed or constant (i.e. atmospheric pressure).
– The pressure due to weight of the piston is neglected.
– Heat is provided to the system.

Compressed Saturated Saturated Saturated Superheated

Liquid or Liquid Liquid-Vapor Vapor Vapor
Mixture
Sub Cooled
liquid
 Process Diagram (T-v Diagram)

• saturated liquid line

• saturated vapor line
• compressed liquid region
• superheated vapor region
• saturated liquid–vapor
mixture region (wet region)

Critical point:
•The point at which the saturated
liquid and saturated vapor states
are identical.
•Associated properties are called
Critical Temperature (Tc), Critical
Pressure (Pc) and Critical
Specific Volume (vc)

•Table A-1 contains critical

properties of various substances
Critical Properties
 Property Tables for Phase Change Materials
State postulate: For water (H2O)
Any 2 independent intensive properties
can completely define the state of a
simple compressible substance

For most substances, the relationships Table

among thermodynamic properties are too A-4
complex to be expressed by simple
equations. Table
A-5
Therefore, properties are frequently Table A-2/A-3
presented in the form of tables.
Given any 2 independent intensive
properties, all others can be found
from table. Each region has a corresponding table
For water (H2O)
Other substances are:
Saturated liquid-vapor region Table A-2/A-3 R-22, R-134a, Ammonia, Propane
Superheated region A-4 Table A-7 to A-18
Compressed liquid region A-5
Saturated solid-vapor A-6
 Saturated Liquid-Vapor Mixture Region

► Tables A-2/ (Temperature

Table) and A-3 (Pressure
Table) provide
►saturated liquid (f) data
►saturated vapor (g) data

Table note: For saturated liquid specific volume, the table heading is vf×103.
At 8oC, vf × 103 = 1.002 → vf = 1.002/103 = 1.002 × 10–3 m3/kg
Specific Volume Internal Energy Enthalpy Entropy
Table A-2 m /kg3
kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg∙K
Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat.
Temp Press. Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor Liquid Evap. Vapor Liquid Vapor Temp
o
C bar o
C
vf×103 vg uf ug hf hfg hg sf sg
.01 0.00611 1.0002 206.136 0.00 2375.3 0.01 2501.3 2501.4 0.0000 9.1562 .01
4 0.00813 1.0001 157.232 16.77 2380.9 16.78 2491.9 2508.7 0.0610 9.0514 4
5 0.00872 1.0001 147.120 20.97 2382.3 20.98 2489.6 2510.6 0.0761 9.0257 5
6 0.00935 1.0001 137.734 25.19 2383.6 25.20 2487.2 2512.4 0.0912 9.0003 6
8 0.01072 1.0002 120.917 33.59 2386.4 33.60 2482.5 2516.1 0.1212 8.9501 8
 Saturated Liquid-Vapor Mixture Region
Quality (x) :
The ratio of the mass of vapor
to the total mass of the mixture.

mvapor
x
mliquid  mvapor

Quality is between 0 and 1 → 0: sat. liquid, 1: sat. vapor.

 Saturated Liquid-Vapor Mixture Region

►Since pressure and temperature are NOT

independent properties in the two-phase liquid-
vapor region, they cannot be used to fix the state
in this region.
►The property, quality (x), defined only in the two-
phase liquid-vapor region, and either temperature
or pressure can be used to fix the state in this
region.
v = (1 – x)vf + xvg = vf + x(vg – vf) (Eq. 3.2)
u = (1 – x)uf + xug = uf + x(ug – uf) (Eq. 3.6)
h = (1 – x)hf + xhg = hf + x(hg – hf) (Eq. 3.7)
 Saturated Liquid-Vapor Mixture Region

► Example: A system consists of a two-phase liquid-vapor

mixture of water at 6 oC and a quality of 0.4. Determine the
specific volume, in m3/kg, of the mixture.
► Solution: Apply Eq. 3.2, v = vf + x(vg – vf)
Substituting values from Table A-2: vf = 1.0001×10–3 m3/kg
and vg = 137.734 m3/kg:
v = 1.0001×10–3 m3/kg + 0.4(137.734 – 1.0001×10–3) m3/kg
v = 55.096 m3/kg
Specific Volume Internal Energy Enthalpy Entropy
Table A-2 m /kg3
kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg∙K
Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat.
Temp Press. Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor Liquid Evap. Vapor Liquid Vapor Temp
o
C bar o
C
vf×103 vg uf ug hf hfg hg sf sg
.01 0.00611 1.0002 206.136 0.00 2375.3 0.01 2501.3 2501.4 0.0000 9.1562 .01
4 0.00813 1.0001 157.232 16.77 2380.9 16.78 2491.9 2508.7 0.0610 9.0514 4
5 0.00872 1.0001 147.120 20.97 2382.3 20.98 2489.6 2510.6 0.0761 9.0257 5
6 0.00935 1.0001 137.734 25.19 2383.6 25.20 2487.2 2512.4 0.0912 9.0003 6
8 0.01072 1.0002 120.917 33.59 2386.4 33.60 2482.5 2516.1 0.1212 8.9501 8
 Superheated Vapor Region

►Example: Determine v, u, h and s at 10 MPa and

400oC.
►v = 0.02641 m3/kg ►h = 3096.5 kJ/kg
►u = 2832.4 kJ/kg ►s = 6.2120 kJ/kg∙K

Table A-4
T v u h s v u h s
C
o
m /kg
3
kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg∙K m /kg
3
kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg∙K

p = 80 bar = 8.0 MPa p = 100 bar = 10.0 MPa

(Tsat = 295.06oC) (Tsat = 311.06oC)
Sat. 0.02352 2569.8 2758.0 5.7432 0.01803 2544.4 2724.7 5.6141
320 0.02682 2662.7 2877.2 5.9489 0.01925 2588.8 2781.3 5.7103
360 0.03089 2772.7 3019.8 6.1819 0.02331 2729.1 2962.1 6.0060

400 0.03432 2863.8 3138.3 6.3634 0.02641 2832.4 3096.5 6.2120

440 0.03742 2946.7 3246.1 6.5190 0.02911 2922.1 3213.2 6.3805
480 0.04034 3025.7 3348.4 6.6586 0.03160 3005.4 3321.4 6.5282
 Tables for Compressed Liquid
► Determine the specific volume of water at 5 MPa and 40 oC.
► Solution: v = 1.0056x10-3 m3/kg
Let us investigate the effect of pressure:
From saturated tables
At T = 40 oC,
Psat = 0.07384 bar and vf = 1.0078x10-3 m3/kg
Increase in pressure:
(50-0.07384)/0.07384  676 Times
Decrease in volume:
(0.0010078-0.0010056)/0.0010078  0.22%
Volume of a liquid changes appreciably with change in temperature BUT
negligibly with change in pressure

Thus, if compressed liquid data/table is not given, we may assume

v compressed liquid = vf at the same temperature

The same is also valid for u, h and s

 Ideal Gas Equation of State
Equation of state: Any equation that relates the pressure, temperature, and
specific volume of a substance.
Ideal gas equation of state
This equation predicts the P-v-T behavior of a gas quite accurately within some
properly selected region.

Ru
Pv  RT with R
M
v : Specific volume (m3/kg)
R: Gas constant (kJ/kg-K)
Ru: Universal gas constant (8.3145 kJ/kmol-K)
M: Molar mass or Molecular weight (kg/kmol), Table A-1
P in kPa and T in K
Molar mass: M can simply be defined as the mass of one mole (also called a
gram-mole, abbreviated gmol) of a substance in grams, or the mass of one kmol
(also called a kilogram-mole, abbreviated kgmol) in kilograms.
Simply it’s value is equal to the molecular weight of the substance
 Ideal Gas Equation of State
Ideal gas equation of state: (Other Forms)

PV  NRuT
Since m = M x N

PV  mRT
Using v V / m
Pv  RT or P   RT
On writing for two states (with a fixed mass)

PV PV
1 1
 2 2

T1 T2
 Moving Boundary Work (Closed System)
Total Work Done
2
Wb  W12   P.dV
1
 Work done for Isobaric Process

Isobaric Process (Constant Pressure Process)

V
Q
2
W12   P.dV Area under the curve 1- 2 on the PV diagram
1

W12  P (V2  V1 )
 Work done for Isochoric Process

Isochoric Process (Constant Volume Process)

Q
2
W12   P.dV Area under the curve 1- 2 on the PV diagram
1

W12  0
 Work done for Polytropic Process
Polytropic Process (n≠1) for liquid/gas

/Liquid
n = 0 => isobaric process
n = ±∞ => isochoric process

2
W12   P.dV Area under the curve 1- 2 on the PV diagram
1
C Now, PV n  C  C  PV n
 PV n
PV  C  P  n
n
1 1 2 2

2
V
2
W12 
 P2 2  2
V n
V  n 1
  P1 1  1
V n
V  n 1

dV
W12   C n  C  V  n dV 1 n
1
V 1

V  n 1 2
 V21 n  V11 n  2 2  PV
PV
C C  W12  1 1
n 1
n  1 1  1  n  1 n
 Work done for Polytropic Process
Polytropic Process (n=1) for liquid/gas

/Liquid

2
W12   P.dV Area under the curve 1- 2 on the PV diagram
1

PV  Constant(C )  V2 
C
W12  C ln  
PV  C  P   V1 
V
1 1  PV
PV 2 2 C
2
dV  V2   P1 
W12   C  C ln   W12  C ln  
V  V1 
1  P2 
 Work done for Polytropic Process
Polytropic Process (ONLY Ideal gas case)

2 2  PV
PV mR T2  T1 
W12  1 1
 n 1
1 n 1 n
For an ideal gas, when n = 1, the process is a constant temperature (isothermal)
process

 V2   P1 
W12  C ln    C ln   where C  PV
1 1
n
 2 2  mRT0
PV n
n 1
 V1   P2 
n
P2  V1 
Combining    with the ideal gas equation, gives the following expressions:
P1  V2 
 n 1 / n n 1
T2  P   V 
 2   1 
T1  P1   V2 
The above formulae that use ideal gas equation CANNOT be used for liquids or non-
ideal gases